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Affas S, Ayas MF, Kassab IA. Use of N-Acetylcysteine in Amphetamine-Induced Acute Liver Failure. J Med Cases 2021; 12:54-56. [PMID: 34434429 PMCID: PMC8383615 DOI: 10.14740/jmc3611] [Citation(s) in RCA: 1] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 10/23/2020] [Accepted: 11/14/2020] [Indexed: 01/22/2023] Open
Abstract
Acute liver failure (ALF) is a serious complication of many drugs. Amongst recreational drugs, cocaine, amphetamines and ecstasy (methylenedioxymethamphetamine) have been known to cause ALF as a complication. However, the true effects and management on the liver of such cases have not been well reported and treatment of such conditions needs prompt action. N-acetylcysteine (NAC) is a known hepatoprotective agent but remains controversial in the use of recreational drug-induced acute liver injury. We present a case of ALF secondary to amphetamine ingestion, with a rapid recovery after administration of intravenous NAC.
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Affiliation(s)
- Saif Affas
- Department of Internal Medicine, Ascension St. John Hospital, Detroit, MI, USA.,These authors contributed equally to this work
| | - Mohamad Fekredeen Ayas
- Department of Internal Medicine, Ascension St. John Hospital, Detroit, MI, USA.,These authors contributed equally to this work
| | - Ihab A Kassab
- Division of Hospital Medicine, Department of Internal Medicine, University of Michigan, Ann Arbor, MI, USA
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2
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Latimer D, Stocker MD, Sayers K, Green J, Kaye AM, Abd-Elsayed A, Cornett EM, Kaye AD, Varrassi G, Viswanath O, Urits I. MDMA to Treat PTSD in Adults. PSYCHOPHARMACOLOGY BULLETIN 2021; 51:125-149. [PMID: 34421149 PMCID: PMC8374929] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 06/13/2023]
Abstract
Post-traumatic stress disorder (PTSD) has become one of the most common psychiatric diagnosis in the United States specifically within the veteran population. The current treatment options for this debilitating diagnosis include trauma-focused psychotherapies along with selective serotonin reuptake inhibitors (SSRI) and serotonin-norepinephrine reuptake inhibitors (SNRI).1 MDMA has recently been shown as a novel therapeutic agent with promisingly results in the treatment of PTSD. MDMA is a psychoactive compound traditionally categorized as a psychedelic amphetamine that deemed a Schedule I controlled substance in the 1980s. Prior to its status as a controlled substance, it was used by psychotherapists for an array of psychiatric issues. In more recent times, MDMA has resurfaced as a potential therapy for PTSD and the data produced from randomized, controlled trials back the desire for MDMA to be utilized as an effective pharmacologic therapy in conjunction with psychotherapy.2.
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Affiliation(s)
- Dustin Latimer
- Latimer, Louisiana State University Health Science Center, Department of Psychiatry and Behavioral Medicine in Baton Rouge. Michael D. Stocker, Kia Sayers, Louisiana State University New Orleans School of Medicine. Green, Visions Adolescent Treatment Center, Department of Mental Health, Los Angeles, CA. Adam M. Kaye, Thomas J. Long School of Pharmacy and Health Sciences, University of the Pacific, Department of Pharmacy Practice, Stockton, CA. Alaa Abd-Elsayed, University of Wisconsin School of Medicine and Public Health, Department of Anesthesiology, Madison, WI. Elyse M. Cornett, Alan D. Kaye, Louisiana State University Shreveport, Department of Anesthesiology, Shreveport, LA. Varrassi, Paolo Procacci Foundation, Via Tacito 7, Roma, Italy. Viswanath, Louisiana State University Shreveport, Department of Anesthesiology, Shreveport, LA; University of Arizona College of Medicine-Phoenix, Phoenix, AZ; Creighton University School of Medicine, Department of Anesthesiology, Omaha, NE; Valley Anesthesiology and Pain Consultants-Envision Physician Services, Phoenix, AZ. Ivan Urits, Louisiana State University Shreveport, Department of Anesthesiology, Shreveport, LA; Southcoast Health, Southcoast Health Physicians Group Pain Medicine, Wareham, MA
| | - Michael D Stocker
- Latimer, Louisiana State University Health Science Center, Department of Psychiatry and Behavioral Medicine in Baton Rouge. Michael D. Stocker, Kia Sayers, Louisiana State University New Orleans School of Medicine. Green, Visions Adolescent Treatment Center, Department of Mental Health, Los Angeles, CA. Adam M. Kaye, Thomas J. Long School of Pharmacy and Health Sciences, University of the Pacific, Department of Pharmacy Practice, Stockton, CA. Alaa Abd-Elsayed, University of Wisconsin School of Medicine and Public Health, Department of Anesthesiology, Madison, WI. Elyse M. Cornett, Alan D. Kaye, Louisiana State University Shreveport, Department of Anesthesiology, Shreveport, LA. Varrassi, Paolo Procacci Foundation, Via Tacito 7, Roma, Italy. Viswanath, Louisiana State University Shreveport, Department of Anesthesiology, Shreveport, LA; University of Arizona College of Medicine-Phoenix, Phoenix, AZ; Creighton University School of Medicine, Department of Anesthesiology, Omaha, NE; Valley Anesthesiology and Pain Consultants-Envision Physician Services, Phoenix, AZ. Ivan Urits, Louisiana State University Shreveport, Department of Anesthesiology, Shreveport, LA; Southcoast Health, Southcoast Health Physicians Group Pain Medicine, Wareham, MA
| | - Kia Sayers
- Latimer, Louisiana State University Health Science Center, Department of Psychiatry and Behavioral Medicine in Baton Rouge. Michael D. Stocker, Kia Sayers, Louisiana State University New Orleans School of Medicine. Green, Visions Adolescent Treatment Center, Department of Mental Health, Los Angeles, CA. Adam M. Kaye, Thomas J. Long School of Pharmacy and Health Sciences, University of the Pacific, Department of Pharmacy Practice, Stockton, CA. Alaa Abd-Elsayed, University of Wisconsin School of Medicine and Public Health, Department of Anesthesiology, Madison, WI. Elyse M. Cornett, Alan D. Kaye, Louisiana State University Shreveport, Department of Anesthesiology, Shreveport, LA. Varrassi, Paolo Procacci Foundation, Via Tacito 7, Roma, Italy. Viswanath, Louisiana State University Shreveport, Department of Anesthesiology, Shreveport, LA; University of Arizona College of Medicine-Phoenix, Phoenix, AZ; Creighton University School of Medicine, Department of Anesthesiology, Omaha, NE; Valley Anesthesiology and Pain Consultants-Envision Physician Services, Phoenix, AZ. Ivan Urits, Louisiana State University Shreveport, Department of Anesthesiology, Shreveport, LA; Southcoast Health, Southcoast Health Physicians Group Pain Medicine, Wareham, MA
| | - Jackson Green
- Latimer, Louisiana State University Health Science Center, Department of Psychiatry and Behavioral Medicine in Baton Rouge. Michael D. Stocker, Kia Sayers, Louisiana State University New Orleans School of Medicine. Green, Visions Adolescent Treatment Center, Department of Mental Health, Los Angeles, CA. Adam M. Kaye, Thomas J. Long School of Pharmacy and Health Sciences, University of the Pacific, Department of Pharmacy Practice, Stockton, CA. Alaa Abd-Elsayed, University of Wisconsin School of Medicine and Public Health, Department of Anesthesiology, Madison, WI. Elyse M. Cornett, Alan D. Kaye, Louisiana State University Shreveport, Department of Anesthesiology, Shreveport, LA. Varrassi, Paolo Procacci Foundation, Via Tacito 7, Roma, Italy. Viswanath, Louisiana State University Shreveport, Department of Anesthesiology, Shreveport, LA; University of Arizona College of Medicine-Phoenix, Phoenix, AZ; Creighton University School of Medicine, Department of Anesthesiology, Omaha, NE; Valley Anesthesiology and Pain Consultants-Envision Physician Services, Phoenix, AZ. Ivan Urits, Louisiana State University Shreveport, Department of Anesthesiology, Shreveport, LA; Southcoast Health, Southcoast Health Physicians Group Pain Medicine, Wareham, MA
| | - Adam M Kaye
- Latimer, Louisiana State University Health Science Center, Department of Psychiatry and Behavioral Medicine in Baton Rouge. Michael D. Stocker, Kia Sayers, Louisiana State University New Orleans School of Medicine. Green, Visions Adolescent Treatment Center, Department of Mental Health, Los Angeles, CA. Adam M. Kaye, Thomas J. Long School of Pharmacy and Health Sciences, University of the Pacific, Department of Pharmacy Practice, Stockton, CA. Alaa Abd-Elsayed, University of Wisconsin School of Medicine and Public Health, Department of Anesthesiology, Madison, WI. Elyse M. Cornett, Alan D. Kaye, Louisiana State University Shreveport, Department of Anesthesiology, Shreveport, LA. Varrassi, Paolo Procacci Foundation, Via Tacito 7, Roma, Italy. Viswanath, Louisiana State University Shreveport, Department of Anesthesiology, Shreveport, LA; University of Arizona College of Medicine-Phoenix, Phoenix, AZ; Creighton University School of Medicine, Department of Anesthesiology, Omaha, NE; Valley Anesthesiology and Pain Consultants-Envision Physician Services, Phoenix, AZ. Ivan Urits, Louisiana State University Shreveport, Department of Anesthesiology, Shreveport, LA; Southcoast Health, Southcoast Health Physicians Group Pain Medicine, Wareham, MA
| | - Alaa Abd-Elsayed
- Latimer, Louisiana State University Health Science Center, Department of Psychiatry and Behavioral Medicine in Baton Rouge. Michael D. Stocker, Kia Sayers, Louisiana State University New Orleans School of Medicine. Green, Visions Adolescent Treatment Center, Department of Mental Health, Los Angeles, CA. Adam M. Kaye, Thomas J. Long School of Pharmacy and Health Sciences, University of the Pacific, Department of Pharmacy Practice, Stockton, CA. Alaa Abd-Elsayed, University of Wisconsin School of Medicine and Public Health, Department of Anesthesiology, Madison, WI. Elyse M. Cornett, Alan D. Kaye, Louisiana State University Shreveport, Department of Anesthesiology, Shreveport, LA. Varrassi, Paolo Procacci Foundation, Via Tacito 7, Roma, Italy. Viswanath, Louisiana State University Shreveport, Department of Anesthesiology, Shreveport, LA; University of Arizona College of Medicine-Phoenix, Phoenix, AZ; Creighton University School of Medicine, Department of Anesthesiology, Omaha, NE; Valley Anesthesiology and Pain Consultants-Envision Physician Services, Phoenix, AZ. Ivan Urits, Louisiana State University Shreveport, Department of Anesthesiology, Shreveport, LA; Southcoast Health, Southcoast Health Physicians Group Pain Medicine, Wareham, MA
| | - Elyse M Cornett
- Latimer, Louisiana State University Health Science Center, Department of Psychiatry and Behavioral Medicine in Baton Rouge. Michael D. Stocker, Kia Sayers, Louisiana State University New Orleans School of Medicine. Green, Visions Adolescent Treatment Center, Department of Mental Health, Los Angeles, CA. Adam M. Kaye, Thomas J. Long School of Pharmacy and Health Sciences, University of the Pacific, Department of Pharmacy Practice, Stockton, CA. Alaa Abd-Elsayed, University of Wisconsin School of Medicine and Public Health, Department of Anesthesiology, Madison, WI. Elyse M. Cornett, Alan D. Kaye, Louisiana State University Shreveport, Department of Anesthesiology, Shreveport, LA. Varrassi, Paolo Procacci Foundation, Via Tacito 7, Roma, Italy. Viswanath, Louisiana State University Shreveport, Department of Anesthesiology, Shreveport, LA; University of Arizona College of Medicine-Phoenix, Phoenix, AZ; Creighton University School of Medicine, Department of Anesthesiology, Omaha, NE; Valley Anesthesiology and Pain Consultants-Envision Physician Services, Phoenix, AZ. Ivan Urits, Louisiana State University Shreveport, Department of Anesthesiology, Shreveport, LA; Southcoast Health, Southcoast Health Physicians Group Pain Medicine, Wareham, MA
| | - Alan D Kaye
- Latimer, Louisiana State University Health Science Center, Department of Psychiatry and Behavioral Medicine in Baton Rouge. Michael D. Stocker, Kia Sayers, Louisiana State University New Orleans School of Medicine. Green, Visions Adolescent Treatment Center, Department of Mental Health, Los Angeles, CA. Adam M. Kaye, Thomas J. Long School of Pharmacy and Health Sciences, University of the Pacific, Department of Pharmacy Practice, Stockton, CA. Alaa Abd-Elsayed, University of Wisconsin School of Medicine and Public Health, Department of Anesthesiology, Madison, WI. Elyse M. Cornett, Alan D. Kaye, Louisiana State University Shreveport, Department of Anesthesiology, Shreveport, LA. Varrassi, Paolo Procacci Foundation, Via Tacito 7, Roma, Italy. Viswanath, Louisiana State University Shreveport, Department of Anesthesiology, Shreveport, LA; University of Arizona College of Medicine-Phoenix, Phoenix, AZ; Creighton University School of Medicine, Department of Anesthesiology, Omaha, NE; Valley Anesthesiology and Pain Consultants-Envision Physician Services, Phoenix, AZ. Ivan Urits, Louisiana State University Shreveport, Department of Anesthesiology, Shreveport, LA; Southcoast Health, Southcoast Health Physicians Group Pain Medicine, Wareham, MA
| | - Giustino Varrassi
- Latimer, Louisiana State University Health Science Center, Department of Psychiatry and Behavioral Medicine in Baton Rouge. Michael D. Stocker, Kia Sayers, Louisiana State University New Orleans School of Medicine. Green, Visions Adolescent Treatment Center, Department of Mental Health, Los Angeles, CA. Adam M. Kaye, Thomas J. Long School of Pharmacy and Health Sciences, University of the Pacific, Department of Pharmacy Practice, Stockton, CA. Alaa Abd-Elsayed, University of Wisconsin School of Medicine and Public Health, Department of Anesthesiology, Madison, WI. Elyse M. Cornett, Alan D. Kaye, Louisiana State University Shreveport, Department of Anesthesiology, Shreveport, LA. Varrassi, Paolo Procacci Foundation, Via Tacito 7, Roma, Italy. Viswanath, Louisiana State University Shreveport, Department of Anesthesiology, Shreveport, LA; University of Arizona College of Medicine-Phoenix, Phoenix, AZ; Creighton University School of Medicine, Department of Anesthesiology, Omaha, NE; Valley Anesthesiology and Pain Consultants-Envision Physician Services, Phoenix, AZ. Ivan Urits, Louisiana State University Shreveport, Department of Anesthesiology, Shreveport, LA; Southcoast Health, Southcoast Health Physicians Group Pain Medicine, Wareham, MA
| | - Omar Viswanath
- Latimer, Louisiana State University Health Science Center, Department of Psychiatry and Behavioral Medicine in Baton Rouge. Michael D. Stocker, Kia Sayers, Louisiana State University New Orleans School of Medicine. Green, Visions Adolescent Treatment Center, Department of Mental Health, Los Angeles, CA. Adam M. Kaye, Thomas J. Long School of Pharmacy and Health Sciences, University of the Pacific, Department of Pharmacy Practice, Stockton, CA. Alaa Abd-Elsayed, University of Wisconsin School of Medicine and Public Health, Department of Anesthesiology, Madison, WI. Elyse M. Cornett, Alan D. Kaye, Louisiana State University Shreveport, Department of Anesthesiology, Shreveport, LA. Varrassi, Paolo Procacci Foundation, Via Tacito 7, Roma, Italy. Viswanath, Louisiana State University Shreveport, Department of Anesthesiology, Shreveport, LA; University of Arizona College of Medicine-Phoenix, Phoenix, AZ; Creighton University School of Medicine, Department of Anesthesiology, Omaha, NE; Valley Anesthesiology and Pain Consultants-Envision Physician Services, Phoenix, AZ. Ivan Urits, Louisiana State University Shreveport, Department of Anesthesiology, Shreveport, LA; Southcoast Health, Southcoast Health Physicians Group Pain Medicine, Wareham, MA
| | - Ivan Urits
- Latimer, Louisiana State University Health Science Center, Department of Psychiatry and Behavioral Medicine in Baton Rouge. Michael D. Stocker, Kia Sayers, Louisiana State University New Orleans School of Medicine. Green, Visions Adolescent Treatment Center, Department of Mental Health, Los Angeles, CA. Adam M. Kaye, Thomas J. Long School of Pharmacy and Health Sciences, University of the Pacific, Department of Pharmacy Practice, Stockton, CA. Alaa Abd-Elsayed, University of Wisconsin School of Medicine and Public Health, Department of Anesthesiology, Madison, WI. Elyse M. Cornett, Alan D. Kaye, Louisiana State University Shreveport, Department of Anesthesiology, Shreveport, LA. Varrassi, Paolo Procacci Foundation, Via Tacito 7, Roma, Italy. Viswanath, Louisiana State University Shreveport, Department of Anesthesiology, Shreveport, LA; University of Arizona College of Medicine-Phoenix, Phoenix, AZ; Creighton University School of Medicine, Department of Anesthesiology, Omaha, NE; Valley Anesthesiology and Pain Consultants-Envision Physician Services, Phoenix, AZ. Ivan Urits, Louisiana State University Shreveport, Department of Anesthesiology, Shreveport, LA; Southcoast Health, Southcoast Health Physicians Group Pain Medicine, Wareham, MA
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3
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Testino G, Balbinot P, Pellicano R. Substances use disorders and liver injury: a concise review. Minerva Gastroenterol (Torino) 2021; 68:269-276. [PMID: 33971710 DOI: 10.23736/s2724-5985.21.02885-0] [Citation(s) in RCA: 7] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Submit a Manuscript] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/08/2022]
Abstract
Substance use disorders (SUDs) are often associated with alcohol use disorders (AUDs) and psychiatric comorbidities. In addition, they are often subjected to polytherapy. For these reasons SUDs patients are at greater risk of developing liver disease. In this concise review, liver damage from amphetamines, cannabinoids, cocaine and opioids is analyzed and the need to identify a possible associated alcohol use disorder is also suggested. Early identification of liver fibrosis is required in SUDs patients. Fibrosis is the most significant predictor of both prognosis and long-term survival. Its identification helps to promote the abstention from substances and alcohol. Active use of heroin, cocaine and synthetic substances is an absolute controindication for liver transplantation. In cases of remission and adherence to a significant care path, the patient is reevaluated. An addiction specialist should be present within the transplant team. If this is not present, a close collaboration with an addiction unit is mandatory.
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Affiliation(s)
- Gianni Testino
- Unit of Addiction and Hepatology, Alcohological Regional Centre, ASL3 c/o San Martino Hospital, Genoa, Italy -
| | - Patrizia Balbinot
- Unit of Addiction and Hepatology, Alcohological Regional Centre, ASL3 c/o San Martino Hospital, Genoa, Italy
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4
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Wen S, Liao T. Ephedrine causes liver toxicity in SD rats via oxidative stress and inflammatory responses. Hum Exp Toxicol 2020; 40:16-24. [PMID: 32729338 DOI: 10.1177/0960327120943938] [Citation(s) in RCA: 3] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/15/2022]
Abstract
Ephedrine abuse has spread in many parts of the world and severely threatens human health. The mechanism of ephedrine-induced toxicity still remains unclear. This study was performed to investigate the effects of ephedrine treatment on the liver and explore the underlying mechanisms. Sprague Dawley rats were divided into saline and ephedrine groups. Rats were treated with ephedrine at 20 mg/kg or 40 mg/kg ( n = 10) by oral gavage daily for 7 days. Pathological changes were examined by hematoxylin and eosin staining and terminal deoxynucleotidyl transferase deoxyuridine triphosphate nick end labeling assay. Enzyme-linked immunosorbent assays were used to measure the liver functional markers, oxidative stress markers, and inflammatory cytokines. Real-time polymerase chain reaction and Western blot were used to measure gene and protein expression, respectively. Our data showed that ephedrine treatment increased hepatocellular cell apoptosis and impaired liver function. Moreover, ephedrine treatment increased oxidative stress and inflammatory responses, which may be due to the increase of transforming growth factor β (TGF-β)/Smad3 expression. Our study demonstrated that short-term treatment of ephedrine caused liver toxicity in rats through regulating TGF-β/Smad pathway.
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Affiliation(s)
- S Wen
- Department of Emergency Medicine, Shangluo Central Hospital, Shangluo, China
| | - T Liao
- Department of Emergency Medicine, Shangluo Central Hospital, Shangluo, China
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5
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Mead J, Parrott A. Mephedrone and MDMA: A comparative review. Brain Res 2020; 1735:146740. [PMID: 32087112 DOI: 10.1016/j.brainres.2020.146740] [Citation(s) in RCA: 14] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 05/22/2019] [Revised: 02/13/2020] [Accepted: 02/18/2020] [Indexed: 01/10/2023]
Abstract
Mephedrone and MDMA are both constituents of party drugs, with mephedrone being relatively new compared to MDMA. This review compares current knowledge regarding the patterns of usage and neuropsychobiological effects of both mephedrone and MDMA. Both drugs share common psychoactive effects, the duration of which is significantly shorter with mephedrone use, attributing towards a pattern of binge use among users. Both drugs have also been associated with adverse health, psychiatric, and neurocognitive problems. Whilst there is extensive research into the psychobiological problems induced by MDMA, the evidence for mephedrone is comparatively limited. The adverse effect profile of mephedrone appears to be less severe than that of MDMA. Users often believe it to be safer, although both drugs have been associated with overdoses. The neurotoxic potential of mephedrone appears to be low, whereas MDMA can cause long-term damage to the serotonergic system, although this needs further investigation. The abuse liability of mephedrone is significantly greater than that of MDMA, raising concerns regarding the impact of lifetime usage on users. Given that mephedrone is relatively new, the effects of long-term exposure are yet to be documented. Future research focused on lifetime users may highlight more severe neuropsychobiological effects from the drug.
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Affiliation(s)
- Jessica Mead
- Department of Psychology, School of Human and Health Sciences, Swansea University, Swansea, Wales, United Kingdom.
| | - Andrew Parrott
- Department of Psychology, School of Human and Health Sciences, Swansea University, Swansea, Wales, United Kingdom
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Cajanding RJM. MDMA-Associated Liver Toxicity: Pathophysiology, Management, and Current State of Knowledge. AACN Adv Crit Care 2020; 30:232-248. [PMID: 31462520 DOI: 10.4037/aacnacc2019852] [Citation(s) in RCA: 8] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/01/2022]
Abstract
3,4-Methylenedioxymethamphetamine (MDMA, ecstasy) has become a popular recreational drug of abuse among young adults, partly because of the belief that it is relatively safe compared with other drugs with the same stimulant and hallucinogenic effects. However, MDMA use has been associated with a wide spectrum of organ toxicities, with the liver being severely affected by its deleterious effects. This article discusses the essential pharmacology of MDMA and describes the effects MDMA has on various organ systems of the body, with particular focus on the liver. The putative mechanisms by which MDMA can cause liver damage are explored, with emphasis on patient-related factors that explain why some individuals are more susceptible than others to damage from MDMA. The incidence of hepatotoxicity related to MDMA use is presented, and the nursing management of patients who develop acute liver failure due to MDMA overuse is explored in light of current evidence.
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Affiliation(s)
- Ruff Joseph Macale Cajanding
- Ruff Joseph Macale Cajanding is Charge Nurse, Adult Critical Care Unit, 6th Floor, King George V Building, St. Bartholomew's Hospital, Barts Health NHS Trust, 2 King Edward Street, London EC1A 1HQ, United Kingdom
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7
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Abstract
Methamphetamine is a central nervous system stimulant that induces arousal, a positive mood, cardiac stimulation, and an acute improvement in cognitive domains. Its illicit exploitation is rapidly growing in North America. Typically, extended use of the drug induces organ damage via vasoconstriction and subsequent ischemia. This case specifically discusses hepatic and pancreatic pathology resulting from methamphetamine overdose alongside an unusual discovery of globally necrotic von Meyenburg complexes.
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8
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Büttner A. Hepatopathien und Drogenkonsum. Rechtsmedizin (Berl) 2019. [DOI: 10.1007/s00194-019-0310-x] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/24/2022]
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9
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Willson C. Sympathomimetic amine compounds and hepatotoxicity: Not all are alike-Key distinctions noted in a short review. Toxicol Rep 2018; 6:26-33. [PMID: 30581759 PMCID: PMC6288410 DOI: 10.1016/j.toxrep.2018.11.013] [Citation(s) in RCA: 9] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 11/07/2018] [Revised: 11/29/2018] [Accepted: 11/29/2018] [Indexed: 02/08/2023] Open
Abstract
Sympathomimetic amine compounds are often pooled together and incorrectly assumed to be interchangeable with respect to potential adverse effects. A brief and specific review of sympathomimetic compounds and one instance (i.e., hepatotoxicity) where these compounds have been improperly grouped together is covered. A review of the proposed mechanisms through which known hepatotoxic sympathomimetic agents (e.g., 3,4-methylenedioxymethamphetamine or MDMA, methamphetamine and amphetamine) cause liver injury, along with a corresponding review of in vitro data, interventional data, animal model studies and observational data allow for a comparison/contrast of different agents and reveals a lack of potential toxicity for some agents (e.g., pseudoephedrine, phenylephrine, ephedrine, 1,3-dimethylamylamine, phentermine) in this broad category. Data show that compounds within the broad group of sympathomimetics display divergent pharmacological and toxicological profiles and can be clearly distinguished with respect to liver injury. These data serve as a reminder to clinicians and others, that even small structural differences between molecules can lead to drastically different pharmacological/toxicological profiles and that one should not assume that all sympathomimetic agents are hepatotoxic. Such assumptions could lead to diagnostic errors and incorrect or insufficient treatment.
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10
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Orlien SMS, Sandven I, Berhe NB, Ismael NY, Ahmed TA, Stene-Johansen K, Gundersen SG, Morgan MY, Johannessen A. Khat chewing increases the risk for developing chronic liver disease: A hospital-based case-control study. Hepatology 2018; 68:248-257. [PMID: 29369368 DOI: 10.1002/hep.29809] [Citation(s) in RCA: 11] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Submit a Manuscript] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 09/19/2017] [Revised: 12/15/2017] [Accepted: 01/18/2018] [Indexed: 12/20/2022]
Abstract
UNLABELLED The chewing of the leaves of Catha edulis (khat) has been implicated in the development of liver disease, but no controlled observations have been undertaken. The objective of the present study was to determine whether khat chewing is associated with development of chronic liver disease (CLD). A case-control study was conducted at two public hospitals in Harar, Ethiopia, between April 2015 and April 2016. A consecutive sample of 150 adult hospital attendees with CLD were included as cases, and 300 adult hospital attendees without clinical or laboratory evidence of CLD were included as controls. Khat consumption was quantified in "khat years"; 1 khat year was defined as daily use of 200 g of fresh khat for 1 year. A logistic regression model was used to control for confounders. There was a significant association between chewing khat and the risk for developing CLD (crude odds ratio, 2.64; 95% confidence interval [CI], 1.56-4.58). In men, this risk, following adjustment for age, alcohol use, and chronic hepatitis B/C infection, increased with increasing khat exposure; thus, compared to never users the adjusted odds ratios were for low khat exposure 3.58 (95% CI 1.05-12.21), moderate khat exposure 5.90 (95% CI 1.79-19.44), and high khat exposure 13.03 (95% CI 3.61-47.02). The findings were robust in a post hoc sensitivity analysis in which individuals with identifiable risk factors for CLD were excluded. CONCLUSION A significant association was observed between chewing khat and the risk for developing CLD, and in men the association was strong and dose-dependent, suggesting a causal relationship; as the prevalence of khat chewing is increasing worldwide, these findings have major public health implications. (Hepatology 2018;68:248-257).
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Affiliation(s)
| | - Irene Sandven
- Oslo Centre of Biostatistics and Epidemiology, Oslo University Hospital, Oslo, Norway
| | - Nega Belay Berhe
- Regional Centre for Imported and Tropical Diseases, Oslo University Hospital, Oslo, Norway.,Aklilu Lemma Institute of Pathobiology, Addis Ababa University, Addis Ababa, Ethiopia
| | - Nejib Yusuf Ismael
- Department of Internal Medicine, Hiwot Fana Specialized University Hospital, Harar, Ethiopia.,School of Medicine, Haramaya University College of Health and Medical Sciences, Harar, Ethiopia
| | - Tekabe Abdosh Ahmed
- School of Medicine, Haramaya University College of Health and Medical Sciences, Harar, Ethiopia.,Department of Internal Medicine, Jugal Hospital, Harar, Ethiopia
| | | | - Svein Gunnar Gundersen
- Research Unit, Sørlandet Hospital HF, Kristiansand, Norway.,Department of Global Development and Planning, University of Agder, Kristiansand, Norway
| | - Marsha Yvonne Morgan
- UCL Institute for Liver & Digestive Health, University College London, London, UK
| | - Asgeir Johannessen
- Regional Centre for Imported and Tropical Diseases, Oslo University Hospital, Oslo, Norway
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11
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Interactions of Gut Microbiota, Endotoxemia, Immune Function, and Diet in Exertional Heatstroke. JOURNAL OF SPORTS MEDICINE 2018; 2018:5724575. [PMID: 29850597 PMCID: PMC5926483 DOI: 10.1155/2018/5724575] [Citation(s) in RCA: 23] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 08/21/2017] [Accepted: 01/03/2018] [Indexed: 12/14/2022]
Abstract
Exertional heatstroke (EHS) is a medical emergency that cannot be predicted, requires immediate whole-body cooling to reduce elevated internal body temperature, and is influenced by numerous host and environmental factors. Widely accepted predisposing factors (PDF) include prolonged or intense exercise, lack of heat acclimatization, sleep deprivation, dehydration, diet, alcohol abuse, drug use, chronic inflammation, febrile illness, older age, and nonsteroidal anti-inflammatory drug use. The present review links these factors to the human intestinal microbiota (IM) and diet, which previously have not been appreciated as PDF. This review also describes plausible mechanisms by which these PDF lead to EHS: endotoxemia resulting from elevated plasma lipopolysaccharide (i.e., a structural component of the outer membrane of Gram-negative bacteria) and tissue injury from oxygen free radicals. We propose that recognizing the lifestyle and host factors which are influenced by intestine-microbial interactions, and modifying habitual dietary patterns to alter the IM ecosystem, will encourage efficient immune function, optimize the intestinal epithelial barrier, and reduce EHS morbidity and mortality.
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12
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Nakagawa Y, Suzuki T, Inomata A. Preventive effects of fructose and N-acetyl-L-cysteine against cytotoxicity induced by the psychoactive compounds N-methyl-5-(2-aminopropyl)benzofuran and 3,4-methylenedioxy-N-methamphetamine in isolated rat hepatocytes. J Appl Toxicol 2017; 38:284-291. [PMID: 28949027 DOI: 10.1002/jat.3523] [Citation(s) in RCA: 5] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 07/24/2017] [Accepted: 08/15/2017] [Indexed: 11/10/2022]
Abstract
Psychoactive compounds, N-methyl-5-(2-aminopropyl)benzofuran (5-MAPB) and 3,4-methylenedioxy-N-methamphetamine (MDMA), are known to be hepatotoxic in humans and/or experimental animals. As previous studies suggested that these compounds elicited cytotoxicity via mitochondrial dysfunction and/or oxidative stress in rat hepatocytes, the protective effects of fructose and N-acetyl-l-cysteine (NAC) on 5-MAPB- and MDMA-induced toxicity were studied in rat hepatocytes. These drugs caused not only concentration-dependent (0-4 mm) and time-dependent (0-3 hours) cell death accompanied by the depletion of cellular levels of adenosine triphosphate (ATP) and glutathione (reduced form; GSH) but also an increase in the oxidized form of GSH. The toxic effects of 5-MAPB were greater than those of MDMA. Pretreatment of hepatocytes with either fructose at a concentration of 10 mm or NAC at a concentration of 2.5 mm prevented 5-MAPB-/MDMA-induced cytotoxicity. In addition, the exposure of hepatocytes to 5-MAPB/MDMA caused the loss of mitochondrial membrane potential, although the preventive effect of fructose was weaker than that of NAC. These results suggest that: (1) 5-MAPB-/MDMA-induced cytotoxicity is linked to mitochondrial failure and depletion of cellular GSH; (2) insufficient cellular ATP levels derived from mitochondrial dysfunction were ameliorated, at least in part, by the addition of fructose; and (3) GSH loss via oxidative stress was prevented by NAC. Taken collectively, these results indicate that the onset of toxic effects caused by 5-MAPB/MDMA may be partially attributable to cellular energy stress as well as oxidative stress.
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Affiliation(s)
- Yoshio Nakagawa
- Division of Toxicology, Tokyo Metropolitan Institute of Public Health, 3-24-1, Hyakunin-cho, Shinjuku-ku, Tokyo, 169-0073, Japan
| | - Toshinari Suzuki
- Division of Toxicology, Tokyo Metropolitan Institute of Public Health, 3-24-1, Hyakunin-cho, Shinjuku-ku, Tokyo, 169-0073, Japan
| | - Akiko Inomata
- Division of Toxicology, Tokyo Metropolitan Institute of Public Health, 3-24-1, Hyakunin-cho, Shinjuku-ku, Tokyo, 169-0073, Japan
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Philips CA, Chooracken MJ, Mahadevan P, Augustine P. S(n)orting Out the Problem: Fever of Unknown Origin and Unexplained Abnormal Transaminases in a Young Male. Cureus 2017; 9:e1543. [PMID: 32175214 PMCID: PMC7053802 DOI: 10.7759/cureus.1543] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/05/2022] Open
Abstract
Cocaine-induced toxicity is seldom described in humans and interesting interactions with other ‘recreational’ drugs are rarely presented, mostly in animal models. We present an interesting and rare case of a young male with a fever of unknown origin and elevated transaminases in whom the cause was found to be secondary to drug-induced liver injury, confirmed on liver histopathology, related to cocaine abuse.
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Affiliation(s)
| | - Mathews J Chooracken
- Department of Gastroenterology and Hepatology, Chazhikatu Hospital, Thodupuzha, IND
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Nakagawa Y, Suzuki T, Tada Y, Inomata A. Cytotoxic effects of psychotropic benzofuran derivatives, N-methyl-5-(2-aminopropyl)benzofuran and its N-demethylated derivative, on isolated rat hepatocytes. J Appl Toxicol 2016; 37:243-252. [PMID: 27291301 DOI: 10.1002/jat.3351] [Citation(s) in RCA: 10] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 03/23/2016] [Revised: 04/13/2016] [Accepted: 04/24/2016] [Indexed: 12/20/2022]
Abstract
The novel psychoactive compounds derived from amphetamine have been illegally abused as recreational drugs, some of which are known to be hepatotoxic in humans and experimental animals. The cytotoxic effects and mechanisms of 5-(2-aminopropyl)benzofuran (5-APB) and N-methyl-5-(2-aminopropyl)benzofuran (5-MAPB), both of which are benzofuran analogues of amphetamine, and 3,4-methylenedioxy-N-methamphetamine (MDMA) were studied in freshly isolated rat hepatocytes. 5-MAPB caused not only concentration-dependent (0-4.0 mm) and time-dependent (0-3 h) cell death accompanied by the depletion of cellular ATP and reduced glutathione and protein thiol levels, but also accumulation of oxidized glutathione. Of the other analogues examined at a concentration of 4 mm, 5-MAPB/5-APB-induced cytotoxicity with the production of reactive oxygen species and loss of mitochondrial membrane potential was greater than that induced by MDMA. In isolated rat liver mitochondria, the benzofurans resulted in a greater increase in the rate of state 4 oxygen consumption than did MDMA, with a decrease in the rate of state 3 oxygen consumption. Furthermore, the benzofurans caused more of a rapid mitochondrial swelling dependent on the mitochondrial permeability transition than MDMA. 5-MAPB at a weakly toxic level (1 mm) was metabolized slowly: levels of 5-MAPB and 5-APB were approximately 0.9 mm and 50 μm, respectively, after 3 h incubation. Taken collectively, these results indicate that mitochondria are target organelles for the benzofuran analogues and MDMA, which elicit cytotoxicity through mitochondrial failure, and the onset of cytotoxicity may depend on the initial and/or residual concentrations of 5-MAPB rather than on those of its metabolite 5-APB. Copyright © 2016 John Wiley & Sons, Ltd.
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Affiliation(s)
- Yoshio Nakagawa
- Division of Toxicology, Tokyo Metropolitan Institute of Public Health, 3-24-1, Hyakunin-cho, Shinjuku-ku, Tokyo, 169-0073, Japan
| | - Toshinari Suzuki
- Division of Environmental Health, Tokyo Metropolitan Institute of Public Health, 3-24-1, Hyakunin-cho, Shinjuku-ku, Tokyo, 169-0073, Japan
| | - Yukie Tada
- Division of Toxicology, Tokyo Metropolitan Institute of Public Health, 3-24-1, Hyakunin-cho, Shinjuku-ku, Tokyo, 169-0073, Japan
| | - Akiko Inomata
- Division of Toxicology, Tokyo Metropolitan Institute of Public Health, 3-24-1, Hyakunin-cho, Shinjuku-ku, Tokyo, 169-0073, Japan
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15
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Nugteren-van Lonkhuyzen JJ, van Riel AJHP, Brunt TM, Hondebrink L. Pharmacokinetics, pharmacodynamics and toxicology of new psychoactive substances (NPS): 2C-B, 4-fluoroamphetamine and benzofurans. Drug Alcohol Depend 2015; 157:18-27. [PMID: 26530501 DOI: 10.1016/j.drugalcdep.2015.10.011] [Citation(s) in RCA: 37] [Impact Index Per Article: 4.1] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Submit a Manuscript] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 05/23/2015] [Revised: 09/04/2015] [Accepted: 10/01/2015] [Indexed: 01/15/2023]
Abstract
BACKGROUND Recently, the number of new psychoactive substances (NPS) appearing on the illicit drug market has shown a marked increase. Although many users perceive the risk of using NPS as medium or low, these substances can pose a serious health risk and several NPS have been implicated in drug-related deaths. In Europe, frequently detected NPS are 4-bromo-2,5-dimethoxyphenethylamine (2C-B), 4-fluoroamphetamine (4-FA) and benzofurans (5-(2-aminopropyl)benzofuran (5-APB) or 6-(2-aminopropyl)benzofuran (6-APB)). However, little is known about the health risks of these specific NPS. METHODS In this paper, existing literature on the pharmacokinetics and pharmacodynamics of 2C-B, 4-FA and benzofurans (5-APB/6-APB) was reviewed. RESULTS Our review showed that the clinical effects of 2C-B, 4-FA and benzofurans (5-APB/6-APB) are comparable with common illicit drugs like amphetamine and 3,4-methylenedioxymethamphetamine (MDMA). Therefore, NPS toxicity can be handled by existing treatment guidelines that are based on clinical effects instead of the specific drug involved. Even so, information on the health risks of these substances is limited to a number of case reports that are complicated by confounders such as analytical difficulties, mislabelling of drugs, concomitant exposures and interindividual differences. CONCLUSION To aid in early legislation, data on clinical effects from poisons centres and user fora should be combined with (in vitro) screening methods and collaboration on an (inter)national level is essential. As a result, potentially hazardous NPS could be detected more quickly, thereby protecting public health.
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Affiliation(s)
| | - Antoinette J H P van Riel
- National Poisons Information Centre, University Medical Centre Utrecht, Heidelberglaan 100, 3508 GA Utrecht, The Netherlands.
| | - Tibor M Brunt
- Netherlands Institute of Mental Health and Addiction (Trimbos Institute), Department of Drug Monitoring, Da Costakade 45, 3521 VS Utrecht, The Netherlands; Department of Psychiatry, Academic Medical Centre, University of Amsterdam, Meibergdreef 9, 1105 AZ Amsterdam, The Netherlands.
| | - Laura Hondebrink
- National Poisons Information Centre, University Medical Centre Utrecht, Heidelberglaan 100, 3508 GA Utrecht, The Netherlands.
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Chlorogenic and caftaric acids in liver toxicity and oxidative stress induced by methamphetamine. J Toxicol 2014; 2014:583494. [PMID: 25136360 PMCID: PMC4127234 DOI: 10.1155/2014/583494] [Citation(s) in RCA: 49] [Impact Index Per Article: 4.9] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 05/08/2014] [Revised: 07/03/2014] [Accepted: 07/08/2014] [Indexed: 02/07/2023] Open
Abstract
Methamphetamine intoxication can cause acute hepatic failure. Chlorogenic and caftaric acids are the major dietary polyphenols present in various foods. The aim of this study was to evaluate the protective role of chlorogenic and caftaric acids in liver toxicity and oxidative stress induced by methamphetamine in rats. Thirty-two male albino rats were divided into 4 equal groups. Group 1, which was control group, was injected (i.p) with saline (1 mL/kg) twice a day over seven-day period. Groups 2, 3, and 4 were injected (i.p) with methamphetamine (10 mg/kg) twice a day over seven-day period, where groups 3 and 4 were injected (i.p) with 60 mg/kg chlorogenic acid and 40 mg/kg caftaric acid, respectively, one day before methamphetamine injections. Methamphetamine increased serum aspartate aminotransferase, alanine aminotransferase, alkaline phosphatase, bilirubin, cholesterol, low-density lipoprotein, and triglycerides. Also, malondialdehyde in serum, liver, and brain and plasma and liver nitric oxide levels were increased while methamphetamine induced a significant decrease in serum total protein, albumin, globulin, albumin/globulin ratio, brain serotonin, norepinephrine and dopamine, blood and liver superoxide dismutase, and glutathione peroxidase levels. Chlorogenic and caftaric acids prior to methamphetamine injections restored all the above parameters to normal values. In conclusion, chlorogenic and caftaric acids before methamphetamine injections prevented liver toxicity and oxidative stress where chlorogenic acid was more effective.
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Luciano RL, Perazella MA. Nephrotoxic effects of designer drugs: synthetic is not better! Nat Rev Nephrol 2014; 10:314-24. [PMID: 24662435 DOI: 10.1038/nrneph.2014.44] [Citation(s) in RCA: 40] [Impact Index Per Article: 4.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/09/2022]
Abstract
Designer drugs are synthetic, psychoactive substances with similar structures and activity to existing scheduled drugs or controlled chemical compounds. The use of these drugs is not generally considered illegal and they cannot be detected using standard toxicology tests--essentially they are considered to be 'legal highs'. Over the past several years, increasing numbers of designer drugs have become available. These drugs are classified as amphetamine derivatives, phenylpiperazine derivatives, synthetic cathinones, synthetic cannabinoids, phencyclidine derivatives and synthetic opioids. Although euphoria is the desired effect, neuropsychiatric and cardiac manifestations are frequently observed in individuals using these drugs at high doses or using drugs that are contaminated with other substances. Some designer drugs are also associated with adverse renal effects, including acute kidney injury from pigment nephropathy, acute tubular necrosis, obstructive nephropathy and hyponatraemia. The misuse of these drugs should be recognized and clinicians made aware of the potential for acute nephrotoxicity as the health burden of these compounds increases.
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Affiliation(s)
- Randy L Luciano
- Department of Internal Medicine, Section of Nephrology, Yale University School of Medicine, BB 114, 330 Cedar Street, New Haven, CT 06520-8029, USA
| | - Mark A Perazella
- Department of Internal Medicine, Section of Nephrology, Yale University School of Medicine, BB 114, 330 Cedar Street, New Haven, CT 06520-8029, USA
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18
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Downey C, Daly F, O’Boyle K. An in vitro approach to assessing a potential drug interaction between MDMA (ecstasy) and caffeine. Toxicol In Vitro 2014; 28:231-9. [DOI: 10.1016/j.tiv.2013.10.021] [Citation(s) in RCA: 6] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 06/17/2013] [Revised: 10/24/2013] [Accepted: 10/30/2013] [Indexed: 11/27/2022]
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Fielding CM, Angulo P. Right upper-quadrant pain in a patient with drug abuse, secondary syphilis and occult hepatitis B virus. Med Princ Pract 2014; 23:471-4. [PMID: 24662615 PMCID: PMC5586908 DOI: 10.1159/000360401] [Citation(s) in RCA: 6] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Submit a Manuscript] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 10/28/2013] [Accepted: 02/06/2014] [Indexed: 12/27/2022] Open
Abstract
OBJECTIVE To describe the etiology of hepatitis and identify occult hepatitis B virus (HBV) infection. CLINICAL PRESENTATION AND INTERVENTION A 40-year-old man presented with severe abdominal pain and jaundice, a history of acute HBV infection that had cleared as well as the use of acetaminophen, methamphetamine, buprenorphine and marijuana. He admitted to having had unprotected sex with multiple partners of both genders. A thorough skin examination revealed papulosquamous lesions on his penis, scrotum, upper and lower extremities and feet. Transaminases and bilirubin were elevated. His rapid plasma reagin was reactive, and hepatitis serologies showed occult HBV. Liver biopsy showed severe hepatitis, but the stains for hepatitis B surface antigen and hepatitis B core antigen were negative. The pathological findings were highly indicative of drug-induced hepatitis without evidence of chronic hepatitis, reactivation of HBV or syphilitic hepatitis. With supportive management and abstinence from drugs, his condition improved. CONCLUSION This case describes a patient with multiple potential causes for hepatitis and highlights the importance of obtaining a detailed social history. Further, one should consider the presence of occult HBV and recognize the serologic pattern.
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Affiliation(s)
- Cory M. Fielding
- Department of Internal Medicine, University of Kentucky, Lexington, Ky., USA
- *Cory M. Fielding, MD, 304B Charles T. Wethington Bldg., 900 South Limestone, Lexington, KY 40536 (USA), E-Mail
| | - Paul Angulo
- Department of Internal Medicine, University of Kentucky, Lexington, Ky., USA
- Division of Digestive Diseases and Nutrition, University of Kentucky, Lexington, Ky., USA
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20
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Narang RK, Jadun CK, Carr B. A Case of MDMA Toxicity with Unusual Clinical and Neuroradiological Features 2CO1. J Intensive Care Soc 2014. [DOI: 10.1177/175114371401500116] [Citation(s) in RCA: 1] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.1] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 10/24/2022] Open
Abstract
The use of illicit substances is a growing concern in emergency medicine and results in an increasing number of hospital admissions and fatalities. MDMA (3,4-methylenedioxymethamphetamine) and LSD (lysergic acid diethylamide) are two such drugs which have similar physical and psychological effects and are normally detected in blood and urine testing within 24–48 hours of ingestion. We present a case of a 22-year-old man who was found unconscious and unresponsive. History suggested the ingestion of illicit substances within the past 24 hours; however, urine and blood toxicology screening was negative. The patient was initially diagnosed with and treated for meningoencephalitis; however, CSF findings were negative. During the patient's recovery, he developed upper motor neurone neurological signs with pupillary dilatation. An MRI scan of the head was performed which revealed unusual features consistent with toxic leukoencephalopathy, most likely as a result of illicit substance intake. Further history was acquired confirming that the patient had ingested MDMA and LSD. The patient's presentation and course of admission is presented, with the clinical features of MDMA toxicity and the finding of toxic leukoencephalopathy reviewed.
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Affiliation(s)
- Ravi K Narang
- Foundation Doctor Intensive Care Medicine, Department of Anaesthesia and Intensive Care
- University Hospital of North Staffordshire, Stoke-on-Trent
| | - Changez K. Jadun
- Consultant Neuroradiologist, Department of Radiology
- University Hospital of North Staffordshire, Stoke-on-Trent
| | - Bryan Carr
- Consultant in Intensive Care Medicine, Department of Anaesthesia and Intensive Care
- University Hospital of North Staffordshire, Stoke-on-Trent
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21
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Severe chronic hepatitis secondary to prolonged use of ecstasy and cocaine. Clin Res Hepatol Gastroenterol 2013; 37:e109-13. [PMID: 23910059 DOI: 10.1016/j.clinre.2013.06.003] [Citation(s) in RCA: 15] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Submit a Manuscript] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 04/26/2013] [Accepted: 06/18/2013] [Indexed: 02/04/2023]
Abstract
BACKGROUND AND AIMS Severe acute hepatotoxicity is a well known complication following the ingestion of ecstasy (3,4-methylenedioxymethamphetamine [MDMA] ecstasy). Hepatic dysfunction has also been reported after acute cocaine intoxication. However, chronic hepatitis after prolonged use of ecstasy and/or cocaine has rarely been reported. METHODS We report the case of a 27-year-old woman hospitalized with edema, ascites and severe liver failure (prothrombin rate 33%), following the use of ecstasy and cocaine over the previous 9 months. Clinical, biological, radiological and pathology findings were recorded at admission and over 8 years' follow-up. RESULTS Liver biopsy showed architectural distortion caused by bridging fibrosis, proliferation of cholangioles, and lesions of active interface hepatitis. Other causes of acute and chronic liver disease were excluded. Magnetic resonance imaging showed marked liver fibrosis. After withdrawal of both substances clinical examination and liver function tests progressively normalized. Long-term monitoring with magnetic resonance imaging showed progressive regression of fibrosis. CONCLUSION Use of ecstasy and cocaine may cause chronic hepatitis leading to marked liver fibrosis, which may regress after withdrawal of both substances.
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Koriem KMM, Abdelhamid AZ, Younes HF. Caffeic acid protects tissue antioxidants and DNA content in methamphetamine induced tissue toxicity in Sprague Dawley rats. Toxicol Mech Methods 2013; 23:134-43. [PMID: 22992185 DOI: 10.3109/15376516.2012.730561] [Citation(s) in RCA: 27] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/13/2022]
Abstract
Caffeic acid (CA) (3,4-dihydroxycinnamic acid) is among the major hydroxycinnamic acids. Hydroxycinnamic acid is the major subgroup of phenolic compounds. Methamphetamine (METH) is a potent addictive psychostimulant. Chronic use and acute METH intoxication can cause substantial medical consequences, including spleen, kidney, liver and heart. The objective of the present study was to evaluate the antioxidant activity of CA to protect against oxidative stress and DNA damage to various organs in METH toxicity. Thirty-two male Sprague Dawley (SD) rats were divided into four equal groups: group 1 was injected (i.p) with saline (1 mL/kg) while groups 2,3 and 4 were injected (i.p) with METH (10 mg/kg) twice a day over five days period. Where 100 & 200 mg/kg of CA were injected (i.p) into groups 3 and 4, respectively one day before exposure to METH injections. Tissue antioxidants and DNA content were evaluated in different tissues. METH decreased glutathione (GSH) and glutathione peroxidase (GPx) levels while increased malondialdehyde (MDA), catalase (CAT) and protein carbonyl levels in brain (hypothalamus), liver, and kidney tissues of rats. METH increased hyperdiploidy in these tissues and DNA damage results. Prior treatment of CA to animals exposed to METH restores the above parameters to the normal levels and preserves the DNA content of these tissues. These results were supported by histopathological investigations. In conclusion, METH induced oxidative stress and DNA damage and pretreatment of CA before METH injections prevented tissue oxidative stress and DNA damage in METH-treated animals.
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Affiliation(s)
- Khaled M M Koriem
- Integrative Medicine Cluster, Advanced Medical and Dental Institute (AMDI), Universiti Sains Malaysia (USM) , Malaysia.
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Adderall induced acute liver injury: a rare case and review of the literature. Case Rep Gastrointest Med 2013; 2013:902892. [PMID: 23864967 PMCID: PMC3706063 DOI: 10.1155/2013/902892] [Citation(s) in RCA: 3] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Submit a Manuscript] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 05/28/2013] [Accepted: 06/18/2013] [Indexed: 12/13/2022] Open
Abstract
Adderall (dextroamphetamine/amphetamine) is a widely prescribed medicine for the treatment of attention-deficit/hyperactivity disorder (ADHD) and is considered safe with due precautions. Use of prescribed Adderall without intention to overdose as a cause of acute liver injury is extremely rare, and to our knowledge no cases have been reported in the English literature. Amphetamine is an ingredient of recreational drugs such as Ecstacy and is known to cause hepatotoxicity. We describe here the case of a 55-year-old woman who developed acute liver failure during the treatment of ADHD with Adderall. She presented to the emergency room with worsening abdominal pain, malaise, and jaundice requiring hospitalization. She had a past history of partial hepatic resection secondary to metastasis from colon cancer which was under remission at the time of presentation. She recovered after intensive monitoring and conservative management. Adderall should be used carefully in individuals with underlying liver conditions.
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Mixtures of 3,4-methylenedioxymethamphetamine (ecstasy) and its major human metabolites act additively to induce significant toxicity to liver cells when combined at low, non-cytotoxic concentrations. J Appl Toxicol 2013; 34:618-27. [PMID: 23670916 DOI: 10.1002/jat.2885] [Citation(s) in RCA: 14] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 02/19/2013] [Revised: 03/08/2013] [Accepted: 03/18/2013] [Indexed: 11/07/2022]
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25
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Prima V, Cao M, Svetlov SI. ASS and SULT2A1 are Novel and Sensitive Biomarkers of Acute Hepatic Injury-A Comparative Study in Animal Models. ACTA ACUST UNITED AC 2013; 2. [PMID: 23724364 DOI: 10.4172/2167-0889.1000115] [Citation(s) in RCA: 9] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/09/2022]
Abstract
Liver and kidney damage associated with polytrauma, endotoxic shock/sepsis, and organ transplantation, are among the leading causes of the multiple organ failure. Development of novel sensitive biomarkers that detect early stages of liver and kidney injury is vital for the effective diagnostics and treatment of these life-threatening conditions. Previously, we identified several hepatic proteins, including Argininosuccinate Synthase (ASS) and sulfotransferases which were degraded in the liver and rapidly released into circulation during Ischemia/Reperfusion (I/R) injury. Here we compared sensitivity and specificity of the newly developed sandwich ELISA assays for ASS and the sulfotransferase isoform SULT2A1 with the standard clinical liver and kidney tests Alanine Aminotransferase (ALT) and Aspartate Transaminase (AST) in various pre-clinical models of acute injury. Our data suggest that ASS and SULT2A1 have superior characteristics for liver and kidney health assessment in endotoxemia, Ischemia/Reperfusion (I/R), chemical and drug-induced liver injury and may be of high potential value for clinical applications.
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26
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The risky cocktail: what combination effects can we expect between ecstasy and other amphetamines? Arch Toxicol 2012; 87:111-22. [DOI: 10.1007/s00204-012-0929-9] [Citation(s) in RCA: 16] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 06/14/2012] [Accepted: 08/27/2012] [Indexed: 10/27/2022]
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27
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Zhang X, Tobwala S, Ercal N. N-Acetylcysteine amide protects against methamphetamine-induced tissue damage in CD-1 mice. Hum Exp Toxicol 2012; 31:931-44. [DOI: 10.1177/0960327112438287] [Citation(s) in RCA: 25] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.1] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/15/2022]
Abstract
Methamphetamine (METH), a highly addictive drug used worldwide, induces oxidative stress in various animal organs, especially the brain. This study evaluated oxidative damage caused by METH to tissues in CD-1 mice and identified a therapeutic drug that could protect against METH-induced toxicity. Male CD-1 mice were pretreated with a novel thiol antioxidant, N-acetylcysteine amide (NACA, 250 mg/kg body weight) or saline. Following this, METH (10 mg/kg body weight) or saline intraperitoneal injections were administered every 2 h over an 8-h period. Animals were killed 24 h after the last exposure. NACA-treated animals exposed to METH experienced significantly lower oxidative stress in their kidneys, livers, and brains than the untreated group, as indicated by their levels of glutathione, malondialdehyde, and protein carbonyl and their catalase and glutathione peroxidase activity. This suggests that METH induces oxidative stress in various organs and that a combination of NACA as a neuro- or tissue-protective agent, in conjunction with current treatment, might effectively treat METH abusers.
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Affiliation(s)
- X Zhang
- Department of Chemistry, Missouri University of Science and Technology, Rolla, MO, USA
| | - S Tobwala
- Department of Chemistry, Missouri University of Science and Technology, Rolla, MO, USA
| | - N Ercal
- Department of Chemistry, Missouri University of Science and Technology, Rolla, MO, USA
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Antolino-Lobo I, Meulenbelt J, van den Berg M, van Duursen MB. A mechanistic insight into 3,4-methylenedioxymethamphetamine (“ecstasy”)-mediated hepatotoxicity. Vet Q 2011; 31:193-205. [DOI: 10.1080/01652176.2011.642534] [Citation(s) in RCA: 17] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/13/2022] Open
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29
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Cerretani D, Bello S, Cantatore S, Fiaschi A, Montefrancesco G, Neri M, Pomara C, Riezzo I, Fiore C, Bonsignore A, Turillazzi E, Fineschi V. Acute administration of 3,4-methylenedioxymethamphetamine (MDMA) induces oxidative stress, lipoperoxidation and TNFα-mediated apoptosis in rat liver. Pharmacol Res 2011; 64:517-27. [DOI: 10.1016/j.phrs.2011.08.002] [Citation(s) in RCA: 23] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Submit a Manuscript] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 05/16/2011] [Revised: 07/18/2011] [Accepted: 08/05/2011] [Indexed: 11/25/2022]
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30
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Sánchez-Montes C, Melero J, Cerrillo E, Castelló B, Latouche MF, Pina R, Berenguer M. [Severe acute liver failure in a user of drugs of abuse]. GASTROENTEROLOGIA Y HEPATOLOGIA 2011; 34:440-442. [PMID: 21652115 DOI: 10.1016/j.gastrohep.2011.03.024] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 12/20/2010] [Revised: 03/14/2011] [Accepted: 03/17/2011] [Indexed: 05/30/2023]
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31
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El-Tawil OS, Abou-Hadeed AH, El-Bab MF, Shalaby AA. d-Amphetamine-induced cytotoxicity and oxidative stress in isolated rat hepatocytes. ACTA ACUST UNITED AC 2011; 18:279-85. [PMID: 21571509 DOI: 10.1016/j.pathophys.2011.04.001] [Citation(s) in RCA: 14] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.1] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 12/26/2010] [Revised: 04/07/2011] [Accepted: 04/11/2011] [Indexed: 10/18/2022]
Abstract
Amphetamines (AMP) are potent psychostimulants and commonly used drugs of abuse. Its chronic administration creates tolerance and addiction and also associated with neurotoxicity and hepatocellular damage through oxidative stress. The present study was designed to evaluate the cytotoxic effects as well as the oxidative stress induced by d-amphetamines in isolated rat hepatocytes. Hepatocytes were isolated by collagenase perfusion technique and were exposed to different concentrations of AMP (0.2, 0.4, 0.8 and 1.6mM) in a time-course experiment for up to 2h. AMP exposure induced a significant decrease in cell viability and a significant increase in the leakage of hepatic enzymes {lactate dehydrogenase (LDH), alanine aminotransferase (ALT) and asparate aminotransferase (AST)} in a concentration and time-related manner. In the same experiment, GSH content and thiobarbituric acid reactive substances (TBARS) generation were determined as indices of oxidative stress and lipid peroxidation respectively. AMP exposure results in a significant decrease in cellular GSH content as well as a significant enhancement of TBARS accumulation in a concentration and time-related manners. The obtained results suggested that 2-h exposure of hepatocytes to AMP (0.8mM) was accompanied by submaximal responses. Therefore, a subsequent dose-response experiment was designed to evaluate the role of GSH modulation and oxidative stress in AMP toxicity in hepatocytes at 2h. LDH release and TBARS generation were used as indicators in this experiment. Pretreatment with the GSH-depleting agents, chlorodinitrobenzene (CDNB), buthionine sulfoximine (BSO), or bis(chloroethyl)-nitrosurea (BCNU) enhanced the cytotoxicity of AMP. Conversely, pretreatment with GSH or sulfhydryl compounds such as methionine (MT), cysteine (CYS) or dithiothreitol (DTT) attenuated AMP toxicity. Similarly, co-incubation with enzymatic antioxidants, superoxide dismutase (SOD) or catalase (CAT) or iron chelator, desferroxiamine (DFO) or the hydroxyl radical scavengers, dimethylsulfoxide (DMSO) exhibited significant protection against AMP cytotoxicity. The present results indicate that AMP has a potential cytotoxic effect in isolated rat hepatocytes. AMP cytotoxicity is concentration-dependent. GSH depletion and oxidative stress play an important role in enhancing hepatotoxic potential of AMP in isolated rat hepatocyte. Thiol group-donors, antioxidants, free radical scavengers and iron chelators can play a critical role against AMP-induced cellular damage.
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Affiliation(s)
- Osama S El-Tawil
- Department of Toxicology and Forensic Medicine, Faculty of Veterinary Medicine, Cairo University, Cairo, Egypt
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Sauer C, Hoffmann K, Schimmel U, Peters FT. Acute poisoning involving the pyrrolidinophenone-type designer drug 4'-methyl-alpha-pyrrolidinohexanophenone (MPHP). Forensic Sci Int 2011; 208:e20-5. [PMID: 21444164 DOI: 10.1016/j.forsciint.2011.02.026] [Citation(s) in RCA: 30] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 10/06/2010] [Revised: 02/21/2011] [Accepted: 02/26/2011] [Indexed: 11/25/2022]
Abstract
INTRODUCTION The pyrrolidinophenone-type designer drug 4'-methyl-alpha-pyrrolidinohexanophenone (MPHP) is presumed to be a potent psychostimulant as the structurally related drug pyrovalerone. This is the first report of an acute poisoning involving MPHP. CASE HISTORY A 27 year old man was admitted to hospital in an agitated state and with fractures of both feet after jumping from a window. He had reportedly snorted a powder supposed to be cocaine on the previous day and taken amyl nitrite several days before. He presented with pronounced rhabdomyolysis and had to be treated by repeated hemodialysis. Elevated liver parameters indicated toxic liver damage. TOXICOLOGICAL ANALYSIS: The presumed cocaine powder was analyzed by gas chromatography-mass spectrometry (GC-MS) and high-performance liquid chromatography with diode array detection. The liquid and the urine samples were analyzed by headspace gas chromatography with flame ionization detection. Urine was submitted to enzymatic conjugate cleavage and further worked up by liquid-liquid extraction and acetylation or by mixed-mode solid-phase extraction (SPE) and trimethylsilylation. Serum was worked up by mixed-mode SPE. All extracts were analyzed by fullscan GC-MS. RESULTS The powder and liquid were identified as MPHP and amyl nitrite, respectively. In the serum sample, MPHP was found in a concentration of approximately 100 ng/ml, while its 4'-carboxy metabolite was detected in urine. Amyl nitrite was not found in urine. CONCLUSION The use of MPHP instead of cocaine is in line with its presumed stimulant properties. The presented data indicate that it can lead to serious poisoning with toxic liver damage and rhabdomyolysis.
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Affiliation(s)
- Christoph Sauer
- Institute of Forensic Medicine, University Hospital Jena, Jena, Germany
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Zhou JY, Mo ZX, Zhou SW. Effect of rhynchophylline on central neurotransmitter levels in amphetamine-induced conditioned place preference rat brain. Fitoterapia 2010; 81:844-8. [DOI: 10.1016/j.fitote.2010.05.007] [Citation(s) in RCA: 26] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.9] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 07/01/2009] [Revised: 05/08/2010] [Accepted: 05/14/2010] [Indexed: 11/26/2022]
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Hood B, Nowicki MJ. Eosinophilic hepatitis in an adolescent during lisdexamfetamine dimesylate treatment for ADHD. Pediatrics 2010; 125:e1510-3. [PMID: 20457690 DOI: 10.1542/peds.2009-1835] [Citation(s) in RCA: 8] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Submit a Manuscript] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/24/2022] Open
Abstract
We describe here the case of an adolescent who developed eosinophilic hepatitis during treatment for attention-deficit/hyperactivity disorder with lisdexamfetamine dimesylate (Vyvanse [Shire US Inc, Wayne, PA]). A 14-year-old boy presented to his primary care provider with abdominal pain and worsening jaundice. A diagnosis of hepatitis was made with biochemical markers, but evaluation failed to provide an etiology. Worsening hepatitis prompted hospitalization and initiation of steroids for presumed autoimmune hepatitis. A subsequent liver biopsy showed evidence of eosinophilic hepatitis. Known causes of eosinophilic hepatitis were ruled out, and a presumptive diagnosis of reaction to lisdexamfetamine dimesylate was made. Discontinuation of the medication led to resolution of the hepatitis and normalization of the liver biopsy. To our knowledge, this is the first report of hepatic injury attributed to lisdexamfetamine dimesylate.
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Affiliation(s)
- Brandy Hood
- Division of Pediatric Gastroenterology, University of Mississippi Medical Center, Jackson, MS 39216, USA
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Chapman MH, Kajihara M, Borges G, O'Beirne J, Patch D, Dhillon AP, Crozier A, Morgan MY. Severe, acute liver injury and khat leaves. N Engl J Med 2010; 362:1642-4. [PMID: 20427816 DOI: 10.1056/nejmc0908038] [Citation(s) in RCA: 59] [Impact Index Per Article: 4.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Submit a Manuscript] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 01/07/2023]
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Zhou JY, Mo ZX, Zhou SW. Rhynchophylline down-regulates NR2B expression in cortex and hippocampal CA1 area of amphetamine-induced conditioned place preference rat. Arch Pharm Res 2010; 33:557-65. [DOI: 10.1007/s12272-010-0410-3] [Citation(s) in RCA: 23] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 09/08/2009] [Revised: 01/11/2010] [Accepted: 01/18/2010] [Indexed: 11/29/2022]
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Hezode C, Mallat A. [Comorbidity and hepatotoxicity of tobacco and recreational substances]. GASTROENTEROLOGIE CLINIQUE ET BIOLOGIQUE 2009; 33:1131-1135. [PMID: 19896786 DOI: 10.1016/j.gcb.2009.10.008] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 05/28/2023]
Affiliation(s)
- C Hezode
- Service d'hépatologie et de gastroentérologie, hôpital Henri-Mondor, 51 avenue du Maréchal-de-Lattre-de-Tassigny, Creteil, France.
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D-Amphetamine Toxicity in Freshly Isolated Rat Hepatocytes: A Possible Role of CYP3A. Arh Hig Rada Toksikol 2009; 60:139-45. [DOI: 10.2478/10004-1254-60-2009-1912] [Citation(s) in RCA: 3] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/21/2022] Open
Abstract
D-Amphetamine Toxicity in Freshly Isolated Rat Hepatocytes: A Possible Role of CYP3AThe aim of this study was to trace D-amphetamine toxicity in isolated rat hepatocytes and to elucidate a possible involvement of CYP3A in the mechanisms of its toxicity. To this end, male Wistar rats were treated with nifedipine (5 mg kg-1i.p., 5 days), a substrate and inducer of CYP3A. Hepatocytes isolated from nifedipine-treated and control rats were incubated with D-amphetamine at a concentration of 100 μmol L-1, which was determined to be an average toxic concentration (TC50) for the compound. To evaluate the possible toxic effects of D-amphetamine on freshly isolated rat hepatocytes, we assessed the following parameters: cell viability, lactate dehydrogenase (LDH) activity, and glutathione (GSH).The results showed that nifedipine potentiated amphetamine cytotoxicity in vitro, as follows: cell viability dropped by 65% (p>0.001), GSH by 80% (p>0.001), and LDH activity increased by 190% (p>0.001). To clarify the role of nifedipine in amphetamine cytotoxicity, we used amiodarone, a substrate and an inhibitor of CYP3A. Pre-incubation of nifedipine-treated hepatocytes with amiodarone (14 μmol L-1) significantly lowered amphetamine cytotoxicity.Our results confirmed the toxicity of D-amphetamine in isolated rat hepatocytes and the involvement of CYP3A in its metabolism and hepatotoxicity.
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Mueller M, Kolbrich-Spargo EA, Peters FT, Huestis MA, Ricaurte GA, Maurer HH. Hydrolysis of 3,4-methylenedioxymethamphetamine (MDMA) metabolite conjugates in human, squirrel monkey, and rat plasma. Anal Bioanal Chem 2009; 393:1607-17. [PMID: 19183967 PMCID: PMC3163102 DOI: 10.1007/s00216-009-2607-1] [Citation(s) in RCA: 13] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.9] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 10/20/2008] [Revised: 12/19/2008] [Accepted: 01/08/2009] [Indexed: 01/16/2023]
Abstract
Characterizing the formation of metabolites of 3,4-methylenedioxymethamphetamine (MDMA, "Ecstasy") in different species (rat, squirrel monkey, and human) may provide insight into mechanisms of MDMA neurotoxicity. Two prominent MDMA metabolites, 3,4-dihydroxymethamphetamine (HHMA) and 4-hydroxy-3-methoxymethamphetamine (HMMA), are conjugated with glucuronic or sulfuric acid, but reference standards are not available; therefore, quantification is only possible after conjugate cleavage. Different concentrations of HHMA and HMMA were obtained in human, squirrel monkey, and rat plasma specimens when acid or enzymatic cleavage was performed. Our data document that these differences are due to species-specific influences on conjugate cleavage. Acidic hydrolysis should be used for analyzing free HHMA and HMMA in human or squirrel monkey plasma, while enzymatic hydrolysis with glucuronidase or sulfatase maximizes recovery of free HHMA and HMMA in rat plasma. Optimization of cleavage conditions showed that sulfate conjugates were more readily cleaved by acid hydrolysis and glucuronides by glucuronidase.
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Affiliation(s)
- Melanie Mueller
- Department of Experimental and Clinical Toxicology, Institute of Experimental and Clinical Pharmacology and Toxicology, Saarland University, 66421 Homburg, (Saar), Germany. Department of Neurology, The Johns Hopkins Bayview Medical Center, Baltimore, MD 21224, USA
| | - Erin A. Kolbrich-Spargo
- Chemistry and Drug Metabolism, Intramural Research Program, National Institute on Drug Abuse, National Institute of Health, Baltimore, MD 21224, USA. Criminal Investigation Laboratory, Southwestern Institute of Forensic Sciences, Dallas, TX 75235, USA
| | - Frank T. Peters
- Department of Experimental and Clinical Toxicology, Institute of Experimental and Clinical Pharmacology and Toxicology, Saarland University, 66421 Homburg, (Saar), Germany
| | - Marilyn A. Huestis
- Chemistry and Drug Metabolism, Intramural Research Program, National Institute on Drug Abuse, National Institute of Health, Baltimore, MD 21224, USA
| | - George A. Ricaurte
- Department of Neurology, The Johns Hopkins Bayview Medical Center, Baltimore, MD 21224, USA
| | - Hans H. Maurer
- Department of Experimental and Clinical Toxicology, Institute of Experimental and Clinical Pharmacology and Toxicology, Saarland University, 66421 Homburg, (Saar), Germany
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Mueller M, Peters FT, Huestis MA, Ricaurte GA, Maurer HH. Simultaneous liquid chromatographic-electrospray ionization mass spectrometric quantification of 3,4-methylenedioxymethamphetamine (MDMA, Ecstasy) and its metabolites 3,4-dihydroxymethamphetamine, 4-hydroxy-3-methoxymethamphetamine and 3,4-methylenedioxyamphetamine in squirrel monkey and human plasma after acidic conjugate cleavage. Forensic Sci Int 2009; 184:64-8. [PMID: 19131196 DOI: 10.1016/j.forsciint.2008.12.002] [Citation(s) in RCA: 13] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.9] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 09/22/2008] [Revised: 11/27/2008] [Accepted: 12/01/2008] [Indexed: 10/21/2022]
Abstract
3,4-Methylenedioxymethamphetamine (MDMA, Ecstasy) is a psychoactive drug with abuse liability and neurotoxic potential. Specimen preparation of a recently presented LC-MS assay with electrospray ionization for quantifying MDMA and its main metabolites in squirrel monkey plasma was modified to include acidic hydrolysis to obtain total 3,4-dihydroxymethamphetamine and 4-hydroxy-3-methoxy-methamphetamine. Method re-validation for squirrel monkey plasma and full validation for human plasma showed selectivity for all analytes. Recoveries were > or = 71.0%. Changed specimen preparation or matrix did not affect accuracy or precision. No instability was observed after repeated freezing or in processed samples. Plasma MDMA and metabolites quantification, derived pharmacokinetic and toxicokinetic data and neurotoxicity research will benefit from this validated method.
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Affiliation(s)
- Melanie Mueller
- Department of Experimental and Clinical Toxicology, Institute of Experimental and Clinical Pharmacology and Toxicology, Saarland University, D-66421 Homburg (Saar), Germany
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Nakagawa Y, Suzuki T, Tayama S, Ishii H, Ogata A. Cytotoxic effects of 3,4-methylenedioxy-N-alkylamphetamines, MDMA and its analogues, on isolated rat hepatocytes. Arch Toxicol 2008; 83:69-80. [PMID: 18553070 DOI: 10.1007/s00204-008-0323-9] [Citation(s) in RCA: 39] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 12/13/2007] [Accepted: 05/21/2008] [Indexed: 01/19/2023]
Abstract
The amphetamine-derived designer drugs have been illegally used worldwide as recreational drugs, some of which are known to be hepatotoxic in humans. To compare their cytotoxic effects, 3,4-methylenedioxy-N-methamphetamine (MDMA) and its related analogues, N-methyl-1-(3,4-methylenedioxyphenyl)-2-butanamine (MBDB), 3,4-(methylenedioxyphenyl)-2-butanamine (BDB) and 2-methylamino-1-(3,4-methylenedioxyphenyl)-propane-1-one (methylone) were studied in freshly isolated rat hepatocytes. MBDB caused not only concentration (0-4.0 mM)- and time (0-2 h)-dependent cell death accompanied by the formation of cell blebs, and the loss of cellular ATP and adenine nucleotide pools, and reduced glutathione levels, but also the accumulation of oxidized glutathione. Of the other analogues examined, the cytotoxicity of MBDB and BDB was greater than that of MDMA and methylone, suggesting that hepatotoxicity is generally induced by these drugs. In addition, DNA damage and the induction of reactive oxygen species were greater after the incubation of hepatocytes with MBDB (2 and 4 mM) than after that with MDMA. In isolated liver mitochondria, MBDB/BDB resulted in a greater increase in the rate of state 4 oxygen consumption than did MDMA/methylone, indicating an uncoupling effect and a decrease in the rate of state 3 oxygen consumption in a concentration dependent manner. Furthermore, MBDB resulted in mitochondrial swelling dependent on the mitochondrial permeability transition (MPT); the effect of MDMA was less than that of MBDB. Taken collectively, these results suggest that (1) the onset of cytotoxicity caused by designer drugs such as MBDB and MDMA is linked to mitochondrial failure dependent upon the induction of the MPT accompanied by mitochondrial depolarization and depletion of ATP through uncoupling of oxidative phosphorylation in rat hepatocytes, and (2) MBDB and MDMA elicit DNA damage, suggesting that nuclei as well as mitochondria are target sites of these compounds.
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Affiliation(s)
- Yoshio Nakagawa
- Division of Pharmacology, Tokyo Metropolitan Institute of Public Health, 3-24-1, Hyakunin-cho, Shinjuku-ku, Tokyo 169-0073, Japan.
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Guneysel O, Onur OE, Akoglu H, Denizbasi A. Ecstasy-induced recurrent toxic hepatitis in a young adult. CURRENT THERAPEUTIC RESEARCH 2008; 69:260-5. [PMID: 24692804 DOI: 10.1016/j.curtheres.2008.06.001] [Citation(s) in RCA: 4] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Accepted: 03/15/2008] [Indexed: 11/16/2022]
Abstract
BACKGROUND The drug 3,4-methylenedioxymethamphetamine (MDMA), otherwise known as "ecstasy," is a synthetic amphetamine that produces euphoria, increases sociability and energy, and is often used as a "weekend" recreational drug by young adults. CASE SUMMARY A 23-year-old male (height, 184 cm; weight, 68 kg) presented to the emergency department of Marmara University Hospital, Istanbul, Turkey, with jaundice and nausea lasting for 6 days. The patient reported that he had been a chronic user of MDMA for 2 years. He also reported that 1 week before presenting, he had ingested twice (2 tablets) the usual amount (1 tablet) of the drug at the same time. Blood tests were performed and hematologic findings were as follows: aspartate aminotransferase (AST), 1423 U/L (reference range, 10-37 U/L); alanine aminotransferase (ALT), 2748 U/L (10-40 U/L); alkaline phosphatase, 271 U/L (0-270 U/L); γ-glutamyl transpeptidase, 124 U/L (7-49 U/L); total bilirubin, 13.23 mg/dL (0.2-1 mg/dL); direct bilirubin, 8.75 mg/dL (0-0.3 mg/dL); amylase, 80 U/L (0-220 U/L); prothrombin time, 21.2 sec; activated partial thromboplastin time, 37.3 sec; and international normalized ratio, 1.66. Liver enzymes and bilirubin levels were found to be extremely high (AST = 40x normal, ALT = 70x normal, and bilirubin = 13x normal). Viral, autoimmune, and metabolic causes were excluded. Serologic tests for hepatitis A, B, and C viruses, mononucleosis, cytomegalovirus, and HIV infection were all negative. A diagnosis of ecstasy-induced toxic hepatitis was made. The patient's medical history further revealed that the current incident was actually his second occurrence of jaundice and acute hepatitis associated with the ingestion of higher amounts (twice the usual amount of MDMA he ingested at the same time). Supportive therapy (IV saline and vital sign monitoring) was initiated and liver enzymes, bilirubin levels, and prothrombin times were monitored daily. All had returned to normal values in 2 weeks. CONCLUSIONS MDMA, or the recreational drug ecstasy, might be responsible for acute hepatitis and/or acute liver failure, particularly in young people. Physicians might need to be alert to the possibility of ecstasy-induced liver damage occurring in younger patients, although the presence of other hepatotoxins and alternative diagnoses requires exclusion. The use of this drug should be investigated in young patients with severe hepatitis of unknown origin.
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Affiliation(s)
- Ozlem Guneysel
- Department of Emergency Medicine, Marmara University School of Medicine, Istanbul, Turkey
| | - Ozge Ecmel Onur
- Department of Emergency Medicine, Marmara University School of Medicine, Istanbul, Turkey
| | - Haldun Akoglu
- Department of Emergency Medicine, Marmara University School of Medicine, Istanbul, Turkey
| | - Arzu Denizbasi
- Department of Emergency Medicine, Marmara University School of Medicine, Istanbul, Turkey
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Chipana C, García-Ratés S, Camarasa J, Pubill D, Escubedo E. Different oxidative profile and nicotinic receptor interaction of amphetamine and 3,4-methylenedioxy-methamphetamine. Neurochem Int 2008; 52:401-10. [PMID: 17716785 DOI: 10.1016/j.neuint.2007.07.016] [Citation(s) in RCA: 31] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.9] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 03/29/2007] [Revised: 07/10/2007] [Accepted: 07/18/2007] [Indexed: 11/20/2022]
Abstract
d-Amphetamine (AMPH) and MDMA increased intracellular production of reactive oxygen species (ROS) in isolated mouse striatal synaptosomes. MDMA showed a maximal oxidative effect at 50-100 microM. However, for AMPH a double maximum was obtained, the first between 0.1 and 1 microM and the second at 1mM. No oxidative effect was present in synaptosomes from reserpinized mice. Cocaine and l-deprenyl inhibited MDMA and AMPH (0.1 microM) ROS production but not that of AMPH at a higher concentration (1mM). When this high concentration was used, its oxidative effect was abolished by a phospholipase A(2) inhibitor. Delta(9)-Tetrahydrocannabinol fully prevented the oxidative effect of AMPH and MDMA, by a CB(1) receptor-independent mechanism, as did it NPC 15437 and genistein. The pro-oxidative effect induced by AMPH and MDMA showed a strong dependence on calcium (extracellular and from internal stores) and also was inhibited by nicotinic receptor (nAChR) antagonists dihydro-beta-erythroidine, methyllycaconitine (MLA) and alpha-bungarotoxin. MDMA displaced [(3)H]epibatidine and [(3)H]MLA binding with higher affinity than AMPH. Both amphetamines competitively displaced [(3)H]epibatidine from heteromeric receptors but results obtained from [(3)H]MLA binding demonstrated a non-competitive profile. Preincubation of PC12 cells with AMPH or MDMA reduced [(3)H]dopamine uptake. For MDMA, this effect was prevented by MLA. To summarize, comparing AMPH and MDMA we have demonstrated that these drugs induce an oxidative effect dependent on drug concentration and also reduce dopamine uptake. Processes that are known to affect dopamine transporter functionality also seem to modulate amphetamine derivatives-induced ROS production. For MDMA, acute effects tested are blocked by nAChR antagonists, which points to the possibility that these antagonists could be used to treat some of the adverse effects described in MDMA abusers. Conversely, no implication of nicotinic receptors has been proved for AMPH-induced effects at concentrations achievable in CNS after its administration.
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Affiliation(s)
- C Chipana
- Unitat de Farmacologia i Farmacognòsia, Facultat de Farmàcia, Nucli Universitari de Pedralbes, Universitat de Barcelona, 08028 Barcelona, Spain
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Severe dilated cardiomyopathy as a consequence of Ecstasy intake. Cardiovasc Pathol 2007; 17:250-3. [PMID: 18402796 DOI: 10.1016/j.carpath.2007.07.006] [Citation(s) in RCA: 21] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Submit a Manuscript] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 04/14/2007] [Revised: 07/14/2007] [Accepted: 07/19/2007] [Indexed: 11/20/2022] Open
Abstract
Dilated cardiomyopathy (DCM) is one of the most common causes of heart failure with a prevalence of 1:2500. There are several primary and secondary etiologic factors, including gene mutations, infection agents, particularly viruses, toxins, autoimmune, and systemic disorders, and pheochromocytoma, neuromuscular, metabolic, mitochondrial, and nutritional disorders. However, a precise diagnosis can be reached only in no more than 50% of all cases. Herein, we report a rare case of hepatic damage and severe DCM as a consequence of relatively popular socially used narcotic-Ecstasy (3,4-methylenedioxy-N-methylamphetamine [MDMA]).
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Mueller M, Peters FT, Ricaurte GA, Maurer HH. Validated liquid chromatographic-electrospray ionization mass spectrometric assay for simultaneous determination of 3,4-methylenedioxymethamphetamine and its metabolites 3,4-methylenedioxyamphetamine, 3,4-dihydroxymethamphetamine, and 4-hydroxy-3-methoxymethamphetamine in squirrel monkey plasma. J Chromatogr B Analyt Technol Biomed Life Sci 2007; 855:262-70. [PMID: 17646137 PMCID: PMC2682589 DOI: 10.1016/j.jchromb.2007.06.034] [Citation(s) in RCA: 18] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.1] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 04/15/2007] [Revised: 06/18/2007] [Accepted: 06/21/2007] [Indexed: 11/16/2022]
Abstract
3,4-Methylenedioxymethamphetamine (MDMA) is a recreational drug with neurotoxic potential. Pharmacokinetic data of MDMA and its metabolites may shed light on the mechanism of MDMA neurotoxicity. An LC-MS assay with electrospray ionization (ESI) is presented for quantifying MDMA and its metabolites 3,4-methylenedioxyamphetamine (MDA), 3,4-dihydroxymethamphetamine (HHMA), and 4-hydroxy-3-methoxymethamphetamine (HMMA) in squirrel monkey plasma. The method involved enzymatic conjugate cleavage and protein precipitation. Separation was achieved within 14min. The method was validated according to international guidelines with respect to selectivity, linearity, accuracy, precision, recovery, and matrix effect. The present method should prove useful for acquiring pharmacokinetic and toxicokinetic data in squirrel monkeys.
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Affiliation(s)
- Melanie Mueller
- Department of Experimental and Clinical Toxicology, Institute of Experimental and Clinical Pharmacology and Toxicology, Saarland University, D-66421 Homburg (Saar), Germany
- Department of Neurology, The Johns Hopkins Bayview Medical Center, Baltimore, MD, USA
| | - Frank T. Peters
- Department of Experimental and Clinical Toxicology, Institute of Experimental and Clinical Pharmacology and Toxicology, Saarland University, D-66421 Homburg (Saar), Germany
| | - George A. Ricaurte
- Department of Neurology, The Johns Hopkins Bayview Medical Center, Baltimore, MD, USA
| | - Hans H. Maurer
- Department of Experimental and Clinical Toxicology, Institute of Experimental and Clinical Pharmacology and Toxicology, Saarland University, D-66421 Homburg (Saar), Germany
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Lewis JJ, Iezzoni JC, Berg CL. Methylphenidate-induced autoimmune hepatitis. Dig Dis Sci 2007; 52:594-7. [PMID: 17219064 DOI: 10.1007/s10620-006-9525-2] [Citation(s) in RCA: 18] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.1] [Reference Citation Analysis] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Submit a Manuscript] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 01/25/2006] [Accepted: 07/17/2006] [Indexed: 12/09/2022]
Affiliation(s)
- Jason J Lewis
- Department of Internal Medicine, University of Virginia Health System, Charlottesville, VA 22908, USA.
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Carmo H, Brulport M, Hermes M, Oesch F, de Boer D, Remião F, Carvalho F, Schön MR, Krebsfaenger N, Doehmer J, Bastos MDL, Hengstler JG. CYP2D6 increases toxicity of the designer drug 4-methylthioamphetamine (4-MTA). Toxicology 2007; 229:236-44. [PMID: 17156908 DOI: 10.1016/j.tox.2006.10.024] [Citation(s) in RCA: 20] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 09/01/2006] [Revised: 10/25/2006] [Accepted: 10/27/2006] [Indexed: 10/23/2022]
Abstract
4-Methylthioamphetamine (4-MTA) belongs to a group of new amphetamine derivatives that is usually sold as "ecstasy" or "flatliners" on the illicit drug market. Large interindividual differences in 4-MTA mediated toxicity have been reported in humans. Therefore, we tested whether CYP2D6 or its variant alleles as well as CYP3A4 influence the susceptibility to 4-MTA. For this purpose, we used the colony formation assay with Chinese hamster lung fibroblast V79 cells expressing human wild-type CYP2D6 (CYP2D6*1), the low activity alleles CYP2D6*2, CYP2D6*9, as well as human CYP3A4. The obtained results showed that the expression of wild type CYP2D6*1 clearly enhanced the susceptibility to the cytotoxic effects of 4-MTA compared with the parental cells devoid of CYP-dependent enzymatic activity. Toxicity in V79 CYP2D6*1 was also higher compared to the V79 cell lines expressing the low activity alleles CYP2D6*2 and CYP2D6*9. In contrast to CYP2D6, the CYP3A4 isoenzyme did not enhance 4-MTA toxicity. In conclusion, our results suggest that CYP2D6 rapid metabolizers may be more susceptible to 4-MTA toxicity than CYP2D6 poor metabolizers.
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Affiliation(s)
- Helena Carmo
- REQUIMTE, Toxicology Department, Faculty of Pharmacy, University of Porto, Rua Aníbal Cunha 164, 4099-030 Porto, Portugal.
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Carvalho F, Soares ME, Fernandes E, Remião F, Carvalho M, Duarte JA, Pires-das-Neves R, Pereira MDL, Bastos MDL. Repeated Administration of d-Amphetamine Results in a Time-dependent and Dose-independent Sustained Increase in Urinary Excretion of p-Hydroxyamphetamine in Mice. ACTA ACUST UNITED AC 2007. [DOI: 10.1248/jhs.53.371] [Citation(s) in RCA: 3] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/22/2022]
Affiliation(s)
- Félix Carvalho
- REQUIMTE, Department of Toxicology, Faculty of Pharmacy, University of Porto
| | - Maria Elisa Soares
- REQUIMTE, Department of Toxicology, Faculty of Pharmacy, University of Porto
| | - Eduarda Fernandes
- REQUIMTE, Department of Toxicology, Faculty of Pharmacy, University of Porto
| | - Fernando Remião
- REQUIMTE, Department of Toxicology, Faculty of Pharmacy, University of Porto
| | - Márcia Carvalho
- REQUIMTE, Department of Toxicology, Faculty of Pharmacy, University of Porto
| | - José Alberto Duarte
- Department of Sports Biology, Faculty of Sport Sciences, University of Porto
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49
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Substance use and its implications for the critical care nurses: a literature review. Intensive Crit Care Nurs 2006; 23:64-70. [PMID: 17157504 DOI: 10.1016/j.iccn.2006.11.001] [Citation(s) in RCA: 9] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 07/12/2006] [Revised: 11/01/2006] [Accepted: 11/01/2006] [Indexed: 10/23/2022]
Abstract
BACKGROUND Illicit drug use in Australia has been increasing and studies indicate that illicit drug users have a higher risk of accidents which may result in the user needing critical care. However, there is a significant gap in the literature specifically pertaining to the implications of drug use in critical care. AIMS The primary objective was to examine the literature for the physiological effects of methylenedioxymethamphetamine (MDMA), cocaine and amphetamines in critically ill patients. METHODS A comprehensive literature review was undertaken and a body systems framework was used to categorise the effects of these illicit drugs. RESULTS The illicit substances addressed have potentially fatal and long-term side effects. For those users involved in accidents or trauma requiring intensive or critical care nursing, the mortality and co-morbidity risks are increased significantly. It is, therefore, important that nurses are able to recognise the specific physiological effects and possible complications that can occur with the use of each illicit drug. CONCLUSION Both nursing and medical staff need to have a thorough understanding of how illicit substances work and how they can affect the critical care patient and the care they are given.
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Carmo H, Brulport M, Hermes M, Oesch F, Silva R, Ferreira LM, Branco PS, Boer DD, Remião F, Carvalho F, Schön MR, Krebsfaenger N, Doehmer J, Bastos MDL, Hengstler JG. Influence of CYP2D6 polymorphism on 3,4-methylenedioxymethamphetamine (‘Ecstasy’) cytotoxicity. Pharmacogenet Genomics 2006; 16:789-99. [PMID: 17047487 DOI: 10.1097/01.fpc.0000230419.05221.fc] [Citation(s) in RCA: 40] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/26/2022]
Abstract
OBJECTIVES Remarkable interindividual differences in 3,4-methylenedioxymethamphetamine ('Ecstasy')-mediated toxicity have been reported in humans. Therefore, we tested whether CYP2D6 or its variant alleles as well as CYP3A4 influence the susceptibility to 3,4-methylenedioxymethamphetamine. METHODS 3,4-Methylenedioxymethamphetamine cytotoxicity was determined in V79 cells expressing human wild-type CYP2D6 (CYP2D6*1), the low-activity alleles CYP2D6*2, *9, *10, and *17, as well as human CYP3A4. Metabolites of 3,4-methylenedioxymethamphetamine formed by the different cell lines were quantified by high-performance liquid chromatography/electrochemical detector. RESULTS Toxicity of 3,4-methylenedioxymethamphetamine was clearly increased in cells expressing CYP2D6*1 compared with the parental cells devoid of CYP-dependent enzymatic activity. Toxicity in V79 CYP2D6*1 cells was also higher than in V79 cell lines expressing the low-activity alleles CYP2D6*2, *9, *10, or *17. In contrast to CYP2D6, the CYP3A4 isoenzyme did not enhance 3,4-methylenedioxymethamphetamine toxicity. Formation of the oxidative 3,4-methylenedioxymethamphetamine metabolite N-methyl-alpha-methyldopamine was greatly enhanced in V79 cell line transfected with CYP2D6*1 compared to all other cell lines. The increase in the cytotoxic effects of 3,4-methylenedioxymethamphetamine observed in this cell line was therefore suspected to be a consequence of the production of this metabolite. This was further investigated by testing the cytotoxicity of N-methyl-alpha-methyldopamine to the control cell line. The results confirmed our hypothesis as the metabolite proved to be more than 100-fold more toxic than the parent compound 3,4-methylenedioxymethamphetamine. CONCLUSIONS CYP2D6*1 mediates 3,4-methylenedioxymethamphetamine toxicity via formation of N-methyl-alpha-methyldopamine. Therefore, it will be important to investigate whether CYP2D6 ultrarapid metabolizers are overrepresented in the cases of 3,4-methylenedioxymethamphetamine intoxications.
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Affiliation(s)
- Helena Carmo
- REQUIMTE, Toxicology Department, Faculty of Pharmacy, University of Porto, Porto, Portugal.
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