DNase I functional microgels for neutrophil extracellular trap disruption

Steps Toward Recapitulating Endothelium: A Perspective on the Next Generation of Hemocompatible Coatings

Endothelium, the lining in this blood vessel, orchestrates three main critical functions such as protecting blood components, modulating of hemostasis by secreting various inhibitors, and directing clot digestion (fibrinolysis) by activating tissue plasminogen activator. No other surface can perform these tasks; thus, the contact of blood and blood-contacting medical devices inevitably leads to the activation of coagulation, often causing device failure, and thromboembolic complications. This perspective, first, discusses the biological mechanisms of activation of coagulation and highlights the efforts of advanced coatings to recapitulate one characteristic of endothelium, hereafter single functions of endothelium and noting necessity of the synergistic integration of its three main functions. Subsequently, it is emphasized that to overcome the challenges of blood compatibility an endothelium-mimicking system is needed, proposing a synergy of bottom-up synthetic biology, particularly synthetic cells, with passive- and bioactive surface coatings. Such integration holds promise for developing advanced biomaterials capable of recapitulating endothelial functions, thereby enhancing the hemocompatibility and performance of blood-contacting medical devices.

Neutrophil extracellular traps as a unique target in the treatment of inflammatory pain

Pain is a widespread motivation for seeking healthcare and stands as a substantial global public health concern. Despite comprehensive investigations into the mechanisms of pain sensitization induced by inflammation, efficacious treatments options remain scarce. Neutrophil extracellular traps (NETs) have been associated with the progression and tissue damage of diverse inflammatory diseases. This study aims to explore the impact of NETs on the progression of inflammatory pain and explore potential therapeutic approaches. Initially, we observed neutrophil infiltration and the formation of NETs in the left hind paw of mice with inflammatory pain induced by complete Freund's adjuvant (CFA). Furthermore, we employed the peptidyl arginine deiminase 4 (PAD4) inhibitor Cl-amidine (diluted at 50 mg/kg in saline, administered via tail vein injection once daily for three days) to impede NETs formation and administered DNase1 (diluted at 10 mg/kg in saline, once daily for three days) to break down NETs. We investigated the pathological importance of peripheral NETs formation in inflammatory pain and its influence on the activation of spinal dorsal horn microglia. The findings indicate that neutrophils infiltrating locally generate NETs, leading to an increased release of inflammatory mediators that worsen peripheral inflammatory reactions. Consequently, this results in the transmission of more harmful peripheral stimuli to the spinal cord, triggering microglial activation and NF-κB phosphorylation, thereby escalating neuroinflammation and fostering pain sensitization. Suppression of peripheral NETs can mitigate peripheral inflammation in mice with inflammatory pain, reverse mechanical and thermal hypersensitivity by suppressing microglial activation in the spinal cord, ultimately diminishing inflammatory pain. In conclusion, these discoveries propose that obstructing or intervening with NETs introduces a novel therapeutic avenue for addressing inflammatory pain.

Neutrophil Extracellular Traps-Inhibiting and Fouling-Resistant Polysulfoxides Potently Prevent Postoperative Adhesion, Tumor Recurrence, and Metastasis

Peritoneal metastasis (PM) is considered one of the most dreaded forms of cancer metastases for both patients and physicians. Aggressive cytoreductive surgery (CRS) is the primary treatment for peritoneal metastasis. Unfortunately, this intensive treatment frequently causes clinical complications, such as postoperative recurrence, metastasis, and adhesion formation. Emerging evidence suggests that neutrophil extracellular traps (NETs) released by inflammatory neutrophils contribute to these complications. Effective NET-targeting strategies thus show considerable potential in counteracting these complications but remain challenging. Here, one type of sulfoxide-containing homopolymer, PMeSEA, with potent fouling-resistant and NET-inhibiting capabilities, is synthesized and screened. Hydrating sulfoxide groups endow PMeSEA with superior nonfouling ability, significantly inhibiting protein/cell adhesion. Besides, the polysulfoxides can be selectively oxidized by ClO- which is required to stabilize the NETs rather than H2O2, and ClO- scavenging effectively inhibits NETs formation without disturbing redox homeostasis in tumor cells and quiescent neutrophils. As a result, PMeSEA potently prevents postoperative adhesions, significantly suppresses peritoneal metastasis, and shows synergetic antitumor activity with chemotherapeutic 5-Fluorouracil. Moreover, coupling CRS with PMeSEA potently inhibits CRS-induced tumor metastatic relapse and postoperative adhesions. Notably, PMeSEA exhibits low in vivo acute and subacute toxicities, implying significant potential for clinical postoperative adjuvant treatment.

Development of a rectally administrable Dnase1 to treat septic shock by targeting NETs

AIMS

Neutrophil extracellular trap (NET), which is formed by DNA threads, induces septic shock by aggravating systemic inflammation. An intravenous administration of deoxyribonuclease is regarded as a compelling modality for treating septic shock. However, alternative routes should be chosen when cutaneous veins are all collapsed due to hypotension. In this study, we genetically engineered this enzyme to develop a rectal suppository formulation to treat septic shock.

MAIN METHODS

Dnase1 was mutated at two amino acid residues to increase its stability in the blood and fused with a cell-penetrating peptide CR8 to increase its absorption through the rectal mucosa, which is designated AR-CR8. The life-saving effect of AR-CR8 was evaluated in a LPS-induced shock mouse model.

KEY FINDINGS

AR-CR8 was shown to remove NETs effectively in human neutrophils. When AR-CR8 was administered to the mouse rectum, the deoxyribonuclease activity in the mouse serum was significantly increased. In the LPS-induced shock model, 90 % of the control mice died over 72 h after LPS injection. In contrast, the rectal administration of AR-CR8 showed a mortality rate of 30 % by 72 h after LPS injection. The Log-rank test revealed that the survival rate is significantly higher in the AR-CR8 group. The NET markers in the mouse serum were enhanced by LPS, and significantly downregulated in the AR-CR8 group. These results suggest that AR-CR8 ameliorates LPS-induced shock by degrading NETs.

SIGNIFICANCE

The engineered DNASE1 could be developed as a rectal suppository formulation to treat septic shock urgently at out-of-hospital places where no syringe is available.

Neutrophil Extracellular Traps and Thrombolysis Resistance: New Insights for Targeting Therapies

BACKGROUND

Thrombosis is linked to neutrophil release of neutrophil extracellular traps (NETs). NETs are proposed as a mechanism of resistance to thrombolysis. This study intends to analyze the composition of thrombi retrieved after mechanical thrombectomy, estimate the age and organization of thrombi, and evaluate associations with the use of thrombolysis, antiplatelets, and heparin.

METHODS

This retrospective observational study involved 72 samples (44 from cerebral and 28 coronary arteries), which were stained with hematoxylin and eosin, anti-NE (neutrophil elastase) antibody, and anti-histone H2B (histone H2B) antibody, representing different components in NET formation, all detectable during the later stages of NETosis, for histochemical and digital quantification of NET content. The histological and morphological evaluations of the specimens were correlated, through univariate and mediation analyses, with clinical information and therapy administered before intervention.

RESULTS

The results demonstrated that the composition of cerebral and coronary thrombi differs, and there were significantly more lytic cerebral thrombi than coronary thrombi (66% versus 14%; P=0.005). There was a considerably higher expression of NETs in the cerebral thrombi as testified by the higher expression of H2B (P=0.031). Thrombolysis was remarkably associated with higher NE positivity (average marginal effect, 6.461 [95% CI, 0.7901-12.13]; P=0.02555), regardless of the origin of thrombi. There was no notable association between the administration of antiaggregant therapy/heparin and H2B/NE amount when adjusted for the thrombus location. Importantly, the age of the thrombus was the only independent predictor of NET content without any mediation of the thrombolytic treatment (P=0.014).

CONCLUSIONS

The age of the thrombus is the driving force for NET content, which correlates with impaired clinical outcomes. The therapy that is currently administered does not modify NET content. This study supports the need to investigate new pharmacological approaches added to thrombolysis to prevent NET formation or enhance their disruption, such as recombinant human DNase I (deoxyribonuclease I).

Targeting Neutrophil Extracellular Traps in Gouty Arthritis: Insights into Pathogenesis and Therapeutic Potential

Gouty arthritis (GA) is an immune-mediated disorder characterized by severe inflammation due to the deposition of monosodium urate (MSU) crystals in the joints. The pathophysiological mechanisms of GA are not yet fully understood, and therefore, the identification of effective therapeutic targets is of paramount importance. Neutrophil extracellular traps (NETs), an intricate structure of DNA scaffold, encompassing myeloperoxidase, histones, and elastases - have gained significant attention as a prospective therapeutic target for gouty arthritis, due to their innate antimicrobial and immunomodulatory properties. Hence, exploring the therapeutic potential of NETs in gouty arthritis remains an enticing avenue for further investigation. During the process of gouty arthritis, the formation of NETs triggers the release of inflammatory cytokines, thereby contributing to the inflammatory response, while MSU crystals and cytokines are sequestered and degraded by the aggregation of NETs. Here, we provide a concise summary of the inflammatory processes underlying the initiation and resolution of gouty arthritis mediated by NETs. Furthermore, this review presents an overview of the current pharmacological approaches for treating gouty arthritis and summarizes the potential of natural and synthetic product-based inhibitors that target NET formation as novel therapeutic options, alongside elucidating the intrinsic challenges of these inhibitors in NETs research. Lastly, the limitations of HL-60 cell as a suitable substitute of neutrophils in NETs research are summarized and discussed. Series of recommendations are provided, strategically oriented towards guiding future investigations to effectively address these concerns. These findings will contribute to an enhanced comprehension of the interplay between NETs and GA, facilitating the proposition of innovative therapeutic strategies and novel approaches for the management of GA.

Neutrophil Extracellular Traps in Tumors and Potential Use of Traditional Herbal Medicine Formulations for Its Regulation

Neutrophil extracellular traps (NETs) are extracellular fibers composed of deoxyribonucleic acid (DNA) and decorated proteins produced by neutrophils. Recently, NETs have been associated with the development of many diseases, including tumors. Herein, we reviewed the correlation between NETs and tumors. In addition, we detailed active compounds from traditional herbal medicine formulations that inhibit NETs, related nanodrug delivery systems, and antibodies that serve as "guiding moieties" to ensure targeted delivery to NETs. Furthermore, we discussed the strategies used by pathogenic microorganisms to evade NETs.

Ficolin-A/2 Aggravated Severe Lung Injury through Neutrophil Extracellular Traps Mediated by Gasdermin D-Induced Pyroptosis

Neutrophil extracellular traps (NETs) and pyroptosis are critical events in lung injury. This study investigated whether ficolin-A influences NET formation through pyroptosis to exacerbate lipopolysaccharide (LPS)-induced lung injury. The expression of ficolin-A/2, NETs, and pyroptosis-related molecules was investigated in animal and cell models. Knockout and knockdown (recombinant protein) methods were used to elucidate regulatory mechanisms. The Pearson correlation coefficient was used to analyze the correlation between ficolins and pyroptosis- and NET-related markers in clinical samples. In this study, ficolin-2 (similar to ficolin-A) showed significant overexpression in patients with acute respiratory distress syndrome. In vivo, knockout of ficolin-A, but not ficolin-B, attenuated lung inflammation and inhibited NET formation in the LPS-induced mouse model. DNase I further alleviated lung inflammation and NET formation in ficolin-A knockout mice. In vitro, neutrophils derived from Fcna-/- mice showed less pyroptosis and necroptosis than those from the control group after LPS stimulation. Additionally, gasdermin D knockdown or Nod-like receptor protein 3 inhibitor reduced NET formation. Addition of recombinant ficolin-2 protein to human peripheral blood neutrophils promoted NET formation and pyroptosis after LPS stimulation, whereas ficolin-2 knockdown had the opposite effect. Acute respiratory distress syndrome patients showed increased levels of pyroptosis- and NET-related markers, which were correlated positively with ficolin-2 levels. In conclusion, these results suggested that ficolin-A/2 exacerbated NET formation and LPS-induced lung injury via gasdermin D-mediated pyroptosis.

Celastrol-loaded bovine serum albumin nanoparticles target inflamed neutrophils for improved rheumatoid arthritis therapy

Inflammatory neutrophils (INEs), motivated by cytokines, continue to migrate into the inflamed joints, driving the development of RA. Hence, inducing apoptosis of INEs to reduce recruitment at inflamed joints is an effective strategy for the treatment of RA. However, simply apoptotic INEs may trigger the release of neutrophil extracellular traps (NETs) and accelerate the inflammatory process. To overcome these drawbacks, an RGD-modified bovine serum albumin (BSA) nanoparticles (CBR NPs) was fabricated to selectively target INEs in situ for intracellular delivery of CLT. Studies have demonstrated that CBR NPs can selectively target circulating INEs and induce INEs apoptosis. Meanwhile, CBR NPs inhibited the activation of NETs via NF-κB pathway and the release of Cit-H3 thereby blocking the release process of NETs. In collagen-induced arthritis (CIA) mouse model, CBR NPs suppressed the inflammatory response, and reduced the toxic effects of CLT. In summary, this study shed light on an innovative approach to treat RA by inducing apoptosis of circulating INEs and inhibiting NETs. STATEMENT OF SIGNIFICANCE: RGD-modified bovine serum albumin (BSA) nanoparticles for delivering celastrol, abbreviated as CBR NPs, were constructed to inhibit the infiltration of circulating inflammatory neutrophils (INEs) into inflamed joints while inhibiting the release of NETs to alleviate tissue damage. CBR NPs were prepared for the first time to induce apoptosis of INEs; CBR NPs could inhibit the release of NETs while inducing apoptosis of INEs in vivo and vitro cellular experiments; CBR NPs had favorable anti-inflammatory effects and low toxicity side-effects in collagen-induced arthritis (CIA) mouse models. The application of nanotechnology to induce apoptosis of INEs while inhibiting the release of NETs was a promising approach for the treatment of RA.

Neutrophil extracellular traps in adult diseases and neonatal bacterial infectious diseases: A review

Neutrophils, the most abundant type of white blood cells, are pivotal in fighting bacterial infections due to their immunological and anti-infection capabilities. In recent years, scientists have discovered a novel mechanism known as neutrophil extracellular traps, which are fibrous networks primarily released by neutrophils that combat bacterial infections. There is a growing interest in studying NETs and their role in human infectious diseases, particularly in neonates susceptible to bacterial infections. NETs and their components have been found in various samples from neonatal-infected patients, providing a new route for early diagnosis of neonatal infectious diseases. This paper aims to summarize the studies on NETs in adult diseases and mainly discuss NETs in neonatal sepsis, necrotizing enterocolitis, and purulent meningitis, to provide scientific evidence for early monitoring, diagnosis, and treatment of neonatal infections.

An injectable hydrogel to disrupt neutrophil extracellular traps for treating rheumatoid arthritis

Rheumatoid arthritis (RA), an autoimmune disease, is characterized by inflammatory cell infiltration that damages cartilage, disrupts bone, and impairs joint function. The therapeutic efficacy of RA treatments with the severely affected side remains unsatisfactory despite current treatment methods that primarily focus on anti-inflammatory activity, largely because of the complicatedly pathological mechanisms. A recently identified mechanism for RA development involves the interaction of RA autoantibodies with various proinflammatory cytokines to facilitate the formation of neutrophil extracellular traps (NETs), which increased inflammatory responses to express inflammatory cytokines and chemokines. Therefore, NETs architecture digestion may inhibit the positive-feedback inflammatory signal pathway and lessen joint damage in RA. In this work, deoxyribonuclease I (DNase) is connected to oxidized hyaluronic acid (OHA) via Schiff base reaction to extend the half-life of DNase. The modification does not influence the DNase activity for plasmid deoxyribonucleic acid hydrolysis and NETs' architecture disruption. Carboxymethyl chitosan is crosslinked with DNase-functionalised OHA (DHA) to form an injectable, degradable, and biocompatible hydrogel (DHY) to further strengthen the adhesive capability of DHA. Importantly, the collagen-induced arthritis model demonstrates that intra-articular injection of DHY can significantly reduce inflammatory cytokine expression and alleviate RA symptoms, which can be significantly improved by combining methotrexate. Here, a DNase-functionalised hydrogel has been developed for RA treatment by constantly degrading the novel drug target of NETs to decrease inflammatory response in RA.

Neutrophil extracellular traps in intracerebral hemorrhage: implications for pathogenesis and therapeutic targets

Intracerebral hemorrhage is a common neurological disease, and its pathological mechanism is complex. As the first recruited leukocyte subtype after intracerebral hemorrhage, neutrophils play an important role in tissue damage. In the past, it was considered that neutrophils performed their functions through phagocytosis, chemotaxis, and degranulation. In recent years, studies have found that neutrophils also have the function of secreting extracellular traps. Extracellular traps are fibrous structure composed of chromatin and granular proteins, which plays an important role in innate immunity. Studies have shown a large number of neutrophil extracellular traps in hematoma samples, plasma samples, and drainage samples after intracerebral hemorrhage. In this paper, we summarized the related mechanisms of neutrophil external traps and injury after intracerebral hemorrhage. Neutrophil extracellular traps are involved in the process of brain injury after intracerebral hemorrhage. The application of related inhibitors to inhibit the formation of neutrophil external traps or promote their dissolution can effectively alleviate the pathological damage caused by intracerebral hemorrhage.

Neutrophil extracellular traps boost laser-induced mouse choroidal neovascularization through the activation of the choroidal endothelial cell TLR4/HIF-1α pathway

Choroidal neovascularization (CNV) is characterized by the infiltration of immune cells, particularly neutrophils. Neutrophil extracellular trap (NET) facilitates the angiogenesis of pulmonary endothelial cells via activating Toll-like receptor 4 (TLR4). TLR4 promotes the expression of transcription factor hypoxia inducible factor-1α (HIF-1α), which promotes inflammation and angiogenesis via the up-regulation of metalloproteinase-9 (MMP-9) and interleukin-1β (IL-1β). In the present study, we aimed to identify the formation of NET and its role in CNV. Our results showed that NET levels were increased in a mouse laser-induced CNV model via oxidative stress, whereas the inhibition of NET alleviated CNV. In vitro, NET activated the TLR4/HIF-1α pathway in human choroidal endothelial cells (HCECs). Additionally, NET increased the transcription and expression of MMP-9 and IL-1β in HCECs via activating the TLR4/HIF-1α pathway. Meanwhile, NET promoted the inflammatory response accompanied by the proliferation, migration and tube formation of HCECs in a MMP-9- and IL-1β-dependent manner. In conclusion, NET was up-regulated in CNV and promoted the formation of CNV via activating the TLR4/HIF-1α pathway in choroidal endothelial cells. Our data uncovered the novel role of NET in promoting the formation of CNV. The underlying mechanism of NET could be targeted to delay the process of CNV.

DNase based therapeutic approaches for the treatment of NETosis related inflammatory diseases

Neutrophils are the primary host innate immune cells defending against pathogens. One proposed mechanism by which neutrophils limit pathogen transmission is NETosis, which includes releasing the nuclear content into the cytosol by forming pores in the plasma membrane. The extrusion of cellular deoxyribonucleic acid (DNA) results in neutrophil extracellular traps (NETs) composed of nuclear DNA associated with histones and granule proteins. NETosis is driven by the enzyme PAD-4 (Peptidylarginine deiminase-4), which converts arginine into citrulline, leading to decondensation of chromatin, separation of DNA, and eventual extrusion. DNase is responsible for the breakdown of NETs. On the one hand, the release of DNase may interfere with the antibacterial effects of NETs; further, DNase may protect tissues from self-destruction caused by the increased release of NET under septic conditions. NETs in physiological quantities are expected to have a role in anti-infectious innate immune responses. In contrast, abnormally high concentrations of NETs in the body that are not adequately cleared by DNases can damage tissues and cause inflammation. Through several novel approaches, it is now possible to avoid the adverse effects caused by the continued release of NETs into the extracellular environment. In this review we have highlighted the basic mechanisms of NETosis, its significance in the pathogenesis of various inflammatory disorders, and the role of DNase enzyme with a focus on the possible function of nanotechnology in its management.

C-176 loaded Ce DNase nanoparticles synergistically inhibit the cGAS-STING pathway for ischemic stroke treatment

The neuroinflammatory responses following ischemic stroke cause irreversible nerve cell death. Cell free-double strand DNA (dsDNA) segments from ischemic tissue debris are engulfed by microglia and sensed by their cyclic GMP-AMP synthase (cGAS), which triggers robust activation of the innate immune stimulator of interferon genes (STING) pathway and initiate the chronic inflammatory cascade. The decomposition of immunogenic dsDNA and inhibition of the innate immune STING are synergistic immunologic targets for ameliorating neuroinflammation. To combine the anti-inflammatory strategies of STING inhibition and dsDNA elimination, we constructed a DNase-mimetic artificial enzyme loaded with C-176. Nanoparticles are self-assembled by amphiphilic copolymers (P[CL₃₅-b-(OEGMA_20.7-co-NTAMA_14.3)]), C-176, and Ce⁴⁺ which is coordinated with nitrilotriacetic acid (NTA) group to form corresponding catalytic structures. Our work developed a new nano-drug that balances the cGAS-STING axis to enhance the therapeutic impact of stroke by combining the DNase-memetic Ce⁴⁺ enzyme and STING inhibitor synergistically. In conclusion, it is a novel approach to modulating central nervus system (CNS) inflammatory signaling pathways and improving stroke prognosis.

DNase I targeted degradation of neutrophil extracellular traps to reduce the damage on IgAV rat

BACKGROUND

In the past two years, studies have found a significant increase in neutrophil extracellular traps (NETs) in patients with IgA vasculitis (IgAV), which is correlated with the severity of the disease. NETs have been reported as an intervention target in inflammatory and autoimmune diseases. This study aimed to investigate the effect of targeted degradation of NETs using DNase I in IgAV rat model.

METHODS

Twenty-four Sprague-Dawley rats were randomly divided into three groups: the IgAV model group, the DNase I intervention group and the normal control group, with an average of 8 rats in each group. The model group was established by using Indian ink, ovalbumin, and Freund's complete adjuvant. In the intervention group, DNase I was injected through tail vein 3 days before the end of established model. The circulating cell free-DNA (cf-DNA) and myeloperoxidase-DNA (MPO-DNA) were analyzed. The presence of NETs in the kidney, gastric antrum and descending duodenum were detected using multiple fluorescences immunohistochemistry and Western blots. Morphological changes of the tissues were observed.

RESULTS

After the intervention of DNase I, there was a significant reduction in cf-DNA and MPO-DNA levels in the intervention group compared to the IgAV model group (all P<0.001). The presence of NETs in renal, gastric, and duodenal tissues of the intervention group exhibited a significant decrease compared to the IgAV model group (P < 0.01). Moreover, the intervention group demonstrated significantly lower levels of renal MPO and citrullinated histone H3 (citH3) protein expression when compared to the IgAV model group (all P < 0.05). The HE staining results of intervention group demonstrated a significant reduction in congestion within glomerular and interstitial capillaries. Moreover, there was a notable improvement in gastric and intestinal mucosa necrosis, congestion and bleeding. Additionally, there was a substantial decrease in inflammatory cells infiltration.

CONCLUSION

The degradation of NETs can be targeted by DNase I to mitigate tissue damage in IgAV rat models. Targeted regulation of NETs holds potential as a therapeutic approach for IgAV.

Role and Therapeutic Targeting Strategies of Neutrophil Extracellular Traps in Inflammation

Neutrophil extracellular traps (NETs) are large DNA reticular structures secreted by neutrophils and decorated with histones and antimicrobial proteins. As a key mechanism for neutrophils to resist microbial invasion, NETs play an important role in the killing of microorganisms (bacteria, fungi, and viruses). Although NETs are mostly known for mediating microbial killing, increasing evidence suggests that excessive NETs induced by stimulation of physical and chemical components, microorganisms, and pathological factors can exacerbate inflammation and organ damage. This review summarizes the induction and role of NETs in inflammation and focuses on the strategies of inhibiting NETosis and the mechanisms involved in pathogen evasion of NETs. Furthermore, herbal medicine inhibitors and nanodelivery strategies improve the efficiency of inhibition of excessive levels of NETs.

New genetic and epigenetic insights into the chemokine system: the latest discoveries aiding progression toward precision medicine

Over the past thirty years, the importance of chemokines and their seven-transmembrane G protein-coupled receptors (GPCRs) has been increasingly recognized. Chemokine interactions with receptors trigger signaling pathway activity to form a network fundamental to diverse immune processes, including host homeostasis and responses to disease. Genetic and nongenetic regulation of both the expression and structure of chemokines and receptors conveys chemokine functional heterogeneity. Imbalances and defects in the system contribute to the pathogenesis of a variety of diseases, including cancer, immune and inflammatory diseases, and metabolic and neurological disorders, which render the system a focus of studies aiming to discover therapies and important biomarkers. The integrated view of chemokine biology underpinning divergence and plasticity has provided insights into immune dysfunction in disease states, including, among others, coronavirus disease 2019 (COVID-19). In this review, by reporting the latest advances in chemokine biology and results from analyses of a plethora of sequencing-based datasets, we outline recent advances in the understanding of the genetic variations and nongenetic heterogeneity of chemokines and receptors and provide an updated view of their contribution to the pathophysiological network, focusing on chemokine-mediated inflammation and cancer. Clarification of the molecular basis of dynamic chemokine-receptor interactions will help advance the understanding of chemokine biology to achieve precision medicine application in the clinic.

Bioactive Nanogels Mimicking the Antithrombogenic Nitric Oxide-Release Function of the Endothelium

Nitric oxide (NO) plays a significant role in controlling the physiology and pathophysiology of the body, including the endothelial antiplatelet function and therefore, antithrombogenic property of the blood vessels. This property of NO can be exploited to prevent thrombus formation on artificial surfaces like extracorporeal membrane oxygenators, which when come into contact with blood lead to protein adsorption and thereby platelet activation causing thrombus formation. However, NO is extremely reactive and has a very short biological half-life in blood, so only endogenous generation of NO from the blood contacting material can result into a stable and kinetically controllable local delivery of NO. In this regards, highly hydrophilic bioactive nanogels are presented which can endogenously generate NO in blood plasma from endogenous NO-donors thereby maintaining a physiological NO flux. It is shown that NO releasing nanogels could initiate cGMP-dependent protein kinase signaling followed by phosphorylation of vasodilator-stimulated phosphoprotein in platelets. This prevents platelet activation and aggregation even in presence of highly potent platelet activators like thrombin, adenosine 5'-diphosphate, and U46619 (thromboxane A2 mimetic).

NETs Promote Inflammatory Injury by Activating cGAS-STING Pathway in Acute Lung Injury

Acute respiratory distress syndrome (ARDS) threatens the survival of critically ill patients, the mechanisms of which are still unclear. Neutrophil extracellular traps (NETs) released by activated neutrophils play a critical role in inflammatory injury. We investigated the role of NETs and the underlying mechanism involved in acute lung injury (ALI). We found a higher expression of NETs and cyclic GMP-AMP synthase-stimulator of interferon genes (cGAS-STING) in the airways, which was reduced by Deoxyribonuclease I (DNase I) in ALI. The administration of the STING inhibitor H-151 also significantly relieved inflammatory lung injury, but failed to affect the high expression of NETs in ALI. We isolated murine neutrophils from bone marrow and acquired human neutrophils by inducing HL-60 to differentiate. After the PMA interventions, exogenous NETs were obtained from such extracted neutrophils. Exogenous NETs intervention in vitro and in vivo resulted in airway injury, and such inflammatory lung injury was reversed upon degrading NETs with or inhibiting cGAS-STING with H-151 as well as siRNA STING. In conclusion, cGAS-STING participates in regulating NETs-mediated inflammatory pulmonary injury, which is expected to be a new therapeutic target for ARDS/ALI.

Neutrophil Extracellular Traps in Airway Diseases: Pathological Roles and Therapeutic Implications

Neutrophils are important effector cells of the innate immune response that fight pathogens by phagocytosis and degranulation. Neutrophil extracellular traps (NETs) are released into the extracellular space to defend against invading pathogens. Although NETs play a defensive role against pathogens, excessive NETs can contribute to the pathogenesis of airway diseases. NETs are known to be directly cytotoxic to the lung epithelium and endothelium, highly involved in acute lung injury, and implicated in disease severity and exacerbation. This review describes the role of NET formation in airway diseases, including chronic rhinosinusitis, and suggests that targeting NETs could be a therapeutic strategy for airway diseases.

Neutrophil extracellular traps primed intercellular communication in cancer progression as a promising therapeutic target

In addition to the anti-infection response, neutrophils are linked to tumor progression through the secretion of inflammation components and neutrophil extracellular traps (NETs) formation. NET is a web-like structure constituted by a chromatin scaffold coated with specific nuclear and cytoplasmic proteins, such as histone and granule peptides. Increasing evidence has demonstrated that NETs are favorable factors to promote tumor growth, invasion, migration, and immunosuppression. However, the cell-cell interaction between NETs and other cells (tumor cells and immune cells) is complicated and poorly studied. This work is the first review to focus on the intercellular communication mediated by NETs in cancer. We summarized the complex cell-cell interaction between NETs and other cells in the tumor microenvironment. We also address the significance of NETs as both prognostic/predictive biomarkers and molecular targets for cancer therapy. Moreover, we presented a comprehensive landscape of cancer immunity, improving the therapeutic efficacy for advanced cancer in the future.

Antibody-modified DNase I micelles specifically recognize the neutrophil extracellular traps (NETs) and promote their degradation

Neutrophil extracellular traps (NETs) are structures consisting of decondensed chromatin with associated proteins, including histones and antimicrobial peptides, released from activated neutrophils. They are believed to be one of the body's first lines of defense against infectious agents. Despite their beneficial effect on the immune response process, some studies indicate that their excessive formation and the associated accumulation of extracellular DNA (eDNA) together with other polyelectrolytes (F-actin) plays an important role in the pathogenesis of many diseases. Thus NETs formation and removal are clinically significant. The monoclonal antibody 2C5 has strong specificity for intact nucleohistones (NS) and targets NS in NETs as we previously confirmed. Creation of a nano preparation that can specifically recognize and destroy NETs represents the aim for treatment many diseases. 2C5 antibody functionalized micelles coated with DNase I were created to achieve this aim.

Unobvious Neutrophil Extracellular Traps Signification in the Course of Oral Squamous Cell Carcinoma: Current Understanding and Future Perspectives

Background: The current standards of treatment for oral squamous cell carcinoma (OSCC) include surgery, radiotherapy, and chemotherapy. In recent years, research on the effectiveness of immunotherapy in the treatment of OSCC has also been conducted.Purpose: Studies indicate that nonspecific immune mechanisms involved in the course of the anticancer response also need to be taken into account.Research Design: This review summarizes the results of our research on the active participation of neutrophils, which are previously underestimated, in the antitumor response in the course of OSCC, taking into account the ability of these cells to generate neutrophil extracellular traps (NETs).Results: We proved that the formation of NETs accompanies not only inflammatory changes but also the neoplastic process and that lipopolysaccharide (LPS) or interleukin 17 (IL-17) plays a critical role in inducing the formation of NETs during the OSCC. The greatest achievement of our published findings was the demonstration of the formation and release of NETs from neutrophils cocultured with tumor cells, as well as after stimulation with supernatant from the SCC culture with a PI3K-independent Akt kinase activation mechanism. Moreover, the pioneering achievement of our studies was the localization of NET structures in the tumor tissue, as well as the observation of high concentrations of NET markers in the serum of OSCC patients with low concentrations in the saliva, indicating the differences in the course of immune response between the periphery and the local reactions.Conclusions: The data presented here provide surprising but important information on the role of NETs in the course of OSCC, thus pointing to a promising new direction in the development of management strategies for early noninvasive diagnosis and monitoring of the disease course, and perhaps immunotherapy. Furthermore, this review raises further questions and elaborates on the process of NETosis in cancer.

A Tetrahedral Framework DNA-Based Bioswitchable miRNA Inhibitor Delivery System: Application to Skin Anti-Aging

MicroRNA (miR)-based therapy shows strong potential; however, structural limitations pose a challenge in fully exploiting its biomedical functionality. Tetrahedral framework DNA (tFNA) has proven to be an ideal vehicle for miR therapy. Inspired by the ancient Chinese myth "Sun and Immortal Birds," a novel bioswitchable miR inhibitor delivery system (BiRDS) is designed with three miR inhibitors (the three immortal birds) and a nucleic acid core (the central sun). The BiRDS fuses miR inhibitors within the framework, maximizing their loading capacity, while allowing the system to retain the characteristics of small-sized tFNA and avoiding uncertainty associated with RNA exposure in traditional loading protocols. The RNase H-responsive sequence at the tail of each "immortal bird" enables the BiRDS to transform from a 3D to a 2D structure upon entering cells, promoting the delivery of miR inhibitors. To confirm the application potential, the BiRDS is used to deliver the miR-31 inhibitor, with antiaging effects on hair follicle stem cells, into a skin aging model. Superior skin penetration ability and RNA delivery are observed with significant anti-aging effects. These findings demonstrate the capability and editability of the BiRDS to improve the stability and delivery efficacy of miRs for future innovations.

A facile method for grafting functional hydrogel films on PTFE, PVDF, and TPX polymers

The use of polymeric materials in biomedical applications requires a judicious control of surface properties as they are directly related to cellular interactions and biocompatibility. The most desired chemical surface properties include hydrophilicity and the presence of functional groups for surface modification. In this work, we describe a method to graft a highly stable, ultra-thin, amine-functional hydrogel layer onto highly inert surfaces of poly(tetrafluoroethylene) (PTFE), poly(vinylidene fluoride) (PVDF), and poly(4-methyl-1-pentene) (PMP or TPX). Covalent grafting is realized with hydrophilic poly(vinylamine-co-acetamide)s by C-H insertion crosslinking (CHic) chemistry initiated by UV light. These polyvinylamides carry tetrafluorophenyl azide groups as photo or thermo activated binding sites and contain further free amine groups, which can be used to bind peptides such as biological ligands, polysaccharides, or other hydrogel layers. The covalently bound surface layers resist intensive Soxhlet extraction confirming the stability of the coating. Fluorescent staining verified the accessibility of free primary amine groups, which can be used for the functionalization of the surface with bioactive molecules. The coating demonstrates hydrophobic wetting behavior when conditioned in air and hydrophilic wetting behavior when conditioned in water showing the presence of loosely crosslinked polymer chains that can re-orient. We believe that the reported application of CHic for the surface modification of fluorinated polymers like PTFE and PVDF as well as TPX can form the basis for advanced biocompatible and biofunctional surface engineering.