1
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Zhou Z, Zhang X, Zeng S, Xu Y, Nie W, Zhou Y, Chen P. Quaternary ammonium salts for water treatment with balanced rate of sterilization and degradation. CHEMOSPHERE 2024; 352:141386. [PMID: 38316276 DOI: 10.1016/j.chemosphere.2024.141386] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 02/20/2023] [Revised: 01/06/2024] [Accepted: 02/03/2024] [Indexed: 02/07/2024]
Abstract
The growing number of infections caused by drug-resistant bacteria which arise from the overuse of antibiotics has severely affected the normal operation of human society. The high antibacterial activity of QAS makes it promising as an alternative to antibiotics, but it suffers from secondary pollution due to its non-degradation. Here we have synthesized a class of gemini quaternary ammonium salts (GQAS) with different carbon chain lengths containing ester groups by using facile methylation reaction. Quaternary ammonium groups contribute to insert negatively charged bacterial membranes, resulting in membrane damage and bacteria death. Compared with conventional single-chain QAS, except for the more efficient antibacterial efficiency attribute to the presence of the second carbon chain, GQAS with alterable antibacterial properties can minimize the possibility of bacterial resistance and reduce the accumulation of GQAS in the environment through the introduction of degradable ester groups. GQAS is completely superior to the commercial bactericide benzalkonium chloride (BAC) in both antibacterial activity and degrade performance, which can be used as a more environmentally friendly bactericide.
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Affiliation(s)
- Zhenyang Zhou
- Anhui Province Key Laboratory of Environment-Friendly Polymer Materials, School of Chemistry & Chemical Engineering, Anhui University, Hefei, 230601, China.
| | - XiRan Zhang
- Anhui Province Key Laboratory of Environment-Friendly Polymer Materials, School of Chemistry & Chemical Engineering, Anhui University, Hefei, 230601, China.
| | - Shaohua Zeng
- Anhui Province Key Laboratory of Environment-Friendly Polymer Materials, School of Chemistry & Chemical Engineering, Anhui University, Hefei, 230601, China.
| | - Ying Xu
- Anhui Province Key Laboratory of Environment-Friendly Polymer Materials, School of Chemistry & Chemical Engineering, Anhui University, Hefei, 230601, China.
| | - Wangyan Nie
- Anhui Province Key Laboratory of Environment-Friendly Polymer Materials, School of Chemistry & Chemical Engineering, Anhui University, Hefei, 230601, China.
| | - Yifeng Zhou
- Anhui Province Key Laboratory of Environment-Friendly Polymer Materials, School of Chemistry & Chemical Engineering, Anhui University, Hefei, 230601, China.
| | - Pengpeng Chen
- Anhui Province Key Laboratory of Environment-Friendly Polymer Materials, School of Chemistry & Chemical Engineering, Anhui University, Hefei, 230601, China.
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2
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Allen RA, McCormack CEM, Wuest WM. Deriving Novel Quaternary Ammonium Compound Disinfectant Scaffolds from a Natural Product: Mechanistic Insights of the Quaternization of Ianthelliformisamine C. ChemMedChem 2023; 18:e202300253. [PMID: 37770411 PMCID: PMC10841702 DOI: 10.1002/cmdc.202300253] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 05/08/2023] [Revised: 09/28/2023] [Accepted: 09/28/2023] [Indexed: 09/30/2023]
Abstract
In the search for novel quaternary ammonium compound (QAC) disinfectants that can evade bacterial resistance, we turned to natural products as a source of inspiration. Herein we used natural product ianthelliformisamine C as a scaffold to design a small library of QACs. We first synthesized ianthelliformisamine C via an amide coupling that allowed for facile purification without the need for protecting groups. We then alkylated and quaternized the internal amines to yield four novel QACs, but all but one demonstrated no antibacterial activity against the tested strains. Using a combination of membrane depolarization and permeabilization assays, we were able to demonstrate that ianthelliformisamine C and the active QAC analog enact cell death via membrane permeabilization, contrary to prior reports on ianthelliformisamine C's mechanism of action.
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Affiliation(s)
- Ryan A Allen
- Department of Chemistry, Emory University, 30322, Atlanta, GA, USA
| | | | - William M Wuest
- Department of Chemistry, Emory University, 30322, Atlanta, GA, USA
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3
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Davies K, Allan MG, Nagarajan S, Townsend R, Asokan V, Watson T, Godfrey AR, Maroto-Valer MM, Kuehnel MF, Pitchaimuthu S. Photoelectrocatalytic Surfactant Pollutant Degradation and Simultaneous Green Hydrogen Generation. Ind Eng Chem Res 2023; 62:19084-19094. [PMID: 38020790 PMCID: PMC10655085 DOI: 10.1021/acs.iecr.3c00840] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 03/14/2023] [Revised: 05/12/2023] [Accepted: 05/14/2023] [Indexed: 12/01/2023]
Abstract
For the first time, we demonstrate a photoelectrocatalysis technique for simultaneous surfactant pollutant degradation and green hydrogen generation using mesoporous WO3/BiVO4 photoanode under simulated sunlight irradiation. The materials properties such as morphology, crystallite structure, chemical environment, optical absorbance, and bandgap energy of the WO3/BiVO4 films are examined and discussed. We have tested the anionic type (sodium 2-naphthalenesulfonate (S2NS)) and cationic type surfactants (benzyl alkyl dimethylammonium compounds (BAC-C12)) as model pollutants. A complete removal of S2NS and BAC-C12 surfactants at 60 and 90 min, respectively, by applying 1.75 V applied potential vs RHE to the circuit, under 1 sun was achieved. An interesting competitive phenomenon for photohole utilization was observed between surfactants and adsorbed water. This led to the formation of H2O2 from water alongside surfactant degradation (anode) and hydrogen evolution (cathode). No byproducts were observed after the direct photohole mediated degradation of surfactants, implying its advantage over other AOPs and biological processes. In the cathode compartment, 82.51 μmol/cm2 and 71.81 μmol/cm2 of hydrogen gas were generated during the BAC-C12 and S2NS surfactant degradation process, respectively, at 1.75 V RHE applied potential.
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Affiliation(s)
| | - Michael G. Allan
- Department
of Chemistry, Faculty of Science and Engineering, Swansea University, Singleton Park, SA2 8PP Swansea, Wales
| | - Sanjay Nagarajan
- Department
of Chemical Engineering, University of Bath, Bath BA2 7AY, U.K.
| | - Rachel Townsend
- Swansea
University Medical School, Faculty of Medicine, Health and Life Science,
Singleton Park, Swansea University, Swansea SA2 8PP, U.K.
| | - Vijayshankar Asokan
- Environmental
Inorganic Chemistry, Department of Chemistry and Chemical Engineering, Chalmers University of Technology, Kemivägen 10, S-412 96 Göthenburg, Sweden
| | - Trystan Watson
- SPECIFIC,
Faculty of Science and Engineering, Swansea
University, Swansea SA2 8PP, Wales
| | - A. Ruth Godfrey
- Swansea
University Medical School, Faculty of Medicine, Health and Life Science,
Singleton Park, Swansea University, Swansea SA2 8PP, U.K.
| | - M. Mercedes Maroto-Valer
- Research
Centre for Carbon Solutions (RCCS), Institute of Mechanical, Processing
and Energy Engineering, School of Engineering and Physical Sciences, Heriot-Watt University, Edinburgh EH14 4AS, U.K.
| | - Moritz F. Kuehnel
- Department
of Chemistry, Faculty of Science and Engineering, Swansea University, Singleton Park, SA2 8PP Swansea, Wales
- Fraunhofer
Institute for Wind Energy Systems IWES, Am Haupttor 4310, 06237 Leuna, Germany
| | - Sudhagar Pitchaimuthu
- SPECIFIC,
Faculty of Science and Engineering, Swansea
University, Swansea SA2 8PP, Wales
- Research
Centre for Carbon Solutions (RCCS), Institute of Mechanical, Processing
and Energy Engineering, School of Engineering and Physical Sciences, Heriot-Watt University, Edinburgh EH14 4AS, U.K.
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4
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Arnold W, Blum A, Branyan J, Bruton TA, Carignan CC, Cortopassi G, Datta S, DeWitt J, Doherty AC, Halden RU, Harari H, Hartmann EM, Hrubec TC, Iyer S, Kwiatkowski CF, LaPier J, Li D, Li L, Muñiz Ortiz JG, Salamova A, Schettler T, Seguin RP, Soehl A, Sutton R, Xu L, Zheng G. Quaternary Ammonium Compounds: A Chemical Class of Emerging Concern. ENVIRONMENTAL SCIENCE & TECHNOLOGY 2023; 57:7645-7665. [PMID: 37157132 PMCID: PMC10210541 DOI: 10.1021/acs.est.2c08244] [Citation(s) in RCA: 33] [Impact Index Per Article: 33.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 11/04/2022] [Revised: 03/24/2023] [Accepted: 03/24/2023] [Indexed: 05/10/2023]
Abstract
Quaternary ammonium compounds (QACs), a large class of chemicals that includes high production volume substances, have been used for decades as antimicrobials, preservatives, and antistatic agents and for other functions in cleaning, disinfecting, personal care products, and durable consumer goods. QAC use has accelerated in response to the COVID-19 pandemic and the banning of 19 antimicrobials from several personal care products by the US Food and Drug Administration in 2016. Studies conducted before and after the onset of the pandemic indicate increased human exposure to QACs. Environmental releases of these chemicals have also increased. Emerging information on adverse environmental and human health impacts of QACs is motivating a reconsideration of the risks and benefits across the life cycle of their production, use, and disposal. This work presents a critical review of the literature and scientific perspective developed by a multidisciplinary, multi-institutional team of authors from academia, governmental, and nonprofit organizations. The review evaluates currently available information on the ecological and human health profile of QACs and identifies multiple areas of potential concern. Adverse ecological effects include acute and chronic toxicity to susceptible aquatic organisms, with concentrations of some QACs approaching levels of concern. Suspected or known adverse health outcomes include dermal and respiratory effects, developmental and reproductive toxicity, disruption of metabolic function such as lipid homeostasis, and impairment of mitochondrial function. QACs' role in antimicrobial resistance has also been demonstrated. In the US regulatory system, how a QAC is managed depends on how it is used, for example in pesticides or personal care products. This can result in the same QACs receiving different degrees of scrutiny depending on the use and the agency regulating it. Further, the US Environmental Protection Agency's current method of grouping QACs based on structure, first proposed in 1988, is insufficient to address the wide range of QAC chemistries, potential toxicities, and exposure scenarios. Consequently, exposures to common mixtures of QACs and from multiple sources remain largely unassessed. Some restrictions on the use of QACs have been implemented in the US and elsewhere, primarily focused on personal care products. Assessing the risks posed by QACs is hampered by their vast structural diversity and a lack of quantitative data on exposure and toxicity for the majority of these compounds. This review identifies important data gaps and provides research and policy recommendations for preserving the utility of QAC chemistries while also seeking to limit adverse environmental and human health effects.
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Affiliation(s)
- William
A. Arnold
- University
of Minnesota, Minneapolis, Minnesota 55455, United States
| | - Arlene Blum
- Green
Science Policy Institute, Berkeley, California 94709, United States
- University
of California, Berkeley, California 94720, United States
| | - Jennifer Branyan
- California
Department of Toxic Substances Control, Sacramento, California 95814, United States
| | - Thomas A. Bruton
- California
Department of Toxic Substances Control, Sacramento, California 95814, United States
| | | | - Gino Cortopassi
- University
of California, Davis, California 95616, United States
| | - Sandipan Datta
- University
of California, Davis, California 95616, United States
| | - Jamie DeWitt
- East
Carolina University, Greenville, North Carolina 27834, United States
| | - Anne-Cooper Doherty
- California
Department of Toxic Substances Control, Sacramento, California 95814, United States
| | - Rolf U. Halden
- Arizona
State University, Tempe, Arizona 85287, United States
| | - Homero Harari
- Icahn
School of Medicine at Mount Sinai, New York, New York 10029, United States
| | | | - Terry C. Hrubec
- Edward Via College of Osteopathic Medicine, Blacksburg, Virginia 24060, United States
| | - Shoba Iyer
- California Office of Environmental Health Hazard Assessment, Oakland, California 94612, United States
| | - Carol F. Kwiatkowski
- Green
Science Policy Institute, Berkeley, California 94709, United States
- North Carolina State University, Raleigh, North Carolina 27695 United States
| | - Jonas LaPier
- Green
Science Policy Institute, Berkeley, California 94709, United States
| | - Dingsheng Li
- University
of Nevada, Reno, Nevada 89557, United States
| | - Li Li
- University
of Nevada, Reno, Nevada 89557, United States
| | | | - Amina Salamova
- Indiana University, Atlanta, Georgia 30322, United States
| | - Ted Schettler
- Science and Environmental Health Network, Bolinas, California 94924, United States
| | - Ryan P. Seguin
- University of Washington, Seattle, Washington 98195, United States
| | - Anna Soehl
- Green
Science Policy Institute, Berkeley, California 94709, United States
| | - Rebecca Sutton
- San Francisco Estuary Institute, Richmond, California 94804, United States
| | - Libin Xu
- University of Washington, Seattle, Washington 98195, United States
| | - Guomao Zheng
- Southern University of Science and Technology, Shenzhen, Guangdong 518055, China
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5
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Schroer HW, Londono E, Li X, Lehmler HJ, Arnold W, Just CL. Photolysis of 3-Nitro-1,2,4-triazol-5-one: Mechanisms and Products. ACS ES&T WATER 2023; 3:783-792. [PMID: 36936519 PMCID: PMC10012174 DOI: 10.1021/acsestwater.2c00567] [Citation(s) in RCA: 3] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Figures] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 11/07/2022] [Revised: 01/24/2023] [Accepted: 01/25/2023] [Indexed: 06/18/2023]
Abstract
Insensitive munitions formulations that include 3-nitro-1,2,4-triazol-5-one (NTO) are replacing traditional explosive compounds. While these new formulations have superior safety characteristics, the compounds have greater environmental mobility, raising concern over potential contamination and cleanup of training and manufacturing facilities. Here, we examine the mechanisms and products of NTO photolysis in simulated sunlight to further inform NTO degradation in sunlit surface waters. We demonstrate that NTO produces singlet oxygen and that dissolved oxygen increases the NTO photolysis rate in deionized water. The rate of NTO photolysis is independent of concentration and decreases slightly in the presence of Suwannee River Natural Organic Matter. The apparent quantum yield of NTO generally decreases as pH increases, ranging from 2.0 × 10-5 at pH 12 to 1.3 × 10-3 at pH 2. Bimolecular reaction rate constants for NTO with singlet oxygen and hydroxyl radical were measured to be (1.95 ± 0.15) × 106 and (3.28 ± 0.23) × 1010 M-1 s-1, respectively. Major photolysis reaction products were ammonium, nitrite, and nitrate, with nitrite produced in nearly stoichiometric yield upon the reaction of NTO with singlet oxygen. Environmental half-lives are predicted to span from 1.1 to 5.7 days. Taken together, these data enhance our understanding of NTO photolysis under environmentally relevant conditions.
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Affiliation(s)
- Hunter W. Schroer
- Civil
& Environmental Engineering, The University
of Iowa, Iowa City, Iowa52242, United States
| | - Esteban Londono
- Civil
& Environmental Engineering, The University
of Iowa, Iowa City, Iowa52242, United States
| | - Xueshu Li
- Occupational
& Environmental Health, The University
of Iowa, Iowa City, Iowa52246, United States
| | - Hans-Joachim Lehmler
- Occupational
& Environmental Health, The University
of Iowa, Iowa City, Iowa52246, United States
| | - William Arnold
- Department
of Civil, Environmental, and Geo- Engineering, University of Minnesota, 500 Pillsbury Dr. SE, Minneapolis, Minnesota55455, United States
| | - Craig L. Just
- Civil
& Environmental Engineering, The University
of Iowa, Iowa City, Iowa52242, United States
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6
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Mohapatra S, Yutao L, Goh SG, Ng C, Luhua Y, Tran NH, Gin KYH. Quaternary ammonium compounds of emerging concern: Classification, occurrence, fate, toxicity and antimicrobial resistance. JOURNAL OF HAZARDOUS MATERIALS 2023; 445:130393. [PMID: 36455328 PMCID: PMC9663149 DOI: 10.1016/j.jhazmat.2022.130393] [Citation(s) in RCA: 41] [Impact Index Per Article: 41.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 08/30/2022] [Revised: 11/01/2022] [Accepted: 11/11/2022] [Indexed: 05/25/2023]
Abstract
Amplified hygiene and precautionary measures are of utmost importance to control the spread of COVID-19 and future infection; however, these changes in practice are projected to trigger a rise in the purchase, utilisation and hence, discharge of many disinfectants into the environment. While alcohol-based, hydrogen peroxide-based, and chlorine-based compounds have been used widely, quaternary ammonium compounds (QACs) based disinfectants are of significant concern due to their overuse during this pandemic. This review presents the classification of disinfectants and their mechanism of action, focusing on QACs. Most importantly, the occurrence, fate, toxicity and antimicrobial resistance due to QACs are covered in this paper. Here we collated evidence from multiple studies and found rising trends of concern, including an increase in the mass load of QACs at a wastewater treatment plant (WWTP) by 331% compared to before the COVID-19 pandemic, as well as an increases in the concentration of 62% in residential dust, resulting in high concentrations of QACs in human blood and breast milk and suggesting that these could be potential sources of persistent QACs in infants. In addition to increased toxicity to human and aquatic life, increased use of QACs and accelerated use of antibiotics and antimicrobials during the COVID-19 pandemic could multiply the threat to antimicrobial resistance.
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Affiliation(s)
- Sanjeeb Mohapatra
- NUS Environmental Research Institute, National University of Singapore, Singapore 117411, Singapore; Energy and Environmental Sustainability for Megacities (E2S2) Phase II, Campus for Research Excellence and Technological Enterprise (CREATE), 1 Create Way, Singapore 138602, Singapore
| | - Lin Yutao
- NUS Environmental Research Institute, National University of Singapore, Singapore 117411, Singapore
| | - Shin Giek Goh
- NUS Environmental Research Institute, National University of Singapore, Singapore 117411, Singapore; Energy and Environmental Sustainability for Megacities (E2S2) Phase II, Campus for Research Excellence and Technological Enterprise (CREATE), 1 Create Way, Singapore 138602, Singapore
| | - Charmaine Ng
- NUS Environmental Research Institute, National University of Singapore, Singapore 117411, Singapore; Energy and Environmental Sustainability for Megacities (E2S2) Phase II, Campus for Research Excellence and Technological Enterprise (CREATE), 1 Create Way, Singapore 138602, Singapore
| | - You Luhua
- NUS Environmental Research Institute, National University of Singapore, Singapore 117411, Singapore; Energy and Environmental Sustainability for Megacities (E2S2) Phase II, Campus for Research Excellence and Technological Enterprise (CREATE), 1 Create Way, Singapore 138602, Singapore
| | - Ngoc Han Tran
- NUS Environmental Research Institute, National University of Singapore, Singapore 117411, Singapore; Energy and Environmental Sustainability for Megacities (E2S2) Phase II, Campus for Research Excellence and Technological Enterprise (CREATE), 1 Create Way, Singapore 138602, Singapore
| | - Karina Yew-Hoong Gin
- NUS Environmental Research Institute, National University of Singapore, Singapore 117411, Singapore; Energy and Environmental Sustainability for Megacities (E2S2) Phase II, Campus for Research Excellence and Technological Enterprise (CREATE), 1 Create Way, Singapore 138602, Singapore; Department of Civil & Environmental Engineering, National University of Singapore, Engineering Drive 2, Singapore 117576, Singapore.
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7
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Guerrero-Arguero I, Khan SR, Henry BM, Garcia-Vilanova A, Chiem K, Ye C, Shrestha S, Knight D, Cristner M, Hill S, Waldman WJ, Dutta PK, Torrelles JB, Martinez-Sobrido L, Nagy AM. Mitigation of SARS-CoV-2 by Using Transition Metal Nanozeolites and Quaternary Ammonium Compounds as Antiviral Agents in Suspensions and Soft Fabric Materials. Int J Nanomedicine 2023; 18:2307-2324. [PMID: 37163142 PMCID: PMC10164392 DOI: 10.2147/ijn.s396669] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 01/14/2023] [Accepted: 04/05/2023] [Indexed: 05/11/2023] Open
Abstract
Introduction The coronavirus disease 2019 (COVID-19) pandemic has demonstrated the need for novel, affordable, and efficient reagents to help reduce viral transmission, especially in high-risk environments including medical treatment facilities, close quarters, and austere settings. We examined transition-metal nanozeolite suspensions and quaternary ammonium compounds as an antiviral surface coating for various textile materials. Methods Zeolites are crystalline porous aluminosilicate materials, with the ability of ion-exchanging different cations. Nanozeolites (30 nm) were synthesized and then ion-exchanged with silver, zinc and copper ions. Benzalkonium nitrate (BZN) was examined as the quaternary ammonium ion (quat). Suspensions of these materials were tested for antiviral activity towards SARS-CoV-2 using plaque assay and immunostaining. Suspensions of the nanozeolite and quat were deposited on polyester and cotton fabrics and the ability of these textiles towards neutralizing SARS-CoV-2 was examined. Results We hypothesized that transition metal ion containing zeolites, particularly silver and zinc (AM30) and silver and copper (AV30), would be effective in reducing the infectivity of severe acute respiratory syndrome coronavirus 2 (SARS-CoV-2). Additionally, AM30 and AV30 antiviral potency was tested when combined with a quaternary ammonium carrier, BZN. Our results indicate that exposure of SARS-CoV-2 to AM30 and/or AV30 suspensions reduced viral loads with time and exhibited dose-dependence. Antiviral activities of the combination of zeolite and BZN compositions were significantly enhanced. When used in textiles, AM30 and AV30-coated cotton and polyester fabrics alone or in combination with BZN exhibited significant antiviral properties, which were maintained even after various stress tests, including washes, SARS-CoV-2-repeated exposures, or treatments with soil-like materials. Conclusion This study shows the efficacy of transition metal nanozeolite formulations as novel antiviral agents and establishes that nanozeolite with silver and zinc ions (AM30) and nanozeolite with silver and copper ions (AV30) when combined with benzalkonium nitrate (BZN) quickly and continuously inactivate SARS-CoV-2 in suspension and on fabric materials.
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Affiliation(s)
- Israel Guerrero-Arguero
- Disease Intervention & Prevention and Population Health Programs, Texas Biomedical Research Institute, San Antonio, TX, USA
| | - Siddiqur Rahman Khan
- Disease Intervention & Prevention and Population Health Programs, Texas Biomedical Research Institute, San Antonio, TX, USA
| | - Brandon M Henry
- Disease Intervention & Prevention and Population Health Programs, Texas Biomedical Research Institute, San Antonio, TX, USA
| | - Andreu Garcia-Vilanova
- Disease Intervention & Prevention and Population Health Programs, Texas Biomedical Research Institute, San Antonio, TX, USA
| | - Kevin Chiem
- Disease Intervention & Prevention and Population Health Programs, Texas Biomedical Research Institute, San Antonio, TX, USA
| | - Chengjin Ye
- Disease Intervention & Prevention and Population Health Programs, Texas Biomedical Research Institute, San Antonio, TX, USA
| | | | - Deborah Knight
- Department of Pathology, The Ohio State University, Columbus, OH, USA
| | - Mark Cristner
- Chief Scientist’s Office of Science and Technology, 59 Medical Wing, Joint Base San Antonio-Lackland, San Antonio, TX, USA
| | - Shauna Hill
- Chief Scientist’s Office of Science and Technology, 59 Medical Wing, Joint Base San Antonio-Lackland, San Antonio, TX, USA
| | - W James Waldman
- Department of Pathology, The Ohio State University, Columbus, OH, USA
| | - Prabir K Dutta
- ZeoVation Inc., Columbus, OH, USA
- Department of Chemistry, The Ohio State University, Columbus, OH, USA
- Correspondence: Prabir K Dutta; Amber M Nagy, Email ;
| | - Jordi B Torrelles
- Disease Intervention & Prevention and Population Health Programs, Texas Biomedical Research Institute, San Antonio, TX, USA
| | - Luis Martinez-Sobrido
- Disease Intervention & Prevention and Population Health Programs, Texas Biomedical Research Institute, San Antonio, TX, USA
| | - Amber M Nagy
- Disease Intervention & Prevention and Population Health Programs, Texas Biomedical Research Institute, San Antonio, TX, USA
- Chief Scientist’s Office of Science and Technology, 59 Medical Wing, Joint Base San Antonio-Lackland, San Antonio, TX, USA
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8
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Wang G, Yang L, Jiang L, Chen J, Jing Q, Mai Y, Deng L, Lin Y, Chen L, Chen Z, Xu P, Jiang L, Yuan C, Huang M. A new class of quaternary ammonium compounds as potent and environmental friendly disinfectants. JOURNAL OF CLEANER PRODUCTION 2022; 379:134632. [PMID: 36246409 PMCID: PMC9552062 DOI: 10.1016/j.jclepro.2022.134632] [Citation(s) in RCA: 1] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 07/03/2022] [Revised: 09/29/2022] [Accepted: 10/07/2022] [Indexed: 05/21/2023]
Abstract
Quaternary ammonium compounds (QACs) are inexpensive and readily available disinfectants, and have been widely used, especially since the COVID-19 outbreak. The toxicity of QACs to humans has raised increasing concerns in recent years. Here, a new type of QACs was synthesized by replacing the alkyl chain with zinc phthalocyanine (ZnPc), which consists of a large aromatic ring and is hydrophobic in nature, similar to the alkyl chain of QACs. Three ZnPc-containing disinfectants were synthesized and fully characterized. These compounds showed 15-16 fold higher antimicrobial effect against Gram-negative bacteria than the well-known QACs with half-maximal inhibitory (IC50) values of 1.43 μM, 2.70 μM, and 1.31 μM, respectively. With the assistance of 680 nm light, compounds 4 and 6 had much higher bactericidal toxicities at nanomolar concentrations. Compound 6 had a bactericidal efficacy of close to 6 logs (99.9999% kill rate) at 1 μM to Gram-positive bacteria, including MRSA, under light illumination. Besides, these compounds were safe for mammalian cells. In a mouse model, compound 6 was effective in healing wound infection. Importantly, compound 6 was easily degraded at working concentrations under sunlight illumination, and is environmentally friendly. Thus, compound 6 is a novel and promising disinfectant.
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Affiliation(s)
- Guodong Wang
- College of Chemistry, Fuzhou University, Fujian, 350108, China
| | - Ling Yang
- College of Chemistry, Fuzhou University, Fujian, 350108, China
| | - Libin Jiang
- College of Chemistry, Fuzhou University, Fujian, 350108, China
| | - Jingyi Chen
- College of Chemistry, Fuzhou University, Fujian, 350108, China
| | - Qian Jing
- College of Chemistry, Fuzhou University, Fujian, 350108, China
| | - Yuhan Mai
- College of Chemistry, Fuzhou University, Fujian, 350108, China
| | - Lina Deng
- College of Chemistry, Fuzhou University, Fujian, 350108, China
| | - Yuxin Lin
- College of Chemistry, Fuzhou University, Fujian, 350108, China
| | - Liyun Chen
- College of Chemistry, Fuzhou University, Fujian, 350108, China
| | - Zheng Chen
- College of Chemistry, Fuzhou University, Fujian, 350108, China
| | - Peng Xu
- College of Biological Science and Engineering, Fuzhou University, Fuzhou, Fujian, 350108, China
| | - Longguang Jiang
- College of Chemistry, Fuzhou University, Fujian, 350108, China
| | - Cai Yuan
- College of Biological Science and Engineering, Fuzhou University, Fuzhou, Fujian, 350108, China
| | - Mingdong Huang
- College of Chemistry, Fuzhou University, Fujian, 350108, China
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9
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Mendoza NGA, Mercado SAS. Cytogenotoxicity of fifth-generation quaternary ammonium using three plant bioindicators. ENVIRONMENTAL TOXICOLOGY AND PHARMACOLOGY 2022; 95:103972. [PMID: 36089239 DOI: 10.1016/j.etap.2022.103972] [Citation(s) in RCA: 1] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 03/30/2022] [Revised: 09/01/2022] [Accepted: 09/06/2022] [Indexed: 06/15/2023]
Abstract
The investigation aimed to determine the cytogenotoxic effect of fifth-generation quaternary ammonium using three plant species as bioindicators. Bulbs of A. cepa and seeds of L. culinaris and P. sativum were exposed to different concentrations of fifth-generation quaternary ammonium and a control solution of distilled water for 72 h. The results showed that the A. cepa bioindicator presented the greatest reduction in root length at 50 mg L-1 and no mitotic index at 40 and 50 mg L-1, reaching 100% mitotic inhibition. Cell abnormalities were present among the three bioindicator species, where the highest index of micronuclei occurred at 50 mg L-1, being A. cepa the bioindicator with the highest relative rate of abnormality (25.28%). It was concluded that fifth-generation quaternary ammonium, in all treatments, caused a cytogenotoxic effect on the apical meristematic cells of the three species, A. cepa was the most sensitive species.
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Affiliation(s)
| | - Seir Antonio Salazar Mercado
- Departamento de Biología, Universidad Francisco de Paula Santander, Avenida Gran Colombia No. 12E-96B, Colsag, San José de Cúcuta, Colombia.
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10
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Bhat A, Pomerantz WCK, Arnold WA. Finding Fluorine: Photoproduct Formation during the Photolysis of Fluorinated Pesticides. ENVIRONMENTAL SCIENCE & TECHNOLOGY 2022; 56:12336-12346. [PMID: 35972505 PMCID: PMC9454825 DOI: 10.1021/acs.est.2c04242] [Citation(s) in RCA: 11] [Impact Index Per Article: 5.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 06/13/2022] [Revised: 08/03/2022] [Accepted: 08/04/2022] [Indexed: 05/28/2023]
Abstract
The photolysis of pesticides with different fluorine motifs was evaluated to quantify the formation of fluorinated products in buffered aqueous systems, advanced oxidation (AOP) and reduction processes (ARP), and river water. Simulated sunlight quantum yields at pH 7 were 0.0033, 0.0025, 0.0015, and 0.00012 for penoxsulam, florasulam, sulfoxaflor, and fluroxypyr, respectively. The bimolecular rate constants with hydroxyl radicals were 2 to 5.7 × 1010 M-1 s-1 and, with sulfate radicals, 1.6 to 2.6 × 108 M-1 s-1 for penoxsulam, florasulam, and fluroxypyr, respectively. The rate constants of sulfoxaflor were 100-fold lower. Using quantitative 19F-NMR, complete fluorine mass balances were obtained. The maximum fluoride formation was 53.4 and 87.4% for penoxsulam and florasulam under ARP conditions, and 6.1 and 100% for sulfoxaflor and fluroxypyr under AOP conditions. Heteroaromatic CF3 and aliphatic CF2 groups were retained in multiple fluorinated photoproducts. Aryl F and heteroaromatic F groups were readily defluorinated to fluoride. CF3 and CF2 groups formed trifluoroacetate and difluoroacetate, and yields increased under oxidizing conditions. 19F-NMR chemical shifts and coupling analysis provided information on hydrogen loss on adjacent bonds or changes in chirality. Mass spectrometry results were consistent with the observed 19F-NMR products. These results will assist in selecting treatment processes for specific fluorine motifs and in the design of agrochemicals to reduce byproduct formation.
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Affiliation(s)
- Akash
P. Bhat
- Department
of Civil, Environmental, and Geo-, Engineering, University of Minnesota, 500 Pillsbury Dr. SE, Minneapolis, Minnesota 55455, United States
| | - William C. K. Pomerantz
- Department
of Chemistry, 207 Pleasant St. SE, University
of Minnesota, Minneapolis, Minnesota, 55455, United States
| | - William A. Arnold
- Department
of Civil, Environmental, and Geo-, Engineering, University of Minnesota, 500 Pillsbury Dr. SE, Minneapolis, Minnesota 55455, United States
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11
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Xiao ZY, Huang N, Wang Q, Wang WL, Wu QY, Hu HY. Advanced oxidation of dodecyl dimethyl benzyl ammonium chloride by VUV/UV/chlorine: Synergistic effect, radicals, and degradation pathway. Sep Purif Technol 2022. [DOI: 10.1016/j.seppur.2022.121012] [Citation(s) in RCA: 1] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 01/24/2023]
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12
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Li D, Gao J, Dai H, Wang Z, Cui Y, Zhao Y, Zhou Z. Fates of quaternary ammonium compound resistance genes and the corresponding resistant strain in partial nitrification/anammox system under pressure of hexadecyl trimethyl ammonium chloride. WATER RESEARCH 2022; 217:118395. [PMID: 35429877 DOI: 10.1016/j.watres.2022.118395] [Citation(s) in RCA: 12] [Impact Index Per Article: 6.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 12/11/2021] [Revised: 02/19/2022] [Accepted: 03/30/2022] [Indexed: 06/14/2023]
Abstract
Hexadecyl trimethyl ammonium chloride (ATMAC-C16) is a kind of quaternary ammonium compound (QACs) which is extensively consumed as disinfectants, antimicrobials and surfactants. Here, the partial nitrification/anammox (PN/A) system was exposed to different levels of ATMAC-C16 (0-10 mg/L) and the main objective was to reveal the long-term microbiological responses of PN/A system to ATMAC-C16, importantly, explore the tolerance of PN/A to ATMAC-C16 and the key resistant strain. Nitrogen removal efficiency was influenced by environmental and extreme levels of ATMAC-C16 through mainly affecting the anammox (hzsB) gene. Two types of anammox, Candidatus Jettenia and Candidatus Kuenenia, were enriched under the pressure of ATMAC-C16, which allowed PN/A system to maintain good nitrogen removal performance. ATMAC-C16 might cause the hormesis of entire microbial population in PN/A system, leading to the enhancement of cell viability. ATMAC-C16 decreased the relative abundances of most antibiotics resistance genes (ARGs) but significantly enriched QACs resistance genes (QRGs). The tolerance of PN/A system to ATMAC-C16 might be strengthened by inducing the efflux pumps encoding genes (qacH-01/02). Microbial hosts dynamic and co-selection mechanism among ARGs and QRGs resulted in the opposite trends of qacEdeltal-01/02 and qacH-01/02. Pseudoxanthomonas mexicana was identified as the ATMAC-C16 resistant strain, and its resistance to 10 mg/L ATMAC-C16 might not only obtain by capturing the qacH gene, but also benefit from its own efflux pump system. Therefore, from the perspective of the transmission of resistance genes, especially for QRGs, the spread risk of QRGs and ATMAC-C16 resistant strain in PN/A technique should be taken seriously.
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Affiliation(s)
- Dingchang Li
- National Engineering Laboratory for Advanced Municipal Wastewater Treatment and Reuse Technology, Faculty of Environment and Life, Beijing University of Technology, 100 Pingleyuan, Chaoyang District, Beijing 100124, China
| | - Jingfeng Gao
- National Engineering Laboratory for Advanced Municipal Wastewater Treatment and Reuse Technology, Faculty of Environment and Life, Beijing University of Technology, 100 Pingleyuan, Chaoyang District, Beijing 100124, China.
| | - Huihui Dai
- National Engineering Laboratory for Advanced Municipal Wastewater Treatment and Reuse Technology, Faculty of Environment and Life, Beijing University of Technology, 100 Pingleyuan, Chaoyang District, Beijing 100124, China
| | - Zhiqi Wang
- National Engineering Laboratory for Advanced Municipal Wastewater Treatment and Reuse Technology, Faculty of Environment and Life, Beijing University of Technology, 100 Pingleyuan, Chaoyang District, Beijing 100124, China
| | - Yingchao Cui
- National Engineering Laboratory for Advanced Municipal Wastewater Treatment and Reuse Technology, Faculty of Environment and Life, Beijing University of Technology, 100 Pingleyuan, Chaoyang District, Beijing 100124, China
| | - Yifan Zhao
- National Engineering Laboratory for Advanced Municipal Wastewater Treatment and Reuse Technology, Faculty of Environment and Life, Beijing University of Technology, 100 Pingleyuan, Chaoyang District, Beijing 100124, China
| | - Zhixiang Zhou
- National Engineering Laboratory for Advanced Municipal Wastewater Treatment and Reuse Technology, Faculty of Environment and Life, Beijing University of Technology, 100 Pingleyuan, Chaoyang District, Beijing 100124, China
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13
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Dewey HM, Jones JM, Keating MR, Budhathoki-Uprety J. Increased Use of Disinfectants During the COVID-19 Pandemic and Its Potential Impacts on Health and Safety. ACS CHEMICAL HEALTH & SAFETY 2021. [DOI: 10.1021/acs.chas.1c00026] [Citation(s) in RCA: 24] [Impact Index Per Article: 8.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/23/2022]
Affiliation(s)
- Hannah M. Dewey
- Department of Textile Engineering, Chemistry and Science, Wilson College of Textiles, North Carolina State University, Raleigh, North Carolina 27695, United States
| | - Jaron M. Jones
- Department of Textile Engineering, Chemistry and Science, Wilson College of Textiles, North Carolina State University, Raleigh, North Carolina 27695, United States
| | - Mike R. Keating
- Department of Textile Engineering, Chemistry and Science, Wilson College of Textiles, North Carolina State University, Raleigh, North Carolina 27695, United States
| | - Januka Budhathoki-Uprety
- Department of Textile Engineering, Chemistry and Science, Wilson College of Textiles, North Carolina State University, Raleigh, North Carolina 27695, United States
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14
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Abbott T, Kor-Bicakci G, Islam MS, Eskicioglu C. A Review on the Fate of Legacy and Alternative Antimicrobials and Their Metabolites during Wastewater and Sludge Treatment. Int J Mol Sci 2020; 21:ijms21239241. [PMID: 33287448 PMCID: PMC7729486 DOI: 10.3390/ijms21239241] [Citation(s) in RCA: 10] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 10/30/2020] [Revised: 11/30/2020] [Accepted: 11/30/2020] [Indexed: 12/11/2022] Open
Abstract
Antimicrobial compounds are used in a broad range of personal care, consumer and healthcare products and are frequently encountered in modern life. The use of these compounds is being reexamined as their safety, effectiveness and necessity are increasingly being questioned by regulators and consumers alike. Wastewater often contains significant amounts of these chemicals, much of which ends up being released into the environment as existing wastewater and sludge treatment processes are simply not designed to treat many of these contaminants. Furthermore, many biotic and abiotic processes during wastewater treatment can generate significant quantities of potentially toxic and persistent antimicrobial metabolites and byproducts, many of which may be even more concerning than their parent antimicrobials. This review article explores the occurrence and fate of two of the most common legacy antimicrobials, triclosan and triclocarban, their metabolites/byproducts during wastewater and sludge treatment and their potential impacts on the environment. This article also explores the fate and transformation of emerging alternative antimicrobials and addresses some of the growing concerns regarding these compounds. This is becoming increasingly important as consumers and regulators alike shift away from legacy antimicrobials to alternative chemicals which may have similar environmental and human health concerns.
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Affiliation(s)
- Timothy Abbott
- UBC Bioreactor Technology Group, School of Engineering, University of British Columbia Okanagan Campus, Kelowna, BC V1V 1V7, Canada; (T.A.); (G.K.-B.); (M.S.I.)
| | - Gokce Kor-Bicakci
- UBC Bioreactor Technology Group, School of Engineering, University of British Columbia Okanagan Campus, Kelowna, BC V1V 1V7, Canada; (T.A.); (G.K.-B.); (M.S.I.)
- Institute of Environmental Sciences, Bogazici University, Bebek, 34342 Istanbul, Turkey
| | - Mohammad S. Islam
- UBC Bioreactor Technology Group, School of Engineering, University of British Columbia Okanagan Campus, Kelowna, BC V1V 1V7, Canada; (T.A.); (G.K.-B.); (M.S.I.)
| | - Cigdem Eskicioglu
- UBC Bioreactor Technology Group, School of Engineering, University of British Columbia Okanagan Campus, Kelowna, BC V1V 1V7, Canada; (T.A.); (G.K.-B.); (M.S.I.)
- Correspondence: ; Tel.: +1-250-807-8544 (C.E)
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15
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Hora PI, Pati SG, McNamara PJ, Arnold WA. Increased Use of Quaternary Ammonium Compounds during the SARS-CoV-2 Pandemic and Beyond: Consideration of Environmental Implications. ENVIRONMENTAL SCIENCE & TECHNOLOGY LETTERS 2020; 7:622-631. [PMID: 37566314 PMCID: PMC7341688 DOI: 10.1021/acs.estlett.0c00437] [Citation(s) in RCA: 172] [Impact Index Per Article: 43.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 05/29/2020] [Revised: 06/25/2020] [Accepted: 06/26/2020] [Indexed: 05/17/2023]
Abstract
Quaternary ammonium compounds (QACs) are active ingredients in over 200 disinfectants currently recommended by the U.S. EPA for use to inactivate the SARS-CoV-2 (COVID-19) virus. The amounts of these compounds used in household, workplace, and industry settings has very likely increased, and usage will continue to be elevated given the scope of the pandemic. QACs have been previously detected in wastewater, surface waters, and sediments, and effects on antibiotic resistance have been explored. Thus, it is important to assess potential environmental and engineering impacts of elevated QAC usage, which may include disruption of wastewater treatment unit operations, proliferation of antibiotic resistance, formation of nitrosamine disinfection byproducts, and impacts on biota in surface waters. The threat caused by COVID-19 is clear, and a reasonable response is elevated use of QACs to mitigate spread of infection. Exploration of potential effects, environmental fate, and technologies to minimize environmental releases of QACs, however, is warranted.
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Affiliation(s)
- Priya I. Hora
- Department of Civil, Environmental, and Geo-
Engineering, University of Minnesota − Twin Cities, 500
Pillsbury Drive SE, Minneapolis, Minnesota 55455, United States
| | - Sarah G. Pati
- Department of Environmental Sciences,
University of Basel, Bernoullistrasse 30, 4056 Basel,
Switzerland
| | - Patrick J. McNamara
- Department of Civil, Construction, and Environmental
Engineering, Marquette University, P.O. Box 1881, Milwaukee,
Wisconsin 53233, United States
| | - William A. Arnold
- Department of Civil, Environmental, and Geo-
Engineering, University of Minnesota − Twin Cities, 500
Pillsbury Drive SE, Minneapolis, Minnesota 55455, United States
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