Effect of biophysical properties of tumor extracellular matrix on intratumoral fate of nanoparticles: Implications on the design of nanomedicine

Nanomedicine has a profound impact on various research domains including drug delivery, diagnostics, theranostics, and regenerative medicine. Nevertheless, the clinical translation of nanomedicines for solid cancer remains limited due to the abundant physiological and pathological barriers in tumor that hinder the intratumoral penetration and distribution of these nanomedicines. In this article, we review the dynamic remodeling of tumor extracellular matrix during the tumor progression, discuss the impact of biophysical obstacles within tumors on the penetration and distribution of nanomedicines within the solid tumor and collect innovative approaches to surmount these obstacles for improving the penetration and accumulation of nanomedicines in tumor. Furthermore, we dissect the challenges and opportunities of the respective approaches, and propose potential avenues for future investigations. The purpose of this review is to provide a perspective guideline on how to effectively enhance the penetration of nanomedicines within tumors using promising methods.

An overview of extracellular matrix and its remodeling in the development of cancer and metastasis with a glance at therapeutic approaches

The extracellular matrix (ECM) is an inevitable part of tissues able to provide structural support for cells depending on the purpose of tissues and organs. The dynamic characteristics of ECM let this system fluently interact with the extrinsic triggers and get stiffed, remodeled, and/or degraded ending in maintaining tissue homeostasis. ECM could serve as the platform for cancer progression. The dysregulation of biochemical and biomechanical ECM features might take participate in some pathological conditions such as aging, tissue destruction, fibrosis, and particularly cancer. Tumors can reprogram how ECM remodels by producing factors able to induce protein synthesis, matrix proteinase expression, degradation of the basement membrane, growth signals and proliferation, angiogenesis, and metastasis. Therefore, targeting the ECM components, their secretion, and their interactions with other cells or tumors could be a promising strategy in cancer therapies. The present study initially introduces the physiological functions of ECM and then discusses how tumor-dependent dysregulation of ECM could facilitate cancer progression and ends with reviewing the novel therapeutic strategies regarding ECM.

Lysyl Oxidases as Targets for Cancer Therapy and Diagnostic Imaging

The understanding of the contribution of the tumour microenvironment to cancer progression and metastasis, in particular the interplay between tumour cells, fibroblasts and the extracellular matrix has grown tremendously over the last years. Lysyl oxidases are increasingly recognised as key players in this context, in addition to their function as drivers of fibrotic diseases. These insights have considerably stimulated drug discovery efforts towards lysyl oxidases as targets over the last decade. This review article summarises the biochemical and structural properties of theses enzymes. Their involvement in tumour progression and metastasis is highlighted from a biochemical point of view, taking into consideration both the extracellular and intracellular action of lysyl oxidases. More recently reported inhibitor compounds are discussed with an emphasis on their discovery, structure-activity relationships and the results of their biological characterisation. Molecular probes developed for imaging of lysyl oxidase activity are reviewed from the perspective of their detection principles, performance and biomedical applications.

A first-in-class pan-lysyl oxidase inhibitor impairs stromal remodeling and enhances gemcitabine response and survival in pancreatic cancer

The lysyl oxidase family represents a promising target in stromal targeting of solid tumors due to the importance of this family in crosslinking and stabilizing fibrillar collagens and its known role in tumor desmoplasia. Using small-molecule drug-design approaches, we generated and validated PXS-5505, a first-in-class highly selective and potent pan-lysyl oxidase inhibitor. We demonstrate in vitro and in vivo that pan-lysyl oxidase inhibition decreases chemotherapy-induced pancreatic tumor desmoplasia and stiffness, reduces cancer cell invasion and metastasis, improves tumor perfusion and enhances the efficacy of chemotherapy in the autochthonous genetically engineered KPC model, while also demonstrating antifibrotic effects in human patient-derived xenograft models of pancreatic cancer. PXS-5505 is orally bioavailable, safe and effective at inhibiting lysyl oxidase activity in tissues. Our findings present the rationale for progression of a pan-lysyl oxidase inhibitor aimed at eliciting a reduction in stromal matrix to potentiate chemotherapy in pancreatic ductal adenocarcinoma.

Carcinoma-associated fibroblast-derived lysyl oxidase-rich extracellular vesicles mediate collagen crosslinking and promote epithelial-mesenchymal transition via p-FAK/p-paxillin/YAP signaling

Carcinoma-associated fibroblasts (CAFs) are the main cellular components of the tumor microenvironment and promote cancer progression by modifying the extracellular matrix (ECM). The tumor-associated ECM is characterized by collagen crosslinking catalyzed by lysyl oxidase (LOX). Small extracellular vesicles (sEVs) mediate cell-cell communication. However, the interactions between sEVs and the ECM remain unclear. Here, we demonstrated that sEVs released from oral squamous cell carcinoma (OSCC)-derived CAFs induce collagen crosslinking, thereby promoting epithelial-mesenchymal transition (EMT). CAF sEVs preferably bound to the ECM rather than being taken up by fibroblasts and induced collagen crosslinking, and a LOX inhibitor or blocking antibody suppressed this effect. Active LOX (αLOX), but not the LOX precursor, was enriched in CAF sEVs and interacted with periostin, fibronectin, and bone morphogenetic protein-1 on the surface of sEVs. CAF sEV-associated integrin α2β1 mediated the binding of CAF sEVs to collagen I, and blocking integrin α2β1 inhibited collagen crosslinking by interfering with CAF sEV binding to collagen I. CAF sEV-induced collagen crosslinking promoted the EMT of OSCC through FAK/paxillin/YAP pathway. Taken together, these findings reveal a novel role of CAF sEVs in tumor ECM remodeling, suggesting a critical mechanism for CAF-induced EMT of cancer cells.

The Extracellular Matrix: Its Composition, Function, Remodeling, and Role in Tumorigenesis

The extracellular matrix (ECM) is a ubiquitous member of the body and is key to the maintenance of tissue and organ integrity. Initially thought to be a bystander in many cellular processes, the extracellular matrix has been shown to have diverse components that regulate and activate many cellular processes and ultimately influence cell phenotype. Importantly, the ECM's composition, architecture, and stiffness/elasticity influence cellular phenotypes. Under normal conditions and during development, the synthesized ECM constantly undergoes degradation and remodeling processes via the action of matrix proteases that maintain tissue homeostasis. In many pathological conditions including fibrosis and cancer, ECM synthesis, remodeling, and degradation is dysregulated, causing its integrity to be altered. Both physical and chemical cues from the ECM are sensed via receptors including integrins and play key roles in driving cellular proliferation and differentiation and in the progression of various diseases such as cancers. Advances in 'omics' technologies have seen an increase in studies focusing on bidirectional cell-matrix interactions, and here, we highlight the emerging knowledge on the role played by the ECM during normal development and in pathological conditions. This review summarizes current ECM-targeted therapies that can modify ECM tumors to overcome drug resistance and better cancer treatment.

Macrophages direct cancer cells through a LOXL2-mediated metastatic cascade in pancreatic ductal adenocarcinoma

OBJECTIVE

The lysyl oxidase-like protein 2 (LOXL2) contributes to tumour progression and metastasis in different tumour entities, but its role in pancreatic ductal adenocarcinoma (PDAC) has not been evaluated in immunocompetent in vivo PDAC models.

DESIGN

Towards this end, we used PDAC patient data sets, patient-derived xenograft in vivo and in vitro models, and four conditional genetically-engineered mouse models (GEMMS) to dissect the role of LOXL2 in PDAC. For GEMM-based studies, K-Ras +/LSL-G12D;Trp53 LSL-R172H;Pdx1-Cre mice (KPC) and the K-Ras +/LSL-G12D;Pdx1-Cre mice (KC) were crossed with Loxl2 allele floxed mice (Loxl2Exon2 fl/fl) or conditional Loxl2 overexpressing mice (R26Loxl2 KI/KI) to generate KPCL2KO or KCL2KO and KPCL2KI or KCL2KI mice, which were used to study overall survival; tumour incidence, burden and differentiation; metastases; epithelial to mesenchymal transition (EMT); stemness and extracellular collagen matrix (ECM) organisation.

RESULTS

Using these PDAC mouse models, we show that while Loxl2 ablation had little effect on primary tumour development and growth, its loss significantly decreased metastasis and increased overall survival. We attribute this effect to non-cell autonomous factors, primarily ECM remodelling. Loxl2 overexpression, on the other hand, promoted primary and metastatic tumour growth and decreased overall survival, which could be linked to increased EMT and stemness. We also identified tumour-associated macrophage-secreted oncostatin M (OSM) as an inducer of LOXL2 expression, and show that targeting macrophages in vivo affects Osm and Loxl2 expression and collagen fibre alignment.

CONCLUSION

Taken together, our findings establish novel pathophysiological roles and functions for LOXL2 in PDAC, which could be potentially exploited to treat metastatic disease.

Lysyl Oxidase Family Enzymes and Their Role in Tumor Progression

The five genes of the lysyl oxidase family encode enzymes that covalently cross-link components of the extracellular matrix, such as various types of collagen and elastin, and, thus, promote the stabilization of extracellular matrixes. Several of these genes, in particular lysyl oxidase (LOX) and lysyl oxidase like-2 (LOXL2) were identified as genes that are upregulated by hypoxia, and promote tumor cells invasion and metastasis. Here, we focus on the description of the diverse molecular mechanisms by which the various lysyl oxidases affect tumor progression. We also describe attempts that have been made, and are still on-going, that focus on the development of efficient lysyl oxidase inhibitors for the treatment of various forms of cancer, and of diseases associated with abnormal fibrosis.

Extracellular matrix in cancer progression and therapy

The tumor ecosystem with heterogeneous cellular compositions and the tumor microenvironment has increasingly become the focus of cancer research in recent years. The extracellular matrix (ECM), the major component of the tumor microenvironment, and its interactions with the tumor cells and stromal cells have also enjoyed tremendously increased attention. Like the other components of the tumor microenvironment, the ECM in solid tumors differs significantly from that in normal organs and tissues. We review recent studies of the complex roles the tumor ECM plays in cancer progression, from tumor initiation, growth to angiogenesis and invasion. We highlight that the biomolecular, biophysical, and mechanochemical interactions between the ECM and cells not only regulate the steps of cancer progression, but also affect the efficacy of systemic cancer treatment. We further discuss the strategies to target and modify the tumor ECM to improve cancer therapy.

Tumor Infiltration Levels of CD3, Foxp3 (+) Lymphocytes and CD68 Macrophages at Diagnosis Predict 5-Year Disease-Specific Survival in Patients with Oropharynx Squamous Cell Carcinoma

Simple Summary

Head and neck cancer (HNC) is the sixth most common cancer worldwide, with a general prognosis of 50% disease-specific survival (DSS). The subgroup of oropharyngeal (OP) cancers are of interest because HPV infection is one of several causative agents and carries favorable prognosis. Influxes of inflammatory cells into tumors may vary with prognosis. T lymphocytes are important regarding specific immune defense. Within the immune system T regulatory cells (Foxp3 positive) co-governs this process. We have therefore primarily studied levels of Foxp3 (+) cells in malignant tumors from 170 patients related to prognosis of the patients. Higher levels of T lymphocyte Foxp3 (+) cells predicted better 5-year DSS. This case was unique relative to age, gender, TNM stage, and HPV infection; but more so among tumor HPV (+) than HPV (−) patients. The results encourage further study into the use of immune-based therapy in HNC patients.

Abstract

Head and neck cancer (HNC) is the sixth most common cancer worldwide. Oropharyngeal (OP) cancers are of special interest because of possible underlying HPV infection which is tied to prognosis. Influxes of inflammatory cells into tumors may vary with prognoses. We wanted to study whether the number of tumor-infiltrating lymphocytes (TIL) and tumor-associated macrophages (TAM) in tumors correlated to HPV status and predicted 5-year disease-specific survival (DSS). Formalin-fixed paraffin-embedded (FFPE) biopsies cut sections from 170 patients treated for OP cancer were stained by immunohistochemistry and evaluated for the number of CD68 (+) TAMs, CD3 (+), and Foxp3 (+) (T regulatory) TILs. From FFPE slides HPV by PCR and p16 by immunohistochemistry were established. From FFPE Hematoxylin-Eosin slides, levels of tumor nuclear polymorphism, tumor invasion, desmoplasia, and inflammation were determined as previously published. Levels of TIL CD3 (+) and TIL Foxp3 (+) were increased among the HPV (+) compared to the HPV (−) patients. High levels of TIL Foxp3 (+) and CD68 (+) macrophages predicted better 5-year DSS. TIL Foxp3 (+) levels predicted independent of age, gender, TNM stage, and HPV infection as well as level of stromal desmoplasia, tumor invasion, and nuclear polymorphism, but more pronounced among tumor HPV (+) than HPV (−) patients.

Systematic Analysis of Expression and Prognostic Values of Lysyl Oxidase Family in Gastric Cancer

Background: Gastric cancer (GC) remains the fifth most commonly diagnosed malignancy worldwide, with a poor prognosis. The lysyl oxidase (LOX) family, a type of secreted copper-dependent amine oxidases, is comprised of LOX and four LOX-like (LOXL) 1–4 isoforms and has been reported to be dysregulated in a number of different type cancers. However, the diverse expression patterns and prognostic values of LOX family in GC have yet to be systematically analyzed.

Methods: ONCOMINE, GEPIA, UALCAN, Kaplan–Meier Plotter, LOGpc, cBioPortal, GeneMANIA and Metascape databases were utilized in this study to analyze the expression, prognostic values, mutations and functional networks of LOX family in GC.

Results: The mRNA expression levels of LOX, LOXL1 and LOXL2 were significantly higher in GC, the expression level of LOXL3 was contrary in different databases, while the expression level of LOXL4 made no difference; the expression levels of LOX, LOXL1 and LOXL3 were higher in stages 2–4 than that of normal tissues and stage 1, while the mRNA level of LOXL2 in stage 1–4 was higher than normal tissues; patients with high expression of LOX and LOXL 2-4 had poor OS; the genes correlated with LOX and LOXL2 were enriched in extracellular matrix organization, vasculature development and skeletal system development.

Conclusion: Our results indicated that the LOX family, especially LOX and LOXL2, might play an important role in GC oncogenesis, and they may become biomarkers for predicting tumor prognosis and potential targets for tumor therapy.

The Effects on Angiogenesis of Relevant Inorganic Chemotherapeutics

Angiogenesis is a key process allowing the formation of blood vessels. It is crucial for all the tissues and organs, ensuring their function and growth. Angiogenesis is finely controlled by several mechanisms involving complex interactions between pro- or antiangiogenic factors, and an imbalance in this control chain may result in pathological conditions. Metals as copper, zinc and iron cover an essential role in regulating angiogenesis, thus therapies having physiological metals as target have been proposed. In addition, some complexes of heavier metal ions (e.g., Pt, Au, Ru) are currently used as established or experimental anticancer agents targeting genomic or non-genomic targets. These molecules may affect the angiogenic mechanisms determining different effects that have been only poorly and non-systematically investigated so far. Accordingly, in this review article, we aim to recapitulate the impact on the angiogenic process of some reference anticancer drugs, and how it is connected to the overall pharmacological effects. In addition, we highlight how the activity of these drugs can be related to the role of biological essential metal ions. Overall, this may allow a deeper description and understanding of the antineoplastic activity of both approved or experimental metal complexes, providing important insights for the synthesis of new inorganic drugs able to overcome resistance and recurrence phenomena.

The Dynamic Interaction between Extracellular Matrix Remodeling and Breast Tumor Progression

Desmoplastic tumors correspond to a unique tissue structure characterized by the abnormal deposition of extracellular matrix. Breast tumors are a typical example of this type of lesion, a property that allows its palpation and early detection. Fibrillar type I collagen is a major component of tumor desmoplasia and its accumulation is causally linked to tumor cell survival and metastasis. For many years, the desmoplastic phenomenon was considered to be a reaction and response of the host tissue against tumor cells and, accordingly, designated as "desmoplastic reaction". This notion has been challenged in the last decades when desmoplastic tissue was detected in breast tissue in the absence of tumor. This finding suggests that desmoplasia is a preexisting condition that stimulates the development of a malignant phenotype. With this perspective, in the present review, we analyze the role of extracellular matrix remodeling in the development of the desmoplastic response. Importantly, during the discussion, we also analyze the impact of obesity and cell metabolism as critical drivers of tissue remodeling during the development of desmoplasia. New knowledge derived from the dynamic remodeling of the extracellular matrix may lead to novel targets of interest for early diagnosis or therapy in the context of breast tumors.

The matrix in cancer

The extracellular matrix is a fundamental, core component of all tissues and organs, and is essential for the existence of multicellular organisms. From the earliest stages of organism development until death, it regulates and fine-tunes every cellular process in the body. In cancer, the extracellular matrix is altered at the biochemical, biomechanical, architectural and topographical levels, and recent years have seen an exponential increase in the study and recognition of the importance of the matrix in solid tumours. Coupled with the advancement of new technologies to study various elements of the matrix and cell-matrix interactions, we are also beginning to see the deployment of matrix-centric, stromal targeting cancer therapies. This Review touches on many of the facets of matrix biology in solid cancers, including breast, pancreatic and lung cancer, with the aim of highlighting some of the emerging interactions of the matrix and influences that the matrix has on tumour onset, progression and metastatic dissemination, before summarizing the ongoing work in the field aimed at developing therapies to co-target the matrix in cancer and cancer metastasis.

Elastic fibers during aging and disease

Elastic fibers are essential constituents of the extracellular matrix of higher vertebrates and endow several tissues and organs including lungs, skin and blood vessels with elasticity and resilience. During the human lifespan, elastic fibers are exposed to a variety of enzymatic, chemical and biophysical influences, and accumulate damage due to their low turnover. Aging of elastin and elastic fibers involves enzymatic degradation, oxidative damage, glycation, calcification, aspartic acid racemization, binding of lipids and lipid peroxidation products, carbamylation and mechanical fatigue. These processes can trigger an impairment or loss of elastic fiber function and are associated with severe pathologies. There are different inherited or acquired pathological conditions, which influence the structure and function of elastic fibers and microfibrils predominantly in the cardiorespiratory system and skin. Inherited elastic-fiber pathologies have a direct or indirect impact on elastic-fiber formation due to mutations in the fibrillin genes (fibrillinopathies), in the elastin gene (elastinopathies) or in genes encoding proteins that are associated with microfibrils or elastic fibers. Acquired elastic-fiber pathologies appear age-related or as a result of multiple factors impairing tissue homeostasis. This review gives an overview on the fate of elastic fibers over the human lifespan in health and disease.

Targeting Lysyl Oxidase Family Meditated Matrix Cross-Linking as an Anti-Stromal Therapy in Solid Tumours

Simple Summary

To improve efficacy of solid cancer treatment, efforts have shifted towards targeting both the cancer cells and the surrounding tumour tissue they grow in. The lysyl oxidase (LOX) family of enzymes underpin the fibrotic remodeling of the tumour microenvironment to promote both cancer growth, spread throughout the body and modulate response to therapies. This review examines how the lysyl oxidase family is involved in tumour development, how they can be targeted, and their potential as diagnostic and prognostic biomarkers in solid tumours.

Abstract

The lysyl oxidase (LOX) family of enzymes are a major driver in the biogenesis of desmoplastic matrix at the primary tumour and secondary metastatic sites. With the increasing interest in and development of anti-stromal therapies aimed at improving clinical outcomes of cancer patients, the Lox family has emerged as a potentially powerful clinical target. This review examines how lysyl oxidase family dysregulation in solid cancers contributes to disease progression and poor patient outcomes, as well as an evaluation of the preclinical landscape of LOX family targeting therapeutics. We also discuss the suitability of the LOX family as a diagnostic and/or prognostic marker in solid tumours.

The cancer cell secretome drives cooperative manipulation of the tumour microenvironment to accelerate tumourigenesis

Cellular secretions are a fundamental aspect of cell-cell and cell-matrix interactions in vivo. In malignancy, cancer cells have an aberrant secretome compared to their non-malignant counterparts, termed the "cancer cell secretome". The cancer cell secretome can influence every stage of the tumourigenic cascade. At the primary site, cancer cells can secrete a multitude of factors that facilitate invasion into surrounding tissue, allowing interaction with the local tumour microenvironment (TME), driving tumour development and progression. In more advanced disease, the cancer cell secretome can be involved in extravasation and metastasis, including metastatic organotropism, pre-metastatic niche (PMN) preparation, and metastatic outgrowth. In this review, we will explore the latest advances in the field of cancer cell secretions, including its dynamic and complex role in activating the TME and potentiating invasion and metastasis, with comments on how these secretions may also promote therapy resistance.

The Interactome of Cancer-Related Lysyl Oxidase and Lysyl Oxidase-Like Proteins

The members of the lysyl oxidase (LOX) family are amine oxidases, which initiate the covalent cross-linking of the extracellular matrix (ECM), regulate ECM stiffness, and contribute to cancer progression. The aim of this study was to build the first draft of the interactome of the five members of the LOX family in order to determine its molecular functions, the biological and signaling pathways mediating these functions, the biological processes it is involved in, and if and how it is rewired in cancer. In vitro binding assays, based on surface plasmon resonance and bio-layer interferometry, combined with queries of interaction databases and interaction datasets, were used to retrieve interaction data. The interactome was then analyzed using computational tools. We identified 31 new interactions and 14 new partners of LOXL2, including the α5β1 integrin, and built an interactome comprising 320 proteins, 5 glycosaminoglycans, and 399 interactions. This network participates in ECM organization, degradation and cross-linking, cell-ECM interactions mediated by non-integrin and integrin receptors, protein folding and chaperone activity, organ and blood vessel development, cellular response to stress, and signal transduction. We showed that this network is rewired in colorectal carcinoma, leading to a switch from ECM organization to protein folding and chaperone activity.

Hold on or Cut? Integrin- and MMP-Mediated Cell-Matrix Interactions in the Tumor Microenvironment

The tumor microenvironment (TME) has become the focus of interest in cancer research and treatment. It includes the extracellular matrix (ECM) and ECM-modifying enzymes that are secreted by cancer and neighboring cells. The ECM serves both to anchor the tumor cells embedded in it and as a means of communication between the various cellular and non-cellular components of the TME. The cells of the TME modify their surrounding cancer-characteristic ECM. This in turn provides feedback to them via cellular receptors, thereby regulating, together with cytokines and exosomes, differentiation processes as well as tumor progression and spread. Matrix remodeling is accomplished by altering the repertoire of ECM components and by biophysical changes in stiffness and tension caused by ECM-crosslinking and ECM-degrading enzymes, in particular matrix metalloproteinases (MMPs). These can degrade ECM barriers or, by partial proteolysis, release soluble ECM fragments called matrikines, which influence cells inside and outside the TME. This review examines the changes in the ECM of the TME and the interaction between cells and the ECM, with a particular focus on MMPs.

Genetic Susceptibility and Protein Expression of Extracellular Matrix Turnover-Related Genes in Oral Submucous Fibrosis

Betel quid (BQ) chewing increased the risk of oral cancer and oral submucous fibrosis (OSMF), an oral premalignant disorder (OPMD) with malignant transformation potential. BQ components such as areca nut (AN), trauma by coarse AN fiber, catechin, copper, alkaloids, stimulated reactive oxygen species (ROS), inflammation and cytotoxicity are suggested to be the contributing factors. They may induce tissue inflammation, proliferation of fibroblasts and collagen deposition, myofibroblast differentiation and contraction, collagen cross-links and inhibit collagen phagocytosis, finally leading to the development of OSMF and oral cancer. These events are mediated by BQ components-induced changes of extracellular matrix (ECM) turnover via regulation of TGF-β1, plasminogen activator inhibitor-1 (PAI-1), cystatin, lysyl oxidase (LOX) and tissue inhibitors of metalloproteinases (TIMPs) and metalloproteinases (MMPs). Genetic susceptibility is also involved in these disease processes. Further understanding the molecular mechanisms of BQ-induced OSMF and oral cancer can be helpful for future disease prevention and treatment.

Fibroblast heterogeneity and its impact on extracellular matrix and immune landscape remodeling in cancer

Tumor progression is marked by dense collagenous matrix accumulations that dynamically reorganize to accommodate a growing and invasive tumor mass. Cancer-associated fibroblasts (CAFs) play an essential role in matrix remodeling and influence other processes in the tumor microenvironment, including angiogenesis, immunosuppression, and invasion. These findings have spawned efforts to elucidate CAF functionality at the single-cell level. Here, we will discuss how those efforts have impacted our understanding of the ways in which CAFs govern matrix remodeling and the influence of matrix remodeling on the development of an immunosuppressive tumor microenvironment.

LOXL2 upregulates hypoxia‑inducible factor‑1α signaling through Snail‑FBP1 axis in hepatocellular carcinoma cells

Lysyl oxidase‑like 2 (LOXL2), a member of the lysyl oxidase gene family, is involved in the progression of hepatocellular carcinoma progression and metastasis. Increased expression of LOXL2 has been identified in several types of cancer, including hepatocellular carcinoma. Recently, LOXL2 has been reported to promote epithelial‑mesenchymal transition by reducing E‑cadherin expression via the upregulation of Snail expression. The present study provided evidence demonstrating that LOXL2 inhibited the expression of fructose‑1, 6‑biphosphatase (FBP1) and enhanced the glycolysis of Huh7 and Hep3B hepatocellular carcinoma cell lines in a Snail‑dependent manner. Overexpression of the point‑mutated form of LOXL2 [LOXL2(Y689F)], which lacks enzymatic activity, does not affect the expression of Snail1 or FBP1. Notably, targeting extracellular LOXL2 of Huh7 cells with a therapeutic antibody was unable to abolish its regulation on the expression of Snail and FBP1. Knockdown of LOXL2 also interrupted the angiogenesis of Huh7 and Hep3B cells, and this effect could be rescued by the overexpression of Snail. Furthermore, upregulation of hypoxia‑inducible factor 1α (HIF‑1α) and vascular endothelial growth factor (VEGF) expression was observed in Huh7 and Hep3B cells expressing wild‑type LOXL2. Notably, the selective LOXL2 inhibitor LOXL2‑IN‑1 could upregulate the expression of FBP1 and inhibit the expression of Snail, HIF‑1α and VEGF in HCC cells, but not in FBP1‑knockdown cells. The results of the present study indicated that the intracellular activity of LOXL2 upregulated HIF‑1α/VEGF signaling pathways via the Snail‑FBP1 axis, and this phenomenon could be inhibited by LOXL2 inhibition. Collectively, these findings further support that LOXL2 exhibits an important role in the progression of hepatocellular carcinoma and implicates LOXL2 as a potential therapeutic agent for the treatment of this disease.