Evolution and Biogeography, and the Systems Measurement of Mammalian Biotas

Biological evolution is generally regarded as a stochastic or probabilistic process, per the ideas of Darwin in the nineteenth century. Even if this is true at the meso-scale, it still may, however, be impacted by overarching constraints that we have not yet identified. In this paper, we revisit the subject of mammal faunal regions with a mind to explore a potential kind of macroevolutionary influence. We first identify an optimum seven-region mammal faunal classification system based on spatial and phylogenetic data from a comprehensive 2013 review, and then examine the possibility that this classification provides supporting evidence for a Spinoza-influenced philosophical/theoretical model of the "natural system" concept developed by one of the authors in the 1980s. The hierarchical pattern of regional affinities revealed does do this.

Genetic diversity, viability and conservation value of the global captive population of the Moroccan Royal lions

This study evaluates the diversity of the so-called ‘Moroccan Royal lions’ using genealogical information. Lions are no longer extant in North Africa, but the previous wild population was an important element of the now-recognised northern subspecies (Panthera leo leo) that ranged across West Africa, North Africa and the Middle East into India. The remaining captive population of ‘Moroccan Royal lions’ seems to be significantly endangered by the loss of diversity due to the effective population size decrease. The pedigree file of this captive lion population consisted of 454 individuals, while the reference population included 98 animals (47 males and 51 females). The completeness of the pedigree data significantly decreased with an increasing number of generations. The highest percentage of pedigree completeness (over 70%) was achieved in the first generation of the reference population. Pedigree-based parameters derived from the common ancestor and gene origin were used to estimate the state of diversity. In the reference population, the average inbreeding coefficient was 2.14%, while the individual increase in inbreeding over generations was 2.31%. Overall, the reference population showed lower average inbreeding and average relatedness compared with the pedigree file. The number of founders (47), the effective number of founders (24) and the effective number of ancestors (22) were estimated in the reference population. The effective population size of 14.02 individuals confirms the critically endangered status of the population and rapid loss of diversity in the future. Thus, continuous monitoring of the genetic diversity of the ‘Moroccan Royal lion’ group is required, especially for long-term conservation management purposes, as it would be an important captive group should further DNA studies establish an affinity to P. leo leo.

Large-scale spatial patterns of small-mammal communities in the Mediterranean region revealed by Barn owl diet

Due to mainly opportunistic hunting behaviour of Barn owl can be its diet composition used for assessing local structure of small-mammal community. We evaluated the structure of small-mammal communities in the Mediterranean region by analysing Barn owl diet using own pellets and literature data (85 localities comprising 182,343 prey individuals). Contrary to widely accepted macroecological theory, we found a latitudinal increase of small-mammal alpha diversity, a less distinct west–east increase and lower diversity on islands. The mean prey weight decreased with increasing latitude, while on islands it decreased with increasing island area. The mean prey weight on islands was further negatively affected by mean land modification by human and positively affected by its range. The diet diversity on islands was not affected either by island area or its distance from the mainland. Its composition largely conformed to the main pattern pronounced over whole the region: an unexpected homogeneity of small-mammal community structure. Despite high beta diversity and large between-sample variation in species composition, Crocidura (+ Suncus etruscus) and murids (Apodemus, Mus, Rattus, in marginal regions partly replaced by gerbillids, Meriones or Microtus) composed more than 90% of owl prey in 92% of samples. Peak abundances of these widespread species are associated with a dynamic mosaic of dense patches of sparse herb vegetation and evergreen sclerophyllous shrublands interspersing areas of human activity, the dominant habitat of the inner Mediterranean and richest food resource for foraging Barn owls. The respective small-mammal species can be looked upon as invasive elements accompanying large scale human colonization of the region since the Neolithic and replacing original island biota. Our study documented that desertification of the Mediterranean played an important role in shaping inverse latitudinal gradient in diversity of small-mammals that contradicts to widely accepted mecroecological theory.

An odyssey out of Africa: an integrative review of past and present invasions by the Mediterranean tree frog (Hyla meridionalis)

An illustration of the human footprint on biodiversity are the faunal movements that have accompanied commercial and cultural exchanges between civilizations throughout history. In this article, we provide an integrative review of biogeographical and archaeological knowledge to understand these processes for the Mediterranean tree frog (Hyla meridionalis), an African species that has reached several regions of south-western Europe and associated islands. By re-analysing molecular (multilocus mitochondrial and genome-wide markers) and bioclimatic (ecological niche modelling) data, we give a comprehensive picture of the genetic diversity, structure and environmental suitability of H. meridionalis across its natural and exotic ranges, which in turn offer specific clues to the putative routes of colonization and associated events. Long-term monitoring efforts suggest northwards shifts of local range margins, potentially due to global warming, and we further demonstrate that this species is the most frequent amphibian to travel via the food supply chain in Western Europe. High dispersal ability, ecological tolerance and proximity to human settlements have made H. meridionalis a recurrent witness to the complexity and diversity of the civilizations that ruled the Western Mediterranean.

Assessment of the invasion process of the common raccoon Procyon lotor (Carnivora: Procyonidae) on a Mediterranean island a decade after its introduction

The common raccoon, Procyon lotor was introduced at the Balearic Islands (Spain) in 2006. Since then, a colonization process has been carried out, with captures of specimens in 24.30% of the surface of the whole Mallorca Island. For the first time, information has been provided on the invasive process of P. lotor in an insular ecosystem. 257 specimens of P. lotor were captured during the period 2007-2018, of them 104 were analysed to estimate population parameters. Demographic data showed that the population had a sex ratio of 1.00:1.21 (males:females), high BMI values and up to 40% of females were lactating when captured. Related to diet data, the composition was mainly the same as previous studies around its natural and introduced distribution area. Plant residues represented the 53.25 ± 38.66% followed by invertebrates with 12.22 ± 22.54%, inorganic remains with 11.9 ± 22.07% and finally the vertebrates with 4.94 ± 18.27%. Thus, it is shown how an opportunistic omnivorous species has adapted to the resources provided by the island. Cultivated plants' remains and plastic content in diet evidence that P. lotor is entering in contact with human settlements and agricultural areas. As occurred in other islands where P. lotor was introduced, it is expected that it could become a future problem for the conservation biodiversity in insular ecosystems, as well as for agriculture and human activity. Due to the potential impact on native biodiversity it is necessary to reinforce the implementation of control actions and prevent its expansion to the rest of the island.

Did the Romans introduce the Egyptian mongoose (Herpestes ichneumon) into the Iberian Peninsula?

New finds of bones of the Egyptian Mongoose (Herpestes ichneumon), one from Portugal and one from Spain, were directly ¹⁴C dated to the first century AD. While the Portuguese specimen was found without connection to the Chalcolithic occupation of the Pedra Furada cave where it was recovered, the Spanish find, collected in the city of Mérida, comes from a ritual pit that also contained three human and 40 dog burials. The finds reported here show that the Egyptian mongoose, contrary to the traditional and predominant view, did not first arrive in the Iberian Peninsula during the Muslim occupation of Iberia. Instead, our findings are consistent with the hypothesis that the species was first introduced by the Romans, or at least sometime during the Roman occupation of Hispania. Therefore, radiocarbon dating of new archaeological finds of bones of the Egyptian Mongoose (Herpestes ichneumon) in the Iberian Peninsula push back the confirmed presence of the species in the region by approximately eight centuries, as the previously oldest dated record is from the ninth century. With these new dates, there are now a total of four ¹⁴C dated specimens of Egyptian mongooses from the Iberian Peninsula, and all of these dates fall within the last 2000 years. This offers support for the hypothesis that the presence of the species in Iberia is due to historical introductions and is at odds with a scenario of natural sweepstake dispersal across the Straits of Gibraltar in the Late Pleistocene (126,000-11,700 years ago), recently proposed based on genetic data.

Out of Africa: demographic and colonization history of the Algerian mouse (Mus spretus Lataste)

North Africa is now recognized as a major area for the emergence and dispersal of anatomically modern humans from at least 315 kya. The Mediterranean Basin is thus particularly suited to study the role of climate versus human-mediated changes on the evolutionary history of species. The Algerian mouse (Mus spretus Lataste) is an endemic species from this basin, with its distribution restricted to North Africa (from Libya to Morocco), Iberian Peninsula and South of France. A rich paleontological record of M. spretus exists in North Africa, suggesting hypotheses concerning colonization pathways, and the demographic and morphologic history of this species. Here we combined genetic (3 mitochondrial DNA loci and 18 microsatellites) and climatic niche modeling data to infer the evolutionary history of the Algerian mouse. We collected 646 new individuals in 51 localities. Our results are consistent with an anthropogenic translocation of the Algerian mouse from North Africa to the Iberian Peninsula via Neolithic navigators, probably from the Tingitane Peninsula. Once arrived in Spain, suitable climatic conditions would then have favored the dispersion of the Algerian mice to France. The morphological differentiation observed between Spanish, French and North African populations could be explained by a founder effect and possibly local adaptation. This article helps to better understand the role of climate versus human-mediated changes on the evolutionary history of mammal species in the Mediterranean Basin.

Contacts in the last 90,000 years over the Strait of Gibraltar evidenced by genetic analysis of wild boar (Sus scrofa)

Contacts across the Strait of Gibraltar in the Pleistocene have been studied in different research papers, which have demonstrated that this apparent barrier has been permeable to human and fauna movements in both directions. Our study, based on the genetic analysis of wild boar (Sus scrofa), suggests that there has been contact between Africa and Europe through the Strait of Gibraltar in the Late Pleistocene (at least in the last 90,000 years), as shown by the partial analysis of mitochondrial DNA. Cytochrome b and the control region from North African wild boar indicate a close relationship with European wild boar, and even some specimens belong to a common haplotype in Europe. The analyses suggest the transformation of the wild boar phylogeography in North Africa by the emergence of a natural communication route in times when sea levels fell due to climatic changes, and possibly through human action, since contacts coincide with both the Last Glacial period and the increasing human dispersion via the strait.

Life History Traits Reflect Changes in Mediterranean Butterfly Communities Due to Forest Encroachment

The biodiversity of the Southern Balkans, part of the Mediterranean global biodiversity hot-spot, is threatened by land use intensification and abandonment, the latter causing forest encroachment of formerly open habitats. We investigated the impact of forest encroachment on butterfly species richness, community species composition and the representation of life history traits by repeated seasonal visits of 150 one-hectare sites in five separate regions in three countries—Greece, Bulgaria, and the Republic of Macedonia (FYROM—the Former Yugoslav Republic of Macedonia)— 10 replicates for each habitat type of grasslands, open formations and scrub forest within each region. Grasslands and open formations sites hosted in average more species and more red-listed species than scrub forest, while no pattern was found for numbers of Mediterranean species. As shown by ordination analyses, each of the three habitat types hosted distinct butterfly communities, with Mediterranean species inclining either towards grasslands or open formations. Analysing the representation of life history traits revealed that successional development from grasslands and open formations towards scrub forest shifts the community composition towards species overwintering in earlier stages, having fewer generations per year, and inhabiting large European or Eurosiberian (e.g. northern) ranges; it decreases the representation of Mediterranean endemics. The loss of grasslands and semi-open formations due to forest encroachment thus threatens exactly the species that should be the focus of conservation attention in the Mediterranean region, and innovative conservation actions to prevent ongoing forest encroachment are badly needed.

Fate of the Mongooses and the Genet (Carnivora) in Mediterranean Europe: None Native, All Invasive?

The Mediterranean Basin (MB), connected by cultural exchanges since prehistoric times, provides an outstanding framework to study species introductions, notably in mammals. Carnivores are among the most successful mammalian invaders. As such, a number of middle-sized representatives (“mesocarnivores”) such as the domestic cat and mongooses have been pinpointed for their deleterious impact on the native fauna. In the MB, three species of mongooses (Herpestidae) and one genet (Viverridae) are or have recently been recorded and none of them has been considered native: the Indian grey mongoose Herpestes edwardsii, the small Indian mongoose H. auropunctatus, the Egyptian mongoose H. ichneumon, and the common genet Genetta genetta. In order to clarify the history of introduction and status of the mongooses and genet in Europe, I review various bodies of evidence including (1) their natural history and relationships with humans in their native ranges, (2) their history of introduction in Europe, (3) the enlightenments—and sometimes contradictions—brought by recent genetic analyses on their dispersal histories, and (4) their range dynamics and ecological interactions with the European fauna. The species of herpestids and viverrids present in Europe fall into three categories: (1) introduced and spreading (G. genetta, H. auropunctatus), (2) introduced and extinct (H. edwardsii), and (3) natural disperser and spreading (H. ichneumon). In view of the reviewed evidence, there is weak support for a deleterious impact of the mongooses and genet on the European fauna (except possibly on the herpetofauna of small Adriatic islands in the case of H. auropunctatus), notably in comparison with genuine invasive species such as the black rat and the domestic cat. Rather than inefficient control programs such as those targeting H. ichneumon in Portugal and H. auropunctatus in Croatia, we suggest that a greater attention is focused on the restoration of large Carnivores (the natural regulators of mesocarnivore populations), mesocarnivore communities and natural habitats, to contribute to a more sustainable way of “managing” the mongooses and genet in Europe.

Following the trail: factors underlying the sudden expansion of the Egyptian mongoose (Herpestes ichneumon) in Portugal

Species range-limits are influenced by a combination of several factors. In our study we aimed to unveil the drivers underlying the expansion of the Egyptian mongoose in Portugal, a carnivore that was confined to southern Portugal and largely increased its range during the last three decades. We evaluated the expansion of the species in three periods (1980-1990, 1990-2000 and 2000-2010), by projecting the presence/absence data of the species in each temporal range and proposed four hypotheses to explain this sudden expansion associated to changes in the barrier effects of human infrastructure and topographic features, and in the availability of suitable areas due to climate change or land use. An exploratory analysis was made using Spearman rank correlation, followed by a hierarchical partitioning analysis to select uncorrelated potential explanatory variables associated with the different hypotheses. We then ran Generalized Linear Models (GLM) for every period for each hypothesis and for every combination of hypotheses. Our main findings suggest that dynamic transitions of land-use coupled with temperature and rainfall variations over the decades are the main drivers promoting the mongoose expansion. The geographic barriers and the human infrastructures functioned as barriers for mongoose expansion and have shaped its distribution. The expansion of the Egyptian mongoose across the Portuguese territory was due to a variety of factors. Our results suggest a rapid shift in species range in response to land-use and climate changes, underlining the close link between species ranges and a changing environment.

The Maghreb - one more important biodiversity hot spot for tiger beetle fauna (Coleoptera, Carabidae, Cicindelinae) in the Mediterranean region

The tiger beetle fauna of the Maghreb region is one of the richest in the Palaearctic, including 22 species and 5 subspecies and 19% of all Palaearctic species of Cicindelinae. Assembled to their chorotypes, the Maghreb tiger beetles fall into eight different groups that include Maghreb endemics (26% of fauna), Mediterranean (7%), West Mediterranean (40%), North African (4%), Mediterranean-Westturanian (4%), West Palaearctic (4%), Afrotropico-Indo-Mediterranean (4%), and Saharian (11%) species. The Mediterranean Sclerophyl and Atlas Steppe are the Maghreb biogeographical provinces with the highest species richness, while the Sahara Desert has the lowest Cicindelinae diversity. Twenty-five cicindelid species and subspecies (93% of Maghreb fauna) are restricted to only one or two habitat types in lowland areas. Only Calomeralittoralislittoralis and Lophyraflexuosaflexuosa are recognized as eurytopic species and occur in three types of habitat. The highest tiger beetle diversity characterizes salt marshes and river banks (in both cases 11 species and subspecies or 41% of Maghreb fauna). Approximately 85% of all Maghreb tiger beetle species and subspecies are found in habitats potentially endangered by human activity.

Examining the extinction of the Barbary lion and its implications for felid conservation

Estimations of species extinction dates are rarely definitive, yet declarations of extinction or extirpation are important as they define when conservation efforts may cease. Erroneous declarations of extinctions not only destabilize conservation efforts but also corrode local community support. Mismatches in perceptions by the scientific and local communities risk undermining sensitive, but important partnerships. We examine observations relating to the decline and extinction of Barbary lions in North Africa. Whilst the extinction predates the era of the scientific conservation movement, the decline is relatively well documented in historical records. Recently unearthed accounts suggest Barbary lions survived later than previously assumed. We use probabilistic methods to estimate a more recent extinction date for the subspecies. The evidence presented for a much later persistence of lions in North Africa, including generations when sightings were nil, suggests caution when considering felid populations as extinct in the wild. The case raises the possibility that captive animals descended from the Moroccan royal collection are closer contemporaries to wild Barbary lions. Furthermore, our results highlight the vulnerability of very small lion populations and the significance of continued conservation of remnant lion populations in Central and West Africa.

Predictive niche modelling to identify potential areas of conflicts between human activities and expanding predator populations: a case study of game management and the grey mongoose, Herpestes ichneumon, in Spain

Context. The grey mongoose, Herpestes ichneumon L., is a protected species in Spain. Populations of grey mongoose are currently increasing in numbers, and potential conflicts with human interests involving predation of small-game species, may arise in the near future. Aims. We predicted potential suitable areas for the expansion of grey mongoose by using a niche modelling approach to detect areas of conflict with small-game hunting activities. Methods. We compared these areas with regions in which small-game hunting is an important economic activity. To produce a niche-suitability map we used Maxent and an internal (data-splitting) validation to assess the predictive performance of the model. Areas in which small-game hunting is important were identified by using a rabbit-abundance index. Key results. On the basis of suitability modelling, populations of grey mongoose will expand into southern and central Spain. The variables with higher predictive power are mainly climatic, although some mosaic habitat types are also important. Internal validation reveals a strong correspondence between predicted and observed records. The overlap of high-suitability areas with areas assigned with a high rabbit-abundance index indicated the existence of large regions of potential conflict with hunting interests. Conclusions. Predictions of niche modelling can be used to detect conflict areas between expanding species and human interests. As a consequence of the expansion of the grey mongoose, the incidence of non-selective predator control may increase, thereby posing a threat to other protected predators. Implications. Identified areas of likely conflict should be prioritised to delineate careful management programs in terms of people education, surveying, incentives and the detection of illegal predator-control activities.

Ecosystem and competition impacts of introduced deer

Numerous deer species have been introduced beyond their native range into ecosystems around the world. Their economic value leads to further accidental and deliberate releases and lack of control is contributing to range expansion in Australia, South America and Europe. Despite localised or regional concern, the scale and generality of detrimental impacts have not been widely recognised. We review the direct and indirect impacts on ecosystems and evidence for interspecific effects on native deer. In New Zealand, where large herbivores were previously absent, severe and novel impacts have been found in susceptible forests. Even where ecosystems contain native deer, invasion by taxonomically exotic deer species carries the risk of cascade effects on spatial plant dynamics and forest composition. In Patagonia, introduced deer have disrupted forest composition, whereas in Europe, ecosystem impacts of introduced species can differ from those of over-abundant native deer. Introduced Chinese muntjac (Muntiacus reevesi) within a coniferous forestry landscape in eastern England differ from native European roe deer (Capreolus capreolus) in their distribution of herbivory among differing habitats, and provide much lower rates of endozoochorous seed dispersal. Frequent concern is expressed that introduced deer species may have detrimental effects on native deer and other ungulates, although potential epidemiological effects have not been investigated. Apparent competition, with introduced prey resulting in increased predation rates on native deer, may be occurring between South American huemul (Hippocamelus bisulcus) and southern pudu (Pudu puda). Habitat and dietary overlap is often substantial among native and introduced ungulates, including deer, and exploitation competition is likely. Evidence includes spatial responses of native to non-native deer and negatively correlated changes in population abundance, but demographic mechanisms have not been demonstrated previously. In a coniferous forestry landscape in eastern England, substantial habitat and dietary overlap occurs between native roe deer and high-density introduced Chinese muntjac. This roe deer population has shown a reduction in body weight and fertility following establishment and increasing abundance of non-native Chinese muntjac, compatible with interspecific competition. European roe deer also appear susceptible to competition from larger grazing deer, including native red deer (Cervus elaphus) and introduced fallow (Dama dama). The widely introduced fallow deer may be a particularly effective competitor in sympatry with intermediate or concentrate feeders. There is need for further investigation of potential interactions of introduced and native deer species, and a wider recognition of the ecological impacts of introduced deer.

Habitat selection by European badgers at multiple spatial scales in Portuguese Mediterranean ecosystems

Different habitat features can limit animal populations at different spatial scales. We examined habitat selection by Eurasian badger in a montado landscape in southern Portugal at four scales: core area (1 km2), home range (4 km2), social group territory (25 km2), and local population (100 km2). Our goals were to identify important habitats for conservation at each spatial scale (cell size) using candidate variables shown to be important by previous research. As expected, across all scales, badger occurrence was consistently and strongly correlated with dominance of cork oak and deciduous woodlands, and badgers seemed to avoid cultivated fields. Contrary to expectation, monocultures of conifers contributed positively to badger detection. The predictive ability of the models was poor at all scales, probably owing to our inability to include factors such as food, competitors, predators, undercover vegetation, and roads. Nonetheless, the models illustrate the importance to badgers of the montado, an ancient human-modified ecosystem that is threatened by current European Union agricultural conversion policies.

Mediterranean populations of the lesser white-toothed shrew (Crocidura suaveolens group): an unexpected puzzle of Pleistocene survivors and prehistoric introductions

An earlier study revealed the strong phylogeographical structure of the lesser white-toothed shrew (Crocidura suaveolens group) within the northern Palaearctic. Here, we aim to reconstruct the colonization history of Mediterranean islands and to clarify the biogeography and phylogeographical relationships of the poorly documented Middle East region with the northern Palaearctic. We performed analyses on 998-bp-long haplotypes of the mitochondrial cytochrome b gene of 143 samples collected around the Mediterranean basin, including islands and the Middle East. The analyses suggest that the Cypriot shrew belongs to the rare group of relict insular Pleistocene mammal taxa that have survived to the present day. In contrast, the Cretan, Corsican and Menorcan populations were independently introduced from the Middle East during the Holocene. The phylogeographical structure of this temperate Palaearctic species within the Middle East appears to be complex and rich in diversity, probably reflecting fragmentation of the area by numerous mountain chains. Four deeply divergent clades of the C. suaveolens group occur in the area, meaning that a hypothetical contact zone remains to be located in central western Iran.

Winter reproduction of Eliomys quercinus (Rodentia) in the orange groves of Sagunto (Valencia, Spain) / La reproduction en hiver d' Eliomys quercinus (Rodentia) dans les orangeraies de Sagunto (Valence, Espagne)

The colonisation of orange groves in Eastern Spain by the garden dormouse Eliomys quercinus and their reproduction were studied. Litter sizes and times of birth of garden dormice were studied during the winter of 2003/2004 until the month of May 2004. The main study area was a plot covered by orange trees that has been monitored since 1975. Litters in nest boxes placed around the plot for birds, as well as a few litters in nests built in trees, were observed to obtain information on reproduction. The nests found in trees include some built in old bird nests, most of them belonging to the blackbird Turdus merula . We weighed the cubs to determine their month of birth and identified the population trend by counting the number of nests occupied simultaneously. Results show that there are births during the winter, that the number of cubs per nest ranged from 4 to 13, but 6 cubs was the mode. A total of 34 litters were found, with an average size of 5.76 cubs per litter. The litter of 13 cubs was excluded from analysis. Colonisation was suspected after a first specimen was observed in 1997 in the surroundings of the study area. Occupation by garden dormice of both natural nests and nest boxes subsequently increased from 1 to 27 between 1999 and 2004. We suggest that mild winter temperatures allowed the population increase and winter reproduction.

Phylogeographical footprints of the Strait of Gibraltar and Quaternary climatic fluctuations in the western Mediterranean: a case study with the greater white-toothed shrew, Crocidura russula (Mammalia: Soricidae)

We used mitochondrial cyt b sequences to investigate the phylogenetic relationships of Crocidura russula (sensu lato) populations across the Strait of Gibraltar, western Europe, Maghreb, and the Mediterranean and Atlantic islands. This revealed very low genetic divergence between European and Moroccan populations. The application of a molecular clock previously calibrated for shrews suggested that the separation of European from Moroccan lineages occurred less than 60 000 bp, which is at least 5 million years (Myr) after the reopening of the Strait of Gibraltar. This means that an overwater dispersal event was responsible for the observed phylogeographical structure. In contrast, genetic analyses revealed that Moroccan populations were highly distinct from Tunisian ones. According to the molecular clock, these populations separated about 2.2 million years ago (Ma), a time marked by sharp alternations of dry and humid climates in the Maghreb. The populations of the Mediterranean islands Ibiza, Pantelleria, and Sardinia were founded from Tunisian populations by overwater dispersal. In conclusion, overwater dispersal across the Strait of Gibraltar, probably assisted by humans, is possible for small terrestrial vertebrates. Moreover, as in Europe, Quaternary climatic fluctuations had a major effect on the phylogeographical structure of the Maghreb biota.

Mitochondrial phylogeography of the long-eared bats (Plecotus) in the Mediterranean Palaearctic and Atlantic Islands

Long-eared bats of the genus Plecotus are widespread and common over most of the western Palaearctic. Based on recent molecular evidence, they proved to represent a complex of several cryptic species, with three new species being described from Europe in 2002. Evolutionary relationships among the different lineages are still fragmentary because of the limited geographic coverage of previous studies. Here we analyze Plecotus mitochondrial DNA sequences from the entire Mediterranean region and Atlantic Islands. Phylogenetic reconstructions group these western Palaearctic Plecotus into two major clades which split at least 5 Myr ago and that are each subdivided into further subgroups. An 'auritus group' includes the traditional P. auritus species and its sister taxon P. macrobullaris (=P. alpinus) plus related specimens from the Middle East. P. auritus and P. macrobullaris have broadly overlapping distributions in Europe, although the latter is apparently more restricted to mountain ranges. The other major clade, the 'austriacus group,' includes the European species P. austriacus and at least two other related taxa from North Africa (including P. teneriffae from the Canary Islands), the Balkans and Anatolia (P. kolombatovici). The sister species of this 'austriacus group' is P. balensis, an Ethiopian endemic. Phylogenetic reconstructions further suggest that P. austriacus reached Madeira during its relatively recent westward expansion through Europe, while the Canary Islands were colonized by a North African ancestor. Although colonization of the two groups of Atlantic Islands by Plecotus bats followed very distinct routes, neither involved lineages from the 'auritus group.' Furthermore, the Strait of Gibraltar perfectly segregates the distinct lineages, which confirms its key role as a geographic barrier. This study also stresses the biogeographical importance of the Mediterranean region, and particularly of North Africa, in understanding the evolution of the western Palaearctic biotas.