1
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Mei J, Cao X, Zhou B, Zhu W, Wang M. Migrasomes: Emerging organelles for unveiling physiopathology and advancing clinical implications. Life Sci 2024; 358:123152. [PMID: 39454990 DOI: 10.1016/j.lfs.2024.123152] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 08/10/2024] [Revised: 10/02/2024] [Accepted: 10/14/2024] [Indexed: 10/28/2024]
Abstract
Migrasomes are newly identified cellular organelles with a pomegranate-like structure and specifically generated by migrating cells. The mechanisms underlying migrasome biogenesis and methods for their isolation are gradually being elucidated. These organelles are pivotal in cell-to-cell communication and the maintenance of mitochondrial homeostasis. Their involvement in a diverse array of physiological and pathological processes is increasingly recognized. Despite these advancements, research on migrasomes is still in its early stages. It is imperative to delve deeper into the intricate mechanisms and functions of migrasomes to fully understand their role in physiopathology. In this review, we summarize the current research progress on migrasomes, including their distribution, biogenesis, purification and identification techniques, biological functionalities, and roles in physiological and pathological processes. We particularly highlight their potentials in disease diagnosis and therapy and point out the challenges facing us, aiming to provide novel insights into the emerging organelles.
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Affiliation(s)
- Jingyu Mei
- Department of Laboratory Medicine, School of Medicine, Jiangsu University, Zhenjiang, Jiangsu Province, China
| | - Xiaoli Cao
- Department of Laboratory Medicine, Affiliated Tumor Hospital of Nantong University, Nantong, Jiangsu Province, China
| | - Baocheng Zhou
- Department of Medical Laboratory, Lianyungang Maternal and Child Health Hospital, Lianyungang, Jiangsu Province, China
| | - Wei Zhu
- Department of Laboratory Medicine, School of Medicine, Jiangsu University, Zhenjiang, Jiangsu Province, China
| | - Mei Wang
- Department of Laboratory Medicine, School of Medicine, Jiangsu University, Zhenjiang, Jiangsu Province, China.
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2
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de Souza Cardoso R, Ono A. The Effects of Viral Structural Proteins on Acidic Phospholipids in Host Membranes. Viruses 2024; 16:1714. [PMID: 39599829 PMCID: PMC11599007 DOI: 10.3390/v16111714] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 09/13/2024] [Revised: 10/23/2024] [Accepted: 10/28/2024] [Indexed: 11/29/2024] Open
Abstract
Enveloped viruses rely on host membranes for trafficking and assembly. A substantial body of literature published over the years supports the involvement of cellular membrane lipids in the enveloped virus assembly processes. In particular, the knowledge regarding the relationship between viral structural proteins and acidic phospholipids has been steadily increasing in recent years. In this review, we will briefly review the cellular functions of plasma membrane-associated acidic phospholipids and the mechanisms that regulate their local distribution within this membrane. We will then explore the interplay between viruses and the plasma membrane acidic phospholipids in the context of the assembly process for two enveloped viruses, the influenza A virus (IAV) and the human immunodeficiency virus type 1 (HIV-1). Among the proteins encoded by these viruses, three viral structural proteins, IAV hemagglutinin (HA), IAV matrix protein-1 (M1), and HIV-1 Gag protein, are known to interact with acidic phospholipids, phosphatidylserine and/or phosphatidylinositol (4,5)-bisphosphate. These interactions regulate the localization of the viral proteins to and/or within the plasma membrane and likely facilitate the clustering of the proteins. On the other hand, these viral proteins, via their ability to multimerize, can also alter the distribution of the lipids and may induce acidic-lipid-enriched membrane domains. We will discuss the potential significance of these interactions in the virus assembly process and the property of the progeny virions. Finally, we will outline key outstanding questions that need to be answered for a better understanding of the relationships between enveloped virus assembly and acidic phospholipids.
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Affiliation(s)
| | - Akira Ono
- Department of Microbiology and Immunology, The University of Michigan, Ann Arbor, MI 48109, USA;
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3
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Tóth DJ, Tóth JT, Damouni A, Hunyady L, Várnai P. Effect of hormone-induced plasma membrane phosphatidylinositol 4,5-bisphosphate depletion on receptor endocytosis suggests the importance of local regulation in phosphoinositide signaling. Sci Rep 2024; 14:291. [PMID: 38168911 PMCID: PMC10761818 DOI: 10.1038/s41598-023-50732-x] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 09/04/2023] [Accepted: 12/24/2023] [Indexed: 01/05/2024] Open
Abstract
Phosphatidylinositol 4,5-bisphosphate (PIP2) has been shown to be critical for the endocytosis of G protein-coupled receptors (GPCRs). We have previously demonstrated that depletion of PIP2 by chemically induced plasma membrane (PM) recruitment of a 5-phosphatase domain prevents the internalization of the β2 adrenergic receptor (β2AR) from the PM to early endosomes. In this study, we tested the effect of hormone-induced PM PIP2 depletion on β2AR internalization using type-1 angiotensin receptor (AT1R) or M3 muscarinic acetylcholine receptor (M3R). We followed the endocytic route of β2ARs in HEK 293T cells using bioluminescence resonance energy transfer between the receptor and endosome marker Rab5. To compare the effect of lipid depletion by different means, we created and tested an AT1R fusion protein that is capable of both recruitment-based and hormone-induced depletion methods. The rate of PM PIP2 depletion was measured using a biosensor based on the PH domain of phospholipase Cδ1. As expected, β2AR internalization was inhibited when PIP2 depletion was evoked by recruiting 5-phosphatase to PM-anchored AT1R. A similar inhibition occurred when wild-type AT1R was activated by adding angiotensin II. However, stimulation of the desensitization/internalization-impaired mutant AT1R (TSTS/4A) caused very little inhibition of β2AR internalization, despite the higher rate of measurable PIP2 depletion. Interestingly, inhibition of PIP2 resynthesis with the selective PI4KA inhibitor GSK-A1 had little effect on the change in PH-domain-measured PM PIP2 levels but did significantly decrease β2AR internalization upon either AT1R or M3R activation, indicating the importance of a locally synthetized phosphoinositide pool in the regulation of this process.
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Affiliation(s)
- Dániel J Tóth
- Department of Physiology, Faculty of Medicine, Semmelweis University, Budapest, Tűzoltó utca 37-47, 1094, Hungary
- HUN-REN-SU Molecular Physiology Research Group, Hungarian Research Network and Semmelweis University, Budapest, Hungary
| | - József T Tóth
- Department of Physiology, Faculty of Medicine, Semmelweis University, Budapest, Tűzoltó utca 37-47, 1094, Hungary
- Department of Anaesthesiology and Intensive Therapy, Faculty of Medicine, Semmelweis University, Budapest, Üllői út 78/B, 1082, Hungary
| | - Amir Damouni
- Department of Physiology, Faculty of Medicine, Semmelweis University, Budapest, Tűzoltó utca 37-47, 1094, Hungary
| | - László Hunyady
- Department of Physiology, Faculty of Medicine, Semmelweis University, Budapest, Tűzoltó utca 37-47, 1094, Hungary
- Institute of Enzymology, Centre of Excellence of the Hungarian Academy of Sciences, HUN-REN Research Centre for Natural Sciences, Budapest, Magyar tudósok körútja 2, 1117, Hungary
| | - Péter Várnai
- Department of Physiology, Faculty of Medicine, Semmelweis University, Budapest, Tűzoltó utca 37-47, 1094, Hungary.
- HUN-REN-SU Molecular Physiology Research Group, Hungarian Research Network and Semmelweis University, Budapest, Hungary.
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4
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Thallmair V, Schultz L, Evers S, Jolie T, Goecke C, Leitner MG, Thallmair S, Oliver D. Localization of the tubby domain, a PI(4,5)P2 biosensor, to E-Syt3-rich endoplasmic reticulum-plasma membrane junctions. J Cell Sci 2023; 136:jcs260848. [PMID: 37401342 PMCID: PMC10445746 DOI: 10.1242/jcs.260848] [Citation(s) in RCA: 1] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 11/30/2022] [Accepted: 06/26/2023] [Indexed: 07/05/2023] Open
Abstract
The phospholipid phosphatidylinositol (4,5)-bisphosphate [PI(4,5)P2] acts as a signaling lipid at the plasma membrane (PM) with pleiotropic regulatory actions on multiple cellular processes. Signaling specificity might result from spatiotemporal compartmentalization of the lipid and from combinatorial binding of PI(4,5)P2 effector proteins to additional membrane components. Here, we analyzed the spatial distribution of tubbyCT, a paradigmatic PI(4,5)P2-binding domain, in live mammalian cells by total internal reflection fluorescence (TIRF) microscopy and molecular dynamics simulations. We found that unlike other well-characterized PI(4,5)P2 recognition domains, tubbyCT segregates into distinct domains within the PM. TubbyCT enrichment occurred at contact sites between PM and endoplasmic reticulum (ER) (i.e. at ER-PM junctions) as shown by colocalization with ER-PM markers. Localization to these sites was mediated in a combinatorial manner by binding to PI(4,5)P2 and by interaction with a cytosolic domain of extended synaptotagmin 3 (E-Syt3), but not other E-Syt isoforms. Selective localization to these structures suggests that tubbyCT is a novel selective reporter for a ER-PM junctional pool of PI(4,5)P2. Finally, we found that association with ER-PM junctions is a conserved feature of tubby-like proteins (TULPs), suggesting an as-yet-unknown function of TULPs.
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Affiliation(s)
- Veronika Thallmair
- Department of Neurophysiology, Institute of Physiology and Pathophysiology, Philipps University Marburg, 35037 Marburg, Germany
- DFG Research Training Group, Membrane Plasticity in Tissue Development and Remodeling, GRK 2213, Philipps UniversityMarburg, 35037 Marburg, Germany
| | - Lea Schultz
- Department of Neurophysiology, Institute of Physiology and Pathophysiology, Philipps University Marburg, 35037 Marburg, Germany
| | - Saskia Evers
- Department of Neurophysiology, Institute of Physiology and Pathophysiology, Philipps University Marburg, 35037 Marburg, Germany
| | - Theresa Jolie
- Department of Neurophysiology, Institute of Physiology and Pathophysiology, Philipps University Marburg, 35037 Marburg, Germany
| | - Christian Goecke
- Department of Neurophysiology, Institute of Physiology and Pathophysiology, Philipps University Marburg, 35037 Marburg, Germany
| | - Michael G. Leitner
- Department of Neurophysiology, Institute of Physiology and Pathophysiology, Philipps University Marburg, 35037 Marburg, Germany
- Institute of Physiology, Department of Physiology and Medical Physics, Medical University of Innsbruck, 6020 Innsbruck, Austria
- Drug Discovery Sciences, Boehringer Ingelheim Pharma GmbH&Co.KG, Birkendorfer Str. 65, 88400 Biberach an der Riß, Germany
| | - Sebastian Thallmair
- Frankfurt Institute for Advanced Studies, 60438 Frankfurt am Main, Germany
- Groningen Biomolecular Sciences and Biotechnology Institute and The Zernike Institute for Advanced Material, University of Groningen, 9747 AG Groningen, The Netherlands
| | - Dominik Oliver
- Department of Neurophysiology, Institute of Physiology and Pathophysiology, Philipps University Marburg, 35037 Marburg, Germany
- DFG Research Training Group, Membrane Plasticity in Tissue Development and Remodeling, GRK 2213, Philipps UniversityMarburg, 35037 Marburg, Germany
- Center for Mind, Brain and Behavior (CMBB), Universities of Marburg and Giessen, 35032 Marburg, Germany
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5
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Pacheco J, Cassidy AC, Zewe JP, Wills RC, Hammond GR. PI(4,5)P2 diffuses freely in the plasma membrane even within high-density effector protein complexes. J Cell Biol 2023; 222:e202204099. [PMID: 36416724 PMCID: PMC9698391 DOI: 10.1083/jcb.202204099] [Citation(s) in RCA: 10] [Impact Index Per Article: 10.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 04/26/2022] [Revised: 08/11/2022] [Accepted: 11/04/2022] [Indexed: 11/24/2022] Open
Abstract
The lipid phosphatidyl-D-myo-inositol-4,5-bisphosphate [PI(4,5)P2] is a master regulator of plasma membrane (PM) function. Its effector proteins regulate transport, signaling, and cytoskeletal processes that define PM structure and function. How a single type of lipid regulates so many parallel processes is unclear. We tested the hypothesis that spatially separate PI(4,5)P2 pools associate with different PM complexes. The mobility of PI(4,5)P2 was measured using biosensors by single-particle tracking. We found that PM lipids including PI(4,5)P2 diffuse rapidly (∼0.3 µm2/s) with Brownian motion, although they spend one third of their time diffusing more slowly. Surprisingly, areas of the PM occupied by PI(4,5)P2-dependent complexes did not slow PI(4,5)P2 lateral mobility. Only the spectrin and septin cytoskeletons showed reduced PI(4,5)P2 diffusion. We conclude that even structures with high densities of PI(4,5)P2 effector proteins, such as clathrin-coated pits and focal adhesions, do not corral unbound PI(4,5)P2, questioning a role for spatially segregated PI(4,5)P2 pools in organizing and regulating PM functions.
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Affiliation(s)
- Jonathan Pacheco
- Department of Cell Biology, University of Pittsburgh School of Medicine, Pittsburgh, PA
| | - Anna C. Cassidy
- Department of Cell Biology, University of Pittsburgh School of Medicine, Pittsburgh, PA
| | - James P. Zewe
- Department of Cell Biology, University of Pittsburgh School of Medicine, Pittsburgh, PA
| | - Rachel C. Wills
- Department of Cell Biology, University of Pittsburgh School of Medicine, Pittsburgh, PA
| | - Gerald R.V. Hammond
- Department of Cell Biology, University of Pittsburgh School of Medicine, Pittsburgh, PA
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6
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Wills RC, Hammond GRV. PI(4,5)P2: signaling the plasma membrane. Biochem J 2022; 479:2311-2325. [PMID: 36367756 PMCID: PMC9704524 DOI: 10.1042/bcj20220445] [Citation(s) in RCA: 23] [Impact Index Per Article: 11.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 08/22/2022] [Revised: 10/19/2022] [Accepted: 10/21/2022] [Indexed: 11/13/2022]
Abstract
In the almost 70 years since the first hints of its existence, the phosphoinositide, phosphatidyl-D-myo-inositol 4,5-bisphosphate has been found to be central in the biological regulation of plasma membrane (PM) function. Here, we provide an overview of the signaling, transport and structural roles the lipid plays at the cell surface in animal cells. These include being substrate for second messenger generation, direct modulation of receptors, control of membrane traffic, regulation of ion channels and transporters, and modulation of the cytoskeleton and cell polarity. We conclude by re-evaluating PI(4,5)P2's designation as a signaling molecule, instead proposing a cofactor role, enabling PM-selective function for many proteins.
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Affiliation(s)
- Rachel C. Wills
- Department of Cell Biology, University of Pittsburgh School of Medicine, Pittsburgh, PA, U.S.A
| | - Gerald R. V. Hammond
- Department of Cell Biology, University of Pittsburgh School of Medicine, Pittsburgh, PA, U.S.A
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7
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Godoy P, Darlington PJ, Whiteway M. Genetic Screening of Candida albicans Inactivation Mutants Identifies New Genes Involved in Macrophage-Fungal Cell Interactions. Front Microbiol 2022; 13:833655. [PMID: 35450285 PMCID: PMC9016338 DOI: 10.3389/fmicb.2022.833655] [Citation(s) in RCA: 1] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 12/11/2021] [Accepted: 03/08/2022] [Indexed: 11/13/2022] Open
Abstract
Candida albicans, an important fungal pathogen of humans, displays different morphologies, such as yeast, pseudo-hyphae and hyphae, which are recognized unequally by phagocytic cells of the innate immune response. Once C. albicans cells invade host tissues, immune cells such as macrophages are attracted to the site of infection and activated to recognize, engulf and kill the pathogen. We have investigated this fungal cell-macrophage interface by using high-throughput screening of the C. albicans GRACE library to identify genes that can influence this interaction and modify the kinetics of engulfment. Compared with the wild-type (WT) strain, we identified generally faster rates of engulfment for those fungal strains with constitutive pseudo-hyphal and hyphal phenotypes, whereas yeast-form-locked strains showed a reduced and delayed recognition and internalization by macrophages. We identified a number of GRACE strains that showed normal morphological development but exhibited different recognition and engulfment kinetics by cultured macrophages and characterized two mutants that modified interactions with the murine and human-derived macrophages. One mutant inactivated an uncharacterized C. albicans open reading frame that is the ortholog of S. cerevisiae OPY1, the other inactivated CaKRE1. The modified interaction was monitored during a 4 h co-culture. Early in the interaction, both opy1 and kre1 mutant strains showed reduced recognition and engulfment rates by macrophages when compared with WT cells. At fungal germ tube initiation, the engulfment kinetics increased for both mutants and WT cells, however the WT cells still showed a higher internalization by macrophages up to 2 h of interaction. Subsequently, between 2 and 4 h of the interaction, when most macrophages contain engulfed fungal cells, the engulfment kinetics increased for the opy1 mutant and further decreased for the kre1 mutant compared with Ca-WT. It appears that fungal morphology influences macrophage association with C. albicans cells and that both OPY1 and KRE1 play roles in the interaction of the fungal cells with phagocytes.
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Affiliation(s)
- Pablo Godoy
- Centre of Structural and Functional Genomics, Biology Department, Concordia University - Loyola Campus, Montreal, QC, Canada.,Department of Pathology and Microbiology, Faculty of Veterinary Medicine, University of Montreal, Saint-Hyacinthe, QC, Canada
| | - Peter John Darlington
- Perform Centre, Department of Health, Kinesiology and Applied Physiology, Montreal, QC, Canada
| | - Malcolm Whiteway
- Centre of Structural and Functional Genomics, Biology Department, Concordia University - Loyola Campus, Montreal, QC, Canada
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8
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Raut P, Weller SR, Obeng B, Soos BL, West BE, Potts CM, Sangroula S, Kinney MS, Burnell JE, King BL, Gosse JA, Hess ST. Cetylpyridinium chloride (CPC) reduces zebrafish mortality from influenza infection: Super-resolution microscopy reveals CPC interference with multiple protein interactions with phosphatidylinositol 4,5-bisphosphate in immune function. Toxicol Appl Pharmacol 2022; 440:115913. [PMID: 35149080 PMCID: PMC8824711 DOI: 10.1016/j.taap.2022.115913] [Citation(s) in RCA: 16] [Impact Index Per Article: 8.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 10/15/2021] [Revised: 01/04/2022] [Accepted: 02/04/2022] [Indexed: 01/12/2023]
Abstract
The COVID-19 pandemic raises significance for a potential influenza therapeutic compound, cetylpyridinium chloride (CPC), which has been extensively used in personal care products as a positively-charged quaternary ammonium antibacterial agent. CPC is currently in clinical trials to assess its effects on severe acute respiratory syndrome coronavirus 2 (SARS-CoV-2) morbidity. Two published studies have provided mouse and human data indicating that CPC may alleviate influenza infection, and here we show that CPC (0.1 μM, 1 h) reduces zebrafish mortality and viral load following influenza infection. However, CPC mechanisms of action upon viral-host cell interaction are currently unknown. We have utilized super-resolution fluorescence photoactivation localization microscopy to probe the mode of CPC action. Reduction in density of influenza viral protein hemagglutinin (HA) clusters is known to reduce influenza infectivity: here, we show that CPC (at non-cytotoxic doses, 5-10 μM) reduces HA density and number of HA molecules per cluster within the plasma membrane of NIH-3T3 mouse fibroblasts. HA is known to colocalize with the negatively-charged mammalian lipid phosphatidylinositol 4,5-bisphosphate (PIP2); here, we show that nanoscale co-localization of HA with the PIP2-binding Pleckstrin homology (PH) reporter in the plasma membrane is diminished by CPC. CPC also dramatically displaces the PIP2-binding protein myristoylated alanine-rich C-kinase substrate (MARCKS) from the plasma membrane of rat RBL-2H3 mast cells; this disruption of PIP2 is correlated with inhibition of mast cell degranulation. Together, these findings offer a PIP2-focused mechanism underlying CPC disruption of influenza and suggest potential pharmacological use of this drug as an influenza therapeutic to reduce global deaths from viral disease.
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Affiliation(s)
- Prakash Raut
- Department of Physics and Astronomy, University of Maine, Orono, ME, USA
| | - Sasha R Weller
- Department of Molecular and Biomedical Sciences, University of Maine, Orono, ME, USA
| | - Bright Obeng
- Department of Molecular and Biomedical Sciences, University of Maine, Orono, ME, USA
| | - Brandy L Soos
- Department of Molecular and Biomedical Sciences, University of Maine, Orono, ME, USA
| | - Bailey E West
- Department of Molecular and Biomedical Sciences, University of Maine, Orono, ME, USA
| | - Christian M Potts
- Department of Molecular and Biomedical Sciences, University of Maine, Orono, ME, USA
| | - Suraj Sangroula
- Department of Molecular and Biomedical Sciences, University of Maine, Orono, ME, USA
| | - Marissa S Kinney
- Department of Molecular and Biomedical Sciences, University of Maine, Orono, ME, USA
| | - John E Burnell
- Department of Molecular and Biomedical Sciences, University of Maine, Orono, ME, USA
| | - Benjamin L King
- Department of Molecular and Biomedical Sciences, University of Maine, Orono, ME, USA
| | - Julie A Gosse
- Department of Molecular and Biomedical Sciences, University of Maine, Orono, ME, USA.
| | - Samuel T Hess
- Department of Physics and Astronomy, University of Maine, Orono, ME, USA.
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Ukhanov K, Uytingco C, Green W, Zhang L, Schurmans S, Martens JR. INPP5E controls ciliary localization of phospholipids and the odor response in olfactory sensory neurons. J Cell Sci 2021; 135:jcs.258364. [PMID: 33771931 PMCID: PMC8126451 DOI: 10.1242/jcs.258364] [Citation(s) in RCA: 13] [Impact Index Per Article: 4.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 12/31/2020] [Accepted: 03/15/2021] [Indexed: 12/12/2022] Open
Abstract
The lipid composition of the primary cilia membrane is emerging as a critical regulator of cilia formation, maintenance and function. Here, we show that conditional deletion of the phosphoinositide 5′-phosphatase gene Inpp5e, mutation of which is causative of Joubert syndrome, in terminally developed mouse olfactory sensory neurons (OSNs), leads to a dramatic remodeling of ciliary phospholipids that is accompanied by marked elongation of cilia. Phosphatidylinositol (4,5)-bisphosphate [PI(4,5)P2], which is normally restricted to the proximal segment redistributed to the entire length of cilia in Inpp5e knockout mice with a reduction in phosphatidylinositol (3,4)-bisphosphate [PI(3,4)P2] and elevation of phosphatidylinositol (3,4,5)-trisphosphate [PI(3,4,5)P3] in the dendritic knob. The redistribution of phosphoinositides impaired odor adaptation, resulting in less efficient recovery and altered inactivation kinetics of the odor-evoked electrical response and the odor-induced elevation of cytoplasmic Ca2+. Gene replacement of Inpp5e through adenoviral expression restored the ciliary localization of PI(4,5)P2 and odor response kinetics in OSNs. Our findings support the role of phosphoinositides as a modulator of the odor response and in ciliary biology of native multi-ciliated OSNs. Summary: Cilia of olfactory sensory neurons have a unique lipid composition. Localization of phospholipids is controlled by the INPP5E phosphatase and is involved in modulation of the odor response.
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Affiliation(s)
- Kirill Ukhanov
- University of Florida, Department of Pharmacology and Therapeutics, Gainesville, FL 32603, USA.,University of Florida, Center for Smell and Taste, FL 32610-0267, USA
| | - Cedric Uytingco
- University of Florida, Department of Pharmacology and Therapeutics, Gainesville, FL 32603, USA
| | - Warren Green
- University of Florida, Department of Pharmacology and Therapeutics, Gainesville, FL 32603, USA
| | - Lian Zhang
- University of Florida, Department of Pharmacology and Therapeutics, Gainesville, FL 32603, USA.,University of Florida, Center for Smell and Taste, FL 32610-0267, USA
| | - Stephane Schurmans
- Laboratory of Functional Genetics, GIGA-Molecular Biology of Disease, University of Liège, Liège, Belgium
| | - Jeffrey R Martens
- University of Florida, Department of Pharmacology and Therapeutics, Gainesville, FL 32603, USA.,University of Florida, Center for Smell and Taste, FL 32610-0267, USA
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10
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Batrouni AG, Baskin JM. The chemistry and biology of phosphatidylinositol 4-phosphate at the plasma membrane. Bioorg Med Chem 2021; 40:116190. [PMID: 33965837 DOI: 10.1016/j.bmc.2021.116190] [Citation(s) in RCA: 5] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 03/22/2021] [Revised: 04/24/2021] [Accepted: 04/26/2021] [Indexed: 12/29/2022]
Abstract
Phosphoinositides are an important class of anionic, low abundance signaling lipids distributed throughout intracellular membranes. The plasma membrane contains three phosphoinositides: PI(4)P, PI(4,5)P2, and PI(3,4,5)P3. Of these, PI(4)P has remained the most mysterious, despite its characterization in this membrane more than a half-century ago. Fortunately, recent methodological innovations at the chemistry-biology interface have spurred a renaissance of interest in PI(4)P. Here, we describe these new toolsets and how they have revealed novel functions for the plasma membrane PI(4)P pool. We examine high-resolution structural characterization of the plasma membrane PI 4-kinase complex that produces PI(4)P, tools for modulating PI(4)P levels including isoform-selective PI 4-kinase inhibitors, and fluorescent probes for visualizing PI(4)P. Collectively, these chemical and biochemical approaches have revealed insights into how cells regulate synthesis of PI(4)P and its downstream metabolites as well as new roles for plasma membrane PI(4)P in non-vesicular lipid transport, membrane homeostasis and trafficking, and cell signaling pathways.
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Affiliation(s)
- Alex G Batrouni
- Department of Chemistry and Chemical Biology and Weill Institute for Cell and Molecular Biology, Cornell University, Ithaca, NY 14853, USA
| | - Jeremy M Baskin
- Department of Chemistry and Chemical Biology and Weill Institute for Cell and Molecular Biology, Cornell University, Ithaca, NY 14853, USA.
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11
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Wen Y, Vogt VM, Feigenson GW. PI(4,5)P 2 Clustering and Its Impact on Biological Functions. Annu Rev Biochem 2021; 90:681-707. [PMID: 33441034 DOI: 10.1146/annurev-biochem-070920-094827] [Citation(s) in RCA: 26] [Impact Index Per Article: 8.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/09/2022]
Abstract
Located at the inner leaflet of the plasma membrane (PM), phosphatidyl-inositol 4,5-bisphosphate [PI(4,5)P2] composes only 1-2 mol% of total PM lipids. With its synthesis and turnover both spatially and temporally regulated, PI(4,5)P2 recruits and interacts with hundreds of cellular proteins to support a broad spectrum of cellular functions. Several factors contribute to the versatile and dynamic distribution of PI(4,5)P2 in membranes. Physiological multivalent cations such as Ca2+ and Mg2+ can bridge between PI(4,5)P2 headgroups, forming nanoscopic PI(4,5)P2-cation clusters. The distinct lipid environment surrounding PI(4,5)P2 affects the degree of PI(4,5)P2 clustering. In addition, diverse cellular proteins interacting with PI(4,5)P2 can further regulate PI(4,5)P2 lateral distribution and accessibility. This review summarizes the current understanding of PI(4,5)P2 behavior in both cells and model membranes, with emphasis on both multivalent cation- and protein-induced PI(4,5)P2 clustering. Understanding the nature of spatially separated pools of PI(4,5)P2 is fundamental to cell biology.
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Affiliation(s)
- Yi Wen
- Department of Molecular Biology and Genetics, Cornell University, Ithaca, New York 14850, USA; , ,
| | - Volker M Vogt
- Department of Molecular Biology and Genetics, Cornell University, Ithaca, New York 14850, USA; , ,
| | - Gerald W Feigenson
- Department of Molecular Biology and Genetics, Cornell University, Ithaca, New York 14850, USA; , ,
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12
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Peng JM, Lin SH, Yu MC, Hsieh SY. CLIC1 recruits PIP5K1A/C to induce cell-matrix adhesions for tumor metastasis. J Clin Invest 2021; 131:133525. [PMID: 33079727 DOI: 10.1172/jci133525] [Citation(s) in RCA: 37] [Impact Index Per Article: 12.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 10/07/2019] [Accepted: 10/14/2020] [Indexed: 12/27/2022] Open
Abstract
Membrane protrusion and adhesion to the extracellular matrix, which involves the extension of actin filaments and formation of adhesion complexes, are the fundamental processes for cell migration, tumor invasion, and metastasis. How cancer cells efficiently coordinate these processes remains unclear. Here, we showed that membrane-targeted chloride intracellular channel 1 (CLIC1) spatiotemporally regulates the formation of cell-matrix adhesions and membrane protrusions through the recruitment of PIP5Ks to the plasma membrane. Comparative proteomics identified CLIC1 upregulated in human hepatocellular carcinoma (HCC) and associated with tumor invasiveness, metastasis, and poor prognosis. In response to migration-related stimuli, CLIC1 recruited PIP5K1A and PIP5K1C from the cytoplasm to the leading edge of the plasma membrane, where PIP5Ks generate a phosphatidylinositol 4,5-bisphosphate-rich (PIP2-rich) microdomain to induce the formation of integrin-mediated cell-matrix adhesions and the signaling for cytoskeleon extension. CLIC1 silencing inhibited the attachment of tumor cells to culture plates and the adherence and extravasation in the lung alveoli, resulting in suppressed lung metastasis in mice. This study reveals what we believe is an unrecognized mechanism that spatiotemporally coordinates the formation of both lamellipodium/invadopodia and nascent cell-matrix adhesions for directional migration and tumor invasion/metastasis. The unique traits of upregulation and membrane targeting of CLIC1 in cancer cells make it an excellent therapeutic target for tumor metastasis.
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Affiliation(s)
- Jei-Ming Peng
- Department of Gastroenterology and Hepatology, Chang Gung Memorial Hospital, Linkou, Taoyuan, Taiwan.,Institute for Translational Research in Biomedicine, Kaohsiung Chang Gung Memorial Hospital, Kaohsiung, Taiwan
| | - Sheng-Hsuan Lin
- Department of Gastroenterology and Hepatology, Chang Gung Memorial Hospital, Linkou, Taoyuan, Taiwan
| | - Ming-Chin Yu
- Department of General Surgery, Chang Gung Memorial Hospital, Linkou, Taoyuan, Taiwan
| | - Sen-Yung Hsieh
- Department of Gastroenterology and Hepatology, Chang Gung Memorial Hospital, Linkou, Taoyuan, Taiwan.,Chang Gung University College of Medicine, Taoyuan, Taiwan
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13
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Katan M, Cockcroft S. Phosphatidylinositol(4,5)bisphosphate: diverse functions at the plasma membrane. Essays Biochem 2020; 64:513-531. [PMID: 32844214 PMCID: PMC7517351 DOI: 10.1042/ebc20200041] [Citation(s) in RCA: 83] [Impact Index Per Article: 20.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 07/09/2020] [Revised: 07/25/2020] [Accepted: 07/29/2020] [Indexed: 12/20/2022]
Abstract
Phosphatidylinositol(4,5) bisphosphate (PI(4,5)P2) has become a major focus in biochemistry, cell biology and physiology owing to its diverse functions at the plasma membrane. As a result, the functions of PI(4,5)P2 can be explored in two separate and distinct roles - as a substrate for phospholipase C (PLC) and phosphoinositide 3-kinase (PI3K) and as a primary messenger, each having unique properties. Thus PI(4,5)P2 makes contributions in both signal transduction and cellular processes including actin cytoskeleton dynamics, membrane dynamics and ion channel regulation. Signalling through plasma membrane G-protein coupled receptors (GPCRs), receptor tyrosine kinases (RTKs) and immune receptors all use PI(4,5)P2 as a substrate to make second messengers. Activation of PI3K generates PI(3,4,5)P3 (phosphatidylinositol(3,4,5)trisphosphate), a lipid that recruits a plethora of proteins with pleckstrin homology (PH) domains to the plasma membrane to regulate multiple aspects of cellular function. In contrast, PLC activation results in the hydrolysis of PI(4,5)P2 to generate the second messengers, diacylglycerol (DAG), an activator of protein kinase C and inositol(1,4,5)trisphosphate (IP3/I(1,4,5)P3) which facilitates an increase in intracellular Ca2+. Decreases in PI(4,5)P2 by PLC also impact on functions that are dependent on the intact lipid and therefore endocytosis, actin dynamics and ion channel regulation are subject to control. Spatial organisation of PI(4,5)P2 in nanodomains at the membrane allows for these multiple processes to occur concurrently.
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Affiliation(s)
- Matilda Katan
- Institute of Structural and Molecular Biology, Division of Biosciences, University College London, Gower Street, London WC1E 6BT, U.K
| | - Shamshad Cockcroft
- Department of Neuroscience, Physiology and Pharmacology, Division of Biosciences, University College London, 21 University Street, London WC1E 6JJ, U.K
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14
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Is Calcium Fine-Tuning Phosphoinositide-Mediated Signaling Events Through Clustering? Biophys J 2019; 114:2483-2484. [PMID: 29874599 DOI: 10.1016/j.bpj.2018.05.004] [Citation(s) in RCA: 6] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 04/26/2018] [Accepted: 05/02/2018] [Indexed: 01/22/2023] Open
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15
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Curthoys NM, Mlodzianoski MJ, Parent M, Butler MB, Raut P, Wallace J, Lilieholm J, Mehmood K, Maginnis MS, Waters H, Busse B, Zimmerberg J, Hess ST. Influenza Hemagglutinin Modulates Phosphatidylinositol 4,5-Bisphosphate Membrane Clustering. Biophys J 2019; 116:893-909. [PMID: 30773293 DOI: 10.1016/j.bpj.2019.01.017] [Citation(s) in RCA: 24] [Impact Index Per Article: 4.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 08/13/2018] [Revised: 01/07/2019] [Accepted: 01/15/2019] [Indexed: 12/13/2022] Open
Abstract
The lipid phosphatidylinositol 4,5-bisphosphate (PIP2) forms nanoscopic clusters in cell plasma membranes; however, the processes determining PIP2 mobility and thus its spatial patterns are not fully understood. Using super-resolution imaging of living cells, we find that PIP2 is tightly colocalized with and modulated by overexpression of the influenza viral protein hemagglutinin (HA). Within and near clusters, HA and PIP2 follow a similar spatial dependence, which can be described by an HA-dependent potential gradient; PIP2 molecules move as if they are attracted to the center of clusters by a radial force of 0.079 ± 0.002 pN in HAb2 cells. The measured clustering and dynamics of PIP2 are inconsistent with the unmodified forms of the raft, tether, and fence models. Rather, we found that the spatial PIP2 distributions and how they change in time are explained via a novel, to our knowledge, dynamic mechanism: a radial gradient of PIP2 binding sites that are themselves mobile. This model may be useful for understanding other biological membrane domains whose distributions display gradients in density while maintaining their mobility.
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Affiliation(s)
- Nikki M Curthoys
- Department of Physics and Astronomy, University of Maine, Orono, Maine
| | | | - Matthew Parent
- Department of Physics and Astronomy, University of Maine, Orono, Maine
| | - Michael B Butler
- Department of Physics and Astronomy, University of Maine, Orono, Maine
| | - Prakash Raut
- Department of Physics and Astronomy, University of Maine, Orono, Maine
| | - Jaqulin Wallace
- Department of Physics and Astronomy, University of Maine, Orono, Maine
| | | | - Kashif Mehmood
- Department of Physics and Astronomy, University of Maine, Orono, Maine; Department of Molecular and Biomedical Sciences, University of Maine, Orono, Maine
| | - Melissa S Maginnis
- Department of Molecular and Biomedical Sciences, University of Maine, Orono, Maine
| | - Hang Waters
- Section on Integrative Biophysics, Eunice Kennedy Shriver National Institute of Child Health and Human Development, National Institutes of Health, Bethesda, Maryland
| | - Brad Busse
- Section on Integrative Biophysics, Eunice Kennedy Shriver National Institute of Child Health and Human Development, National Institutes of Health, Bethesda, Maryland
| | - Joshua Zimmerberg
- Section on Integrative Biophysics, Eunice Kennedy Shriver National Institute of Child Health and Human Development, National Institutes of Health, Bethesda, Maryland
| | - Samuel T Hess
- Department of Physics and Astronomy, University of Maine, Orono, Maine.
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16
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Rosselli-Murai LK, Yates JA, Yoshida S, Bourg J, Ho KKY, White M, Prisby J, Tan X, Altemus M, Bao L, Wu ZF, Veatch SL, Swanson JA, Merajver SD, Liu AP. Loss of PTEN promotes formation of signaling-capable clathrin-coated pits. J Cell Sci 2018; 131:jcs.208926. [PMID: 29588397 DOI: 10.1242/jcs.208926] [Citation(s) in RCA: 26] [Impact Index Per Article: 4.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 07/28/2017] [Accepted: 03/19/2018] [Indexed: 12/19/2022] Open
Abstract
Defective endocytosis and vesicular trafficking of signaling receptors has recently emerged as a multifaceted hallmark of malignant cells. Clathrin-coated pits (CCPs) display highly heterogeneous dynamics on the plasma membrane where they can take from 20 s to over 1 min to form cytosolic coated vesicles. Despite the large number of cargo molecules that traffic through CCPs, it is not well understood whether signaling receptors activated in cancer, such as epidermal growth factor receptor (EGFR), are regulated through a specific subset of CCPs. The signaling lipid phosphatidylinositol (3,4,5)-trisphosphate [PI(3,4,5)P3], which is dephosphorylated by phosphatase and tensin homolog (PTEN), is a potent tumorigenic signaling lipid. By using total internal reflection fluorescence microscopy and automated tracking and detection of CCPs, we found that EGF-bound EGFR and PTEN are enriched in a distinct subset of short-lived CCPs that correspond with clathrin-dependent EGF-induced signaling. We demonstrated that PTEN plays a role in the regulation of CCP dynamics. Furthermore, increased PI(3,4,5)P3 resulted in higher proportion of short-lived CCPs, an effect that recapitulates PTEN deletion. Altogether, our findings provide evidence for the existence of short-lived 'signaling-capable' CCPs.
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Affiliation(s)
| | - Joel A Yates
- Department of Internal Medicine, Division of Hematology and Oncology, University of Michigan, Ann Arbor, MI 48109-5624, USA
| | - Sei Yoshida
- Department of Microbiology and Immunology of Michigan Medical School, University of Michigan, Ann Arbor, MI 48109-5620, USA
| | - Julia Bourg
- Department of Biophysics, University of Michigan, Ann Arbor, MI 48109-1055, USA
| | - Kenneth K Y Ho
- Department of Mechanical Engineering, University of Michigan, Ann Arbor, MI 48109, USA
| | - Megan White
- Department of Mechanical Engineering, University of Michigan, Ann Arbor, MI 48109, USA
| | - Julia Prisby
- Department of Mechanical Engineering, University of Michigan, Ann Arbor, MI 48109, USA
| | - Xinyu Tan
- Department of Mechanical Engineering, University of Michigan, Ann Arbor, MI 48109, USA
| | - Megan Altemus
- Department of Internal Medicine, Division of Hematology and Oncology, University of Michigan, Ann Arbor, MI 48109-5624, USA.,Cancer Biology Graduate Program, University of Michigan, Ann Arbor, MI 48109, USA
| | - Liwei Bao
- Department of Internal Medicine, Division of Hematology and Oncology, University of Michigan, Ann Arbor, MI 48109-5624, USA
| | - Zhi-Fen Wu
- Department of Internal Medicine, Division of Hematology and Oncology, University of Michigan, Ann Arbor, MI 48109-5624, USA
| | - Sarah L Veatch
- Department of Biophysics, University of Michigan, Ann Arbor, MI 48109-1055, USA
| | - Joel A Swanson
- Department of Microbiology and Immunology of Michigan Medical School, University of Michigan, Ann Arbor, MI 48109-5620, USA
| | - Sofia D Merajver
- Department of Internal Medicine, Division of Hematology and Oncology, University of Michigan, Ann Arbor, MI 48109-5624, USA .,Cell and Molecular Biology Program, University of Michigan, Ann Arbor, MI 48109, USA
| | - Allen P Liu
- Department of Mechanical Engineering, University of Michigan, Ann Arbor, MI 48109, USA .,Department of Biophysics, University of Michigan, Ann Arbor, MI 48109-1055, USA.,Cell and Molecular Biology Program, University of Michigan, Ann Arbor, MI 48109, USA.,Department of Biomedical Engineering, University of Michigan, Ann Arbor, MI 48109, USA
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17
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Hudson BN, Hyun SH, Thompson DH, Lyon AM. Phospholipase Cβ3 Membrane Adsorption and Activation Are Regulated by Its C-Terminal Domains and Phosphatidylinositol 4,5-Bisphosphate. Biochemistry 2017; 56:5604-5614. [PMID: 28945350 DOI: 10.1021/acs.biochem.7b00547] [Citation(s) in RCA: 10] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 01/16/2023]
Abstract
Phospholipase Cβ (PLCβ) enzymes hydrolyze phosphatidylinositol 4,5-bisphosphate to produce second messengers that regulate intracellular Ca2+, cell proliferation, and survival. Their activity is dependent upon interfacial activation that occurs upon localization to cell membranes. However, the molecular basis for how these enzymes productively interact with the membrane is poorly understood. Herein, atomic force microscopy demonstrates that the ∼300-residue C-terminal domain promotes adsorption to monolayers and is required for spatial organization of the protein on the monolayer surface. PLCβ variants lacking this C-terminal domain display differences in their distribution on the surface. In addition, a previously identified autoinhibitory helix that binds to the PLCβ catalytic core negatively impacts membrane binding, providing an additional level of regulation for membrane adsorption. Lastly, defects in phosphatidylinositol 4,5-bisphosphate hydrolysis also alter monolayer adsorption, reflecting a role for the active site in this process. Together, these findings support a model in which multiple elements of PLCβ modulate adsorption, distribution, and catalysis at the cell membrane.
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Affiliation(s)
- Brianna N Hudson
- Department of Chemistry and ‡Department of Biological Sciences, Purdue University , West Lafayette, Indiana 47907, United States
| | - Seok-Hee Hyun
- Department of Chemistry and ‡Department of Biological Sciences, Purdue University , West Lafayette, Indiana 47907, United States
| | - David H Thompson
- Department of Chemistry and ‡Department of Biological Sciences, Purdue University , West Lafayette, Indiana 47907, United States
| | - Angeline M Lyon
- Department of Chemistry and ‡Department of Biological Sciences, Purdue University , West Lafayette, Indiana 47907, United States
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18
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Furse S, Shearman GC. Do lipids shape the eukaryotic cell cycle? Biochim Biophys Acta Mol Cell Biol Lipids 2017; 1863:9-19. [PMID: 28964796 DOI: 10.1016/j.bbalip.2017.09.010] [Citation(s) in RCA: 10] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 04/21/2017] [Revised: 09/07/2017] [Accepted: 09/24/2017] [Indexed: 10/18/2022]
Abstract
Successful passage through the cell cycle presents a number of structural challenges to the cell. Inceptive studies carried out in the last five years have produced clear evidence of modulations in the lipid profile (sometimes referred to as the lipidome) of eukaryotes as a function of the cell cycle. This mounting body of evidence indicates that lipids play key roles in the structural transformations seen across the cycle. The accumulation of this evidence coincides with a revolution in our understanding of how lipid composition regulates a plethora of biological processes ranging from protein activity through to cellular signalling and membrane compartmentalisation. In this review, we discuss evidence from biological, chemical and physical studies of the lipid fraction across the cell cycle that demonstrate that lipids are well-developed cellular components at the heart of the biological machinery responsible for managing progress through the cell cycle. Furthermore, we discuss the mechanisms by which this careful control is exercised.
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Affiliation(s)
- Samuel Furse
- NucReg Research Programme, Molekylærbiologisk institutt, Unversitetet i Bergen, Thormøhlens gate 55, 5008, Bergen, Norway; Core Metabolomics and Lipidomics Laboratory, Department of Biochemistry, University of Cambridge, c/o Level 4, Pathology Building, Addenbrookes Hospital, Cambridge, CB2 0QQ, United Kingdom..
| | - Gemma C Shearman
- Faculty of Science, Engineering and Computing, Penrhyn Road, Kingston upon Thames, Surrey KT1 2EE, United Kingdom
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19
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Kolay S, Basu U, Raghu P. Control of diverse subcellular processes by a single multi-functional lipid phosphatidylinositol 4,5-bisphosphate [PI(4,5)P2]. Biochem J 2016; 473:1681-92. [PMID: 27288030 PMCID: PMC6609453 DOI: 10.1042/bcj20160069] [Citation(s) in RCA: 55] [Impact Index Per Article: 6.9] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 02/04/2016] [Accepted: 03/07/2016] [Indexed: 12/16/2022]
Abstract
Phosphatidylinositol 4,5-bisphosphate [PI(4,5)P2] is a multi-functional lipid that regulates several essential subcellular processes in eukaryotic cells. In addition to its well-established function as a substrate for receptor-activated signalling at the plasma membrane (PM), it is now recognized that distinct PI(4,5)P2 pools are present at other organelle membranes. However, a long-standing question that remains unresolved is the mechanism by which a single lipid species, with an invariant functional head group, delivers numerous functions without loss of fidelity. In the present review, we summarize studies that have examined the molecular processes that shape the repertoire of PI(4,5)P2 pools in diverse eukaryotes. Collectively, these studies indicate a conserved role for lipid kinase isoforms in generating functionally distinct pools of PI(4,5)P2 in diverse metazoan species. The sophistication underlying the regulation of multiple functions by PI(4,5)P2 is also shaped by mechanisms that regulate its availability to enzymes involved in its metabolism as well as molecular processes that control its diffusion at nanoscales in the PM. Collectively, these mechanisms ensure the specificity of PI(4,5)P2 mediated signalling at eukaryotic membranes.
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Affiliation(s)
- Sourav Kolay
- National Centre for Biological Sciences, TIFR-GKVK Campus, Bellary Road, Bangalore 560065, India Manipal University, Madhav Nagar, Manipal 576104, Karnataka, India
| | - Urbashi Basu
- National Centre for Biological Sciences, TIFR-GKVK Campus, Bellary Road, Bangalore 560065, India
| | - Padinjat Raghu
- National Centre for Biological Sciences, TIFR-GKVK Campus, Bellary Road, Bangalore 560065, India
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