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Guerrero M, Ruiz C, Romero A, Robeson L, Ruiz D, Salinas F. The N-Terminal Region of the BcWCL1 Photoreceptor Is Necessary for Self-Dimerization and Transcriptional Activation upon Light Stimulation in Yeast. Int J Mol Sci 2023; 24:11874. [PMID: 37569251 PMCID: PMC10418492 DOI: 10.3390/ijms241511874] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 06/29/2023] [Revised: 07/20/2023] [Accepted: 07/22/2023] [Indexed: 08/13/2023] Open
Abstract
The BcWCL1 protein is a blue-light photoreceptor from the fungus Botrytis cinerea. This protein has a central role in B. cinerea circadian regulation and is an ortholog to WC-1 from Neurospora crassa. The BcWCL1 and WC-1 proteins have similar protein domains, including a LOV (Light Oxygen Voltage) domain for light sensing, two PAS (Per Arnt Sim) domains for protein-protein interaction, and a DNA binding domain from the GATA family. Recently, the blue-light response of BcWCL1 was demonstrated in a version without PAS domains (BcWCL1PAS∆). Here, we demonstrated that BcWCL1PAS∆ is capable of self-dimerization through its N-terminal region upon blue-light stimulation. Interestingly, we observed that BcWCL1PAS∆ enables transcriptional activation as a single component in yeast. By using chimeric transcription factors and the luciferase reporter gene, we assessed the transcriptional activity of different fragments of the N-terminal and C-terminal regions of BcWCL1PAS∆, identifying a functional transcriptional activation domain (AD) in the N-terminal region that belongs to the 9aaTAD family. Finally, we determined that the transcriptional activation levels of BcWCL1PAS∆ AD are comparable to those obtained with commonly used ADs in eukaryotic cells (Gal4 and p65). In conclusion, the BcWCL1PAS∆ protein self-dimerized and activated transcription in a blue-light-dependent fashion, opening future applications of this photoreceptor in yeast optogenetics.
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Affiliation(s)
- Matías Guerrero
- Laboratorio de Genómica Funcional, Instituto de Bioquímica y Microbiología, Facultad de Ciencias, Universidad Austral de Chile, Valdivia 5090000, Chile; (M.G.); (C.R.); (A.R.); (L.R.); (D.R.)
- ANID–Millennium Science Initiative–Millennium Institute for Integrative Biology (iBIO), Santiago 8330025, Chile
| | - Carlos Ruiz
- Laboratorio de Genómica Funcional, Instituto de Bioquímica y Microbiología, Facultad de Ciencias, Universidad Austral de Chile, Valdivia 5090000, Chile; (M.G.); (C.R.); (A.R.); (L.R.); (D.R.)
- ANID–Millennium Science Initiative–Millennium Institute for Integrative Biology (iBIO), Santiago 8330025, Chile
| | - Andrés Romero
- Laboratorio de Genómica Funcional, Instituto de Bioquímica y Microbiología, Facultad de Ciencias, Universidad Austral de Chile, Valdivia 5090000, Chile; (M.G.); (C.R.); (A.R.); (L.R.); (D.R.)
- ANID–Millennium Science Initiative–Millennium Institute for Integrative Biology (iBIO), Santiago 8330025, Chile
| | - Luka Robeson
- Laboratorio de Genómica Funcional, Instituto de Bioquímica y Microbiología, Facultad de Ciencias, Universidad Austral de Chile, Valdivia 5090000, Chile; (M.G.); (C.R.); (A.R.); (L.R.); (D.R.)
| | - Diego Ruiz
- Laboratorio de Genómica Funcional, Instituto de Bioquímica y Microbiología, Facultad de Ciencias, Universidad Austral de Chile, Valdivia 5090000, Chile; (M.G.); (C.R.); (A.R.); (L.R.); (D.R.)
- ANID–Millennium Science Initiative–Millennium Institute for Integrative Biology (iBIO), Santiago 8330025, Chile
| | - Francisco Salinas
- Laboratorio de Genómica Funcional, Instituto de Bioquímica y Microbiología, Facultad de Ciencias, Universidad Austral de Chile, Valdivia 5090000, Chile; (M.G.); (C.R.); (A.R.); (L.R.); (D.R.)
- ANID–Millennium Science Initiative–Millennium Institute for Integrative Biology (iBIO), Santiago 8330025, Chile
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2
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Baruah D, Marak CNK, Roy A, Gohain D, Kumar A, Das P, Borkovich KA, Tamuli R. Multiple calcium signaling genes play a role in the circadian period of Neurospora crassa. FEMS Microbiol Lett 2023; 370:fnad044. [PMID: 37193664 PMCID: PMC10237334 DOI: 10.1093/femsle/fnad044] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 06/15/2022] [Revised: 04/12/2023] [Accepted: 05/15/2023] [Indexed: 05/18/2023] Open
Abstract
The Ca2+ signaling genes cpe-1, plc-1, ncs-1, splA2, camk-1, camk-2, camk-3, camk-4, cmd, and cnb-1 are necessary for a normal circadian period length in Neurospora crassa. In addition, the Q10 values ranged between 0.8 and 1.2 for the single mutants lacking cpe-1, splA2, camk-1, camk-2, camk-3, camk-4, and cnb-1, suggesting that the circadian clock exhibits standard temperature compensation. However, the Q10 value for the ∆plc-1 mutant was 1.41 at 25 and 30 °C, 1.53 and 1.40 for the ∆ncs-1 mutant at 20 and 25 °C, and at 20 and 30 °C, respectively, suggesting a partial loss of temperature compensation in these two mutants. Moreover, expression of frq, a regulator of the circadian period, and the blue light receptor wc-1, were increased >2-fold in the Δplc-1, ∆plc-1; ∆cpe-1, and the ∆plc-1; ∆splA2 mutants at 20 °C. The frq mRNA level was increased >2-fold in the Δncs-1 mutant compared to the ras-1bd strain at 20 °C. Therefore, multiple Ca2+ signaling genes regulate the circadian period, by influencing expression of the frq and wc-1 genes that are critical for maintaining the normal circadian period length in N. crassa.
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Affiliation(s)
- Darshana Baruah
- Department of Biosciences and Bioengineering, Indian Institute of Technology Guwahati, Guwahati 781039, Assam, India
| | - Christy Noche K Marak
- Department of Biosciences and Bioengineering, Indian Institute of Technology Guwahati, Guwahati 781039, Assam, India
| | - Avishek Roy
- Department of Biosciences and Bioengineering, Indian Institute of Technology Guwahati, Guwahati 781039, Assam, India
| | - Dibakar Gohain
- Department of Biosciences and Bioengineering, Indian Institute of Technology Guwahati, Guwahati 781039, Assam, India
| | - Ajeet Kumar
- Department of Biosciences and Bioengineering, Indian Institute of Technology Guwahati, Guwahati 781039, Assam, India
| | - Pallavi Das
- Department of Biosciences and Bioengineering, Indian Institute of Technology Guwahati, Guwahati 781039, Assam, India
| | - Katherine A Borkovich
- Department of Microbiology and Plant Pathology, Institute for Integrative Genome Biology, College of Natural and Agricultural Sciences, University of California Riverside, Riverside 92521, CA, USA
| | - Ranjan Tamuli
- Department of Biosciences and Bioengineering, Indian Institute of Technology Guwahati, Guwahati 781039, Assam, India
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3
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Tiley AMM, Lawless C, Pilo P, Karki SJ, Lu J, Long Z, Gibriel H, Bailey AM, Feechan A. The Zymoseptoria tritici white collar-1 gene, ZtWco-1, is required for development and virulence on wheat. Fungal Genet Biol 2022; 161:103715. [PMID: 35709910 DOI: 10.1016/j.fgb.2022.103715] [Citation(s) in RCA: 3] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 10/14/2021] [Revised: 06/02/2022] [Accepted: 06/06/2022] [Indexed: 11/04/2022]
Abstract
The fungus Zymoseptoria tritici causes Septoria Tritici Blotch (STB), which is one of the most devastating diseases of wheat in Europe. There are currently no fully durable methods of control against Z. tritici, so novel strategies are urgently required. One of the ways in which fungi are able to respond to their surrounding environment is through the use of photoreceptor proteins which detect light signals. Although previous evidence suggests that Z. tritici can detect light, no photoreceptor genes have been characterised in this pathogen. This study characterises ZtWco-1, a predicted photoreceptor gene in Z. tritici. The ZtWco-1 gene is a putative homolog to the blue light photoreceptor from Neurospora crassa, wc-1. Z. tritici mutants with deletions in ZtWco-1 have defects in hyphal branching, melanisation and virulence on wheat. In addition, we identify the putative circadian clock gene ZtFrq in Z. tritici. This study provides evidence for the genetic regulation of light detection in Z. tritici and it open avenues for future research into whether this pathogen has a circadian clock.
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Affiliation(s)
- Anna M M Tiley
- Agri-Food Biosciences Institute, 18a Newforge Ln, Belfast BT9 5PX, United Kingdom; School of Agriculture and Food Science, University College Dublin, Dublin 4, Republic of Ireland.
| | - Colleen Lawless
- School of Agriculture and Food Science, University College Dublin, Dublin 4, Republic of Ireland; School of Biology and Environmental Science, University College Dublin, Dublin 4, Republic of Ireland
| | - Paola Pilo
- School of Agriculture and Food Science, University College Dublin, Dublin 4, Republic of Ireland
| | - Sujit J Karki
- School of Agriculture and Food Science, University College Dublin, Dublin 4, Republic of Ireland
| | - Jijun Lu
- School of Agriculture and Food Science, University College Dublin, Dublin 4, Republic of Ireland
| | - Zhuowei Long
- School of Agriculture and Food Science, University College Dublin, Dublin 4, Republic of Ireland
| | - Hesham Gibriel
- School of Agriculture and Food Science, University College Dublin, Dublin 4, Republic of Ireland; Royal College of Surgeons in Ireland, Dublin 2, Ireland
| | - Andy M Bailey
- School of Biological Sciences, University of Bristol, 24 Tyndall Avenue, Bristol BS8 1TQ, United Kingdom
| | - Angela Feechan
- School of Agriculture and Food Science, University College Dublin, Dublin 4, Republic of Ireland.
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4
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Rojas V, Salinas F, Romero A, Larrondo LF, Canessa P. Interactions between Core Elements of the Botrytis cinerea Circadian Clock Are Modulated by Light and Different Protein Domains. J Fungi (Basel) 2022; 8:486. [PMID: 35628742 PMCID: PMC9144814 DOI: 10.3390/jof8050486] [Citation(s) in RCA: 1] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 03/17/2022] [Revised: 04/29/2022] [Accepted: 05/03/2022] [Indexed: 02/06/2023] Open
Abstract
Botrytis cinerea possesses a complex light-sensing system composed of eleven photoreceptors. In B. cinerea, bcwcl1 encodes for the BcWCL1 protein, the orthologue of the blue-light photoreceptor WC-1 from Neurospora crassa. The functional partner of BcWCL1 is the BcWCL2 protein, both interacting in the nucleus and forming the B. cinerea white collar complex (BcWCC). This complex is required for photomorphogenesis and circadian regulation. However, no molecular evidence shows a light-dependent interaction between the BcWCC components or light-sensing capabilities in BcWCL1. In this work, by employing a yeast two-hybrid system that allows for the in vivo analysis of protein-protein interactions, we confirm that BcWCL1 and BcWCL2 interact in the absence of light as well as upon blue-light stimulation, primarily through their PAS (Per-Arnt-Sim) domains. Deletion of the PAS domains present in BcWCL1 (BcWCL1PAS∆) or BcWCL2 (BcWCL2PAS∆) severely impairs the interaction between these proteins. Interestingly, the BcWCL1PAS∆ protein shows a blue-light response and interacts with BcWCL2 or BcWCL2PAS∆ upon light stimulation. Finally, we demonstrate that BcWCL1 and BcWCL1PAS∆ respond to blue light by introducing a point mutation in the photoactive cysteine, confirming that both proteins are capable of light sensing. Altogether, the results revealed the complexity of protein-protein interactions occurring between the core elements of the B. cinerea circadian clock.
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Affiliation(s)
- Vicente Rojas
- Departamento de Genética Molecular y Microbiología, Facultad de Ciencias Biológicas, Pontificia Universidad Católica de Chile, Santiago 8331150, Chile; (V.R.); (L.F.L.)
- ANID–Millennium Science Initiative–Millennium Institute for Integrative Biology (iBIO), Santiago 8331150, Chile; (F.S.); (A.R.)
| | - Francisco Salinas
- ANID–Millennium Science Initiative–Millennium Institute for Integrative Biology (iBIO), Santiago 8331150, Chile; (F.S.); (A.R.)
- Instituto de Bioquímica y Microbiología, Facultad de Ciencias, Universidad Austral de Chile, Valdivia 5090000, Chile
| | - Andrés Romero
- ANID–Millennium Science Initiative–Millennium Institute for Integrative Biology (iBIO), Santiago 8331150, Chile; (F.S.); (A.R.)
- Instituto de Bioquímica y Microbiología, Facultad de Ciencias, Universidad Austral de Chile, Valdivia 5090000, Chile
| | - Luis F. Larrondo
- Departamento de Genética Molecular y Microbiología, Facultad de Ciencias Biológicas, Pontificia Universidad Católica de Chile, Santiago 8331150, Chile; (V.R.); (L.F.L.)
- ANID–Millennium Science Initiative–Millennium Institute for Integrative Biology (iBIO), Santiago 8331150, Chile; (F.S.); (A.R.)
| | - Paulo Canessa
- ANID–Millennium Science Initiative–Millennium Institute for Integrative Biology (iBIO), Santiago 8331150, Chile; (F.S.); (A.R.)
- Centro de Biotecnologia Vegetal, Facultad de Ciencias de la Vida, Universidad Andres Bello, Santiago 8370186, Chile
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5
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Brenna A, Ripperger JA, Saro G, Glauser DA, Yang Z, Albrecht U. PER2 mediates CREB-dependent light induction of the clock gene Per1. Sci Rep 2021; 11:21766. [PMID: 34741086 PMCID: PMC8571357 DOI: 10.1038/s41598-021-01178-6] [Citation(s) in RCA: 10] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 06/21/2021] [Accepted: 10/25/2021] [Indexed: 01/05/2023] Open
Abstract
Light affects many physiological processes in mammals such as entrainment of the circadian clock, regulation of mood, and relaxation of blood vessels. At the molecular level, a stimulus such as light initiates a cascade of kinases that phosphorylate CREB at various sites, including serine 133 (S133). This modification leads CREB to recruit the co-factor CRCT1 and the histone acetyltransferase CBP to stimulate the transcription of genes containing a CRE element in their promoters, such as Period 1 (Per1). However, the details of this pathway are poorly understood. Here we provide evidence that PER2 acts as a co-factor of CREB to facilitate the formation of a transactivation complex on the CRE element of the Per1 gene regulatory region in response to light or forskolin. Using in vitro and in vivo approaches, we show that PER2 modulates the interaction between CREB and its co-regulator CRTC1 to support complex formation only after a light or forskolin stimulus. Furthermore, the absence of PER2 abolished the interaction between the histone acetyltransferase CBP and CREB. This process was accompanied by a reduction of histone H3 acetylation and decreased recruitment of RNA Pol II to the Per1 gene. Collectively, our data show that PER2 supports the stimulus-dependent induction of the Per1 gene via modulation of the CREB/CRTC1/CBP complex.
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Affiliation(s)
- Andrea Brenna
- Department of Biology, Faculty of Science and Medicine, University of Fribourg, Fribourg, Switzerland.,Laboratory of Cardiovascular and Aging Research, Department of Endocrinology, Metabolism, Cardiovascular System, Faculty of Science and Medicine, University of Fribourg, Fribourg, Switzerland
| | - Jürgen A Ripperger
- Department of Biology, Faculty of Science and Medicine, University of Fribourg, Fribourg, Switzerland
| | - Gabriella Saro
- Department of Biology, Faculty of Science and Medicine, University of Fribourg, Fribourg, Switzerland
| | - Dominique A Glauser
- Department of Biology, Faculty of Science and Medicine, University of Fribourg, Fribourg, Switzerland
| | - Zhihong Yang
- Laboratory of Cardiovascular and Aging Research, Department of Endocrinology, Metabolism, Cardiovascular System, Faculty of Science and Medicine, University of Fribourg, Fribourg, Switzerland
| | - Urs Albrecht
- Department of Biology, Faculty of Science and Medicine, University of Fribourg, Fribourg, Switzerland.
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6
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Zhong C, Zhou R, Jin J, Liu H, Xie J, Zhen L, Xiao S, Zhang S. Cloning and analysis of the photoreceptor genes Oxwc-1 and Oxwc-2 from ethnopharmacological fungus Ophiocordyceps xuefengensis. MYCOSCIENCE 2021; 62:189-197. [PMID: 37091324 PMCID: PMC9157750 DOI: 10.47371/mycosci.2021.02.001] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 07/31/2020] [Revised: 02/18/2021] [Accepted: 02/19/2021] [Indexed: 11/16/2022]
Abstract
Ophiocordyceps xuefengensis is an ethnopharmacological fungus with broad pharmacological properties. Light is a critical environmental factor for the stromata formation and development of many fungi. In this study, photomorphogenesis and blue light receptor genes were studied using a strain of O. xuefengensis. Light represses vegetative growth, but conidia linked to stromata can be observed under both light and dark conditions. Light and dark conditions had little effect on the accumulation of polysaccharides and adenosine. The genes Oxwc-1 and Oxwc-2 encoding photoreceptors of O. xuefengensis were cloned and predicted to possess polypeptides of 937 and 525 amino acids, respectively. A phylogenetic analysis based on fungal WC-1/2 supported OxWC-1 and OxWC-2 were photoreceptor. The expression of both the Oxwc-1 and Oxwc-2 genes reached a maximum after receiving light stimulation for 15 min, which might relate to the inhibition of stromata growth.
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Affiliation(s)
- Can Zhong
- College of Horticulture, Hunan Agricultural University
- Institute of Chinese Materia Medica, Hunan Academy of Chinese Medicine
- These authors contributed equally to this work
| | - Rongrong Zhou
- Changchun University of Chinese Medicine
- These authors contributed equally to this work
| | - Jian Jin
- Institute of Chinese Materia Medica, Hunan Academy of Chinese Medicine
| | - Hao Liu
- Institute of Chinese Materia Medica, Hunan Academy of Chinese Medicine
| | - Jing Xie
- Institute of Chinese Materia Medica, Hunan Academy of Chinese Medicine
| | - Lanping Zhen
- Institute of Chinese Materia Medica, Hunan Academy of Chinese Medicine
| | - Shengen Xiao
- College of Horticulture, Hunan Agricultural University
| | - Shuihan Zhang
- College of Horticulture, Hunan Agricultural University
- Institute of Chinese Materia Medica, Hunan Academy of Chinese Medicine
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7
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Ma XK, Ma H, Chen Q, Ma Y, Daugulis AJ, Liang J, Zheng P. The influence of monochromatic lights on flavonoid production by the fungus Sanghuangporus vaninii: Modeling of kinetic profiles and expression levels of important genes in flavonoid synthesis. Biochem Eng J 2021. [DOI: 10.1016/j.bej.2020.107876] [Citation(s) in RCA: 2] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/16/2022]
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8
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Cascant-Lopez E, Crosthwaite SK, Johnson LJ, Harrison RJ. No Evidence That Homologs of Key Circadian Clock Genes Direct Circadian Programs of Development or mRNA Abundance in Verticillium dahliae. Front Microbiol 2020; 11:1977. [PMID: 33013740 PMCID: PMC7493669 DOI: 10.3389/fmicb.2020.01977] [Citation(s) in RCA: 2] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 03/08/2020] [Accepted: 07/27/2020] [Indexed: 01/24/2023] Open
Abstract
Many organisms harbor circadian clocks that promote their adaptation to the rhythmic environment. While a broad knowledge of the molecular mechanism of circadian clocks has been gained through the fungal model Neurospora crassa, little is known about circadian clocks in other fungi. N. crassa belongs to the same class as many important plant pathogens including the vascular wilt fungus Verticillium dahliae. We identified homologs of N. crassa clock proteins in V. dahliae, which showed high conservation in key protein domains. However, no evidence for an endogenous, free-running and entrainable rhythm was observed in the daily formation of conidia and microsclerotia. In N. crassa the frequency (frq) gene encodes a central clock protein expressed rhythmically and in response to light. In contrast, expression of Vdfrq is not light-regulated. Temporal gene expression profiling over 48 h in constant darkness and temperature revealed no circadian expression of key clock genes. Furthermore, RNA-seq over a 24 h time-course revealed no robust oscillations of clock-associated transcripts in constant darkness. Comparison of gene expression between wild-type V. dahliae and a ΔVdfrq mutant showed that genes involved in metabolism, transport and redox processes are mis-regulated in the absence of Vdfrq. In addition, VdΔfrq mutants display growth defects and reduced pathogenicity in a strain dependent manner. Our data indicate that if a circadian clock exists in Verticillium, it is based on alternative mechanisms such as post-transcriptional interactions of VdFRQ and the WC proteins or the components of a FRQ-less oscillator. Alternatively, it could be that whilst the original functions of the clock proteins have been maintained, in this species the interactions that generate robust rhythmicity have been lost or are only triggered when specific environmental conditions are met. The presence of conserved clock genes in genomes should not be taken as definitive evidence of circadian function.
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Affiliation(s)
| | | | - Louise J Johnson
- The School of Biological Sciences, University of Reading, Reading, United Kingdom
| | - Richard J Harrison
- Genetics, Genomics and Breeding, NIAB EMR, East Malling, United Kingdom.,National Institute of Agricultural Botany (NIAB), Cambridge, United Kingdom
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9
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Richert S, Chen J, Pompe N, Radtke V, Lllarionov B, Fischer M, Bacher A, Weber S. Influence of the cofactor structure on the photophysical processes initiating signal transduction in a phototropin-derived LOV domain. J Chem Phys 2019; 151:235102. [PMID: 31864253 DOI: 10.1063/1.5131856] [Citation(s) in RCA: 4] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/15/2022] Open
Abstract
Due to their biological importance, the photochemistry of blue-light photoreceptor proteins has been studied extensively over the last few decades. Most blue-light photoreceptors, such as cryptochromes and phototropins, utilize flavin chromophores as their cofactors. After irradiation with light, the chromophore undergoes electron transfer with nearby redox-active amino-acid residues within the protein, whereby this first step of signal transduction may be initiated either from the flavin's excited singlet or triplet state. Despite the collective effort of theoreticians and experimentalists to characterize and understand the photochemistry of flavoproteins, the mechanistic details of the excited state processes initiating signal transduction are yet to be revealed. Here, we use a light-oxygen-voltage-sensing domain from Avena sativa phototropin to get additional insight into the excited state photochemistry of flavoproteins. The influence of structural variations of the cofactor flavin mononucleotide (FMN) is explored by varying the methyl substitution pattern in positions 7 and 8 of the flavin core. The photophysical properties of the FMN derivatives, in the absence and presence of the protein environment, are investigated by UV-vis absorption, fluorescence, and electron paramagnetic resonance spectroscopies as well as cyclic voltammetry. The comparison of the properties of the modified flavin cofactors with those of FMN shows that the rates of the different excited state reactions, and therefore also the singlet/triplet yields, can be modulated substantially by only minor structural modifications of the flavin core.
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Affiliation(s)
- Sabine Richert
- Institute of Physical Chemistry, University of Freiburg, Albertstr. 21, 79104 Freiburg, Germany
| | - Jing Chen
- Institute of Physical Chemistry, University of Freiburg, Albertstr. 21, 79104 Freiburg, Germany
| | - Nils Pompe
- Institute of Physical Chemistry, University of Freiburg, Albertstr. 21, 79104 Freiburg, Germany
| | - Valentin Radtke
- Institute of Inorganic and Analytical Chemistry, University of Freiburg, Albertstr. 21, 79104 Freiburg, Germany
| | - Boris Lllarionov
- Hamburg School of Food Science, University of Hamburg, Grindelallee 117, 20146 Hamburg, Germany
| | - Markus Fischer
- Hamburg School of Food Science, University of Hamburg, Grindelallee 117, 20146 Hamburg, Germany
| | - Adelbert Bacher
- Institute of Organic Chemistry and Biochemistry, Technical University of Munich, Lichtenbergstr. 4, 85748 Garching, Germany
| | - Stefan Weber
- Institute of Physical Chemistry, University of Freiburg, Albertstr. 21, 79104 Freiburg, Germany
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10
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Qi Y, Sun X, Ma L, Wen Q, Qiu L, Shen J. Identification of two Pleurotus ostreatus blue light receptor genes (PoWC-1 and PoWC-2) and in vivo confirmation of complex PoWC-12 formation through yeast two hybrid system. Fungal Biol 2019; 124:8-14. [PMID: 31892380 DOI: 10.1016/j.funbio.2019.10.004] [Citation(s) in RCA: 9] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 06/04/2019] [Revised: 09/29/2019] [Accepted: 10/07/2019] [Indexed: 01/12/2023]
Abstract
Blue light is necessary for initiation of mushroom formation of Pleurotus ostreatus. In this study, we isolated homologues of the blue light receptor genes wc-1 and wc-2 from P. ostreatus, PoWC-1 and PoWC-2. The PoWC-1 contained three typical PAS domains and one PAS domain exhibited significant similarity to the LOV domain of known blue light receptors. The PoWC-2 had one typical PAS domain and one ZnF domain. The qRT-PCR analysis showed that PoWC-1 and PoWC-2 expression increased in a short time, and the final level tended to be stable along with the light illumination. The PoWC-1 and PoWC-2 expression levels of the primordium period was higher than that of mature fruiting-body period; and in the pileus were the highest, followed by the stipe and the gills. The expression of PoWC-1 and PoWC-2 in pre-primordial mycelia was induced by light exposure. In vivo analysis through yeast two-hybrid experiment disclosed that PoWC-1 and PoWC-2 could form heterologous complex to activate the reporter genes and the complex perform the transcription factor function requiring the addition of FAD.
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Affiliation(s)
- Yuancheng Qi
- College of Life Science, Henan Agricultural University, Zhengzhou 450002, China.
| | - Xiankai Sun
- College of Life Science, Henan Agricultural University, Zhengzhou 450002, China.
| | - Lin Ma
- College of Life Science, Henan Agricultural University, Zhengzhou 450002, China.
| | - Qing Wen
- College of Life Science, Henan Agricultural University, Zhengzhou 450002, China.
| | - Liyou Qiu
- College of Life Science, Henan Agricultural University, Zhengzhou 450002, China.
| | - Jinwen Shen
- College of Life Science, Henan Agricultural University, Zhengzhou 450002, China.
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11
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Brenna A, Talora C. WC-1 and the Proximal GATA Sequence Mediate a Cis-/Trans-Acting Repressive Regulation of Light-Dependent Gene Transcription in the Dark. Int J Mol Sci 2019; 20:ijms20122854. [PMID: 31212732 PMCID: PMC6628569 DOI: 10.3390/ijms20122854] [Citation(s) in RCA: 5] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 05/07/2019] [Revised: 06/04/2019] [Accepted: 06/08/2019] [Indexed: 12/18/2022] Open
Abstract
Simple Summary We observed that both the proximal GATA sequence in light-responsive elements (LREs) of the albino-3 promoter and the Zinc Finger Domain of WC-1 are involved in the dark-related repressive control mechanism of light-regulated genes. Abstract Light influences a wide range of physiological processes from prokaryotes to mammals. Neurospora crassa represents an important model system used for studying this signal pathway. At molecular levels, the WHITE COLLAR Complex (WCC), a heterodimer formed by WC-1 (the blue light photo-sensor) and WC-2 (the transcriptional activator), is the critical positive regulator of light-dependent gene expression. GATN (N indicates any other nucleotide) repeats are consensus sequences within the promoters of light-dependent genes recognized by the WCC. The distal GATN is also known as C-box since it is involved in the circadian clock. However, we know very little about the role of the proximal GATN, and the molecular mechanism that controls the transcription of light-induced genes during the dark/light transition it is still unclear. Here we showed a first indication that mutagenesis of the proximal GATA sequence within the target promoter of the albino-3 gene or deletion of the WC-1 zinc finger domain led to a rise in expression of light-dependent genes already in the dark, effectively decoupling light stimuli and transcriptional activation. This is the first observation of cis-/trans-acting repressive machinery, which is not consistent with the light-dependent regulatory mechanism observed in the eukaryotic world so far.
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Affiliation(s)
- Andrea Brenna
- Department of Biology, Biochemistry, University of Fribourg, 1700 Fribourg, Switzerland.
- Pasteur Cenci Bolognetti Foundation c/o Department of Biology and Biotechnology "Charles Darwin", Sapienza University, 00185 Rome, Italy.
| | - Claudio Talora
- Department of Molecular Medicine, Sapienza University of Rome Viale Regina Elena 291, 00161 Roma, Italy.
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Zhu Q, Ramakrishnan M, Park J, Belden WJ. Histone H3 lysine 4 methyltransferase is required for facultative heterochromatin at specific loci. BMC Genomics 2019; 20:350. [PMID: 31068130 PMCID: PMC6505117 DOI: 10.1186/s12864-019-5729-7] [Citation(s) in RCA: 7] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 01/30/2019] [Accepted: 04/24/2019] [Indexed: 01/01/2023] Open
Abstract
Background Histone H3 lysine 4 tri-methylation (H3K4me3) and histone H3 lysine 9 tri-methylation (H3K9me3) are widely perceived to be opposing and often mutually exclusive chromatin modifications. However, both are needed for certain light-activated genes in Neurospora crassa (Neurospora), including frequency (frq) and vivid (vvd). Except for these 2 loci, little is known about how H3K4me3 and H3K9me3 impact and contribute to light-regulated gene expression. Results In this report, we performed a multi-dimensional genomic analysis to understand the role of H3K4me3 and H3K9me3 using the Neurospora light response as the system. RNA-seq on strains lacking H3 lysine 4 methyltransferase (KMT2/SET-1) and histone H3 lysine 9 methyltransferase (KMT1/DIM-5) revealed some light-activated genes had altered expression, but the light response was largely intact. Comparing these 2 mutants to wild-type (WT), we found that roughly equal numbers of genes showed elevated and reduced expression in the dark and the light making the environmental stimulus somewhat ancillary to the genome-wide effects. ChIP-seq experiments revealed H3K4me3 and H3K9me3 had only minor changes in response to light in WT, but there were notable alterations in H3K4me3 in Δkmt1/Δdim-5 and H3K9me3 in Δkmt2/Δset-1 indicating crosstalk and redistribution between the modifications. Integrated analysis of the RNA-seq and ChIP-seq highlighted context-dependent roles for KMT2/SET1 and KMT1/DIM-5 as either co-activators or co-repressors with some overlap as co-regulators. At a small subset of loci, H3K4 methylation is required for H3K9me3-mediated facultative heterochromatin including, the central clock gene frequency (frq). Finally, we used sequential ChIP (re-ChIP) experiment to confirm Neurospora contains K4/K9 bivalent domains. Conclusions Collectively, these data indicate there are obfuscated regulatory roles for H3K4 methylation and H3K9 methylation depending on genome location with some minor overlap and co-dependency. Electronic supplementary material The online version of this article (10.1186/s12864-019-5729-7) contains supplementary material, which is available to authorized users.
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Affiliation(s)
- Qiaoqiao Zhu
- Department of Animal Sciences, Rutgers, The State University of New Jersey, New Brunswick, NJ, 08901, USA
| | - Mukund Ramakrishnan
- Department of Animal Sciences, Rutgers, The State University of New Jersey, New Brunswick, NJ, 08901, USA.,Current Address: Department of Biological Sciences, IISER Berhampur, Berhampur, Ganjam, Odisha, 760010, India
| | - Jinhee Park
- Department of Animal Sciences, Rutgers, The State University of New Jersey, New Brunswick, NJ, 08901, USA
| | - William J Belden
- Department of Animal Sciences, Rutgers, The State University of New Jersey, New Brunswick, NJ, 08901, USA.
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It's All in the Genes: The Regulatory Pathways of Sexual Reproduction in Filamentous Ascomycetes. Genes (Basel) 2019; 10:genes10050330. [PMID: 31052334 PMCID: PMC6562746 DOI: 10.3390/genes10050330] [Citation(s) in RCA: 27] [Impact Index Per Article: 5.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 03/11/2019] [Revised: 04/17/2019] [Accepted: 04/24/2019] [Indexed: 12/23/2022] Open
Abstract
Sexual reproduction in filamentous ascomycete fungi results in the production of highly specialized sexual tissues, which arise from relatively simple, vegetative mycelia. This conversion takes place after the recognition of and response to a variety of exogenous and endogenous cues, and relies on very strictly regulated gene, protein, and metabolite pathways. This makes studying sexual development in fungi an interesting tool in which to study gene-gene, gene-protein, and protein-metabolite interactions. This review provides an overview of some of the most important genes involved in this process; from those involved in the conversion of mycelia into sexually-competent tissue, to those involved in the development of the ascomata, the asci, and ultimately, the ascospores.
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Schumacher DI, Lütkenhaus R, Altegoer F, Teichert I, Kück U, Nowrousian M. The transcription factor PRO44 and the histone chaperone ASF1 regulate distinct aspects of multicellular development in the filamentous fungus Sordaria macrospora. BMC Genet 2018; 19:112. [PMID: 30545291 PMCID: PMC6293562 DOI: 10.1186/s12863-018-0702-z] [Citation(s) in RCA: 12] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 09/25/2018] [Accepted: 11/28/2018] [Indexed: 02/07/2023] Open
Abstract
Background Fungal fruiting bodies are complex three-dimensional structures that are formed to protect and disperse the sexual spores. Their morphogenesis requires the concerted action of numerous genes; however, at the molecular level, the spatio-temporal sequence of events leading to the mature fruiting body is largely unknown. In previous studies, the transcription factor gene pro44 and the histone chaperone gene asf1 were shown to be essential for fruiting body formation in the ascomycete Sordaria macrospora. Both PRO44 and ASF1 are predicted to act on the regulation of gene expression in the nucleus, and mutants in both genes are blocked at the same stage of development. Thus, we hypothesized that PRO44 and ASF1 might be involved in similar aspects of transcriptional regulation. In this study, we characterized their roles in fruiting body development in more detail. Results The PRO44 protein forms homodimers, localizes to the nucleus, and is strongly expressed in the outer layers of the developing young fruiting body. Analysis of single and double mutants of asf1 and three other chromatin modifier genes, cac2, crc1, and rtt106, showed that only asf1 is essential for fruiting body formation whereas cac2 and rtt106 might have redundant functions in this process. RNA-seq analysis revealed distinct roles for asf1 and pro44 in sexual development, with asf1 acting as a suppressor of weakly expressed genes during morphogenesis. This is most likely not due to global mislocalization of nucleosomes as micrococcal nuclease-sequencing did not reveal differences in nucleosome spacing and positioning around transcriptional start sites between Δasf1 and the wild type. However, bisulfite sequencing revealed a decrease in DNA methylation in Δasf1, which might be a reason for the observed changes in gene expression. Transcriptome analysis of gene expression in young fruiting bodies showed that pro44 is required for correct expression of genes involved in extracellular metabolism. Deletion of the putative transcription factor gene asm2, which is downregulated in young fruiting bodies of Δpro44, results in defects during ascospore maturation. Conclusions In summary, the results indicate distinct roles for the transcription factor PRO44 and the histone chaperone ASF1 in the regulation of sexual development in fungi. Electronic supplementary material The online version of this article (10.1186/s12863-018-0702-z) contains supplementary material, which is available to authorized users.
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Affiliation(s)
| | - Ramona Lütkenhaus
- Lehrstuhl für Allgemeine und Molekulare Botanik, Ruhr-Universität Bochum, 44780, Bochum, Germany
| | - Florian Altegoer
- Lehrstuhl für Allgemeine und Molekulare Botanik, Ruhr-Universität Bochum, 44780, Bochum, Germany.,LOEWE-Zentrum für Synthetische Mikrobiologie & Department of Chemistry, Philipps University of Marburg, Marburg, Germany
| | - Ines Teichert
- Lehrstuhl für Allgemeine und Molekulare Botanik, Ruhr-Universität Bochum, 44780, Bochum, Germany
| | - Ulrich Kück
- Lehrstuhl für Allgemeine und Molekulare Botanik, Ruhr-Universität Bochum, 44780, Bochum, Germany
| | - Minou Nowrousian
- Lehrstuhl für Allgemeine und Molekulare Botanik, Ruhr-Universität Bochum, 44780, Bochum, Germany.
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Fuller KK, Dunlap JC, Loros JJ. Light-regulated promoters for tunable, temporal, and affordable control of fungal gene expression. Appl Microbiol Biotechnol 2018; 102:3849-3863. [PMID: 29569180 DOI: 10.1007/s00253-018-8887-7] [Citation(s) in RCA: 11] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 12/28/2017] [Revised: 02/19/2018] [Accepted: 02/20/2018] [Indexed: 01/08/2023]
Abstract
Regulatable promoters are important genetic tools, particularly for assigning function to essential and redundant genes. They can also be used to control the expression of enzymes that influence metabolic flux or protein secretion, thereby optimizing product yield in bioindustry. This review will focus on regulatable systems for use in filamentous fungi, an important group of organisms whose members include key research models, devastating pathogens of plants and animals, and exploitable cell factories. Though we will begin by cataloging those promoters that are controlled by nutritional or chemical means, our primary focus will rest on those who can be controlled by a literal flip-of-the-switch: promoters of light-regulated genes. The vvd promoter of Neurospora will first serve as a paradigm for how light-driven systems can provide tight, robust, tunable, and temporal control of either autologous or heterologous fungal proteins. We will then discuss a theoretical approach to, and practical considerations for, the development of such promoters in other species. To this end, we have compiled genes from six previously published light-regulated transcriptomic studies to guide the search for suitable photoregulatable promoters in your fungus of interest.
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Affiliation(s)
- Kevin K Fuller
- Department of Molecular and Systems Biology, Geisel School of Medicine, Hanover, NH, USA.
| | - Jay C Dunlap
- Department of Molecular and Systems Biology, Geisel School of Medicine, Hanover, NH, USA
| | - Jennifer J Loros
- Department of Molecular and Systems Biology, Geisel School of Medicine, Hanover, NH, USA. .,Department of Biochemistry and Cell Biology, Geisel School of Medicine, Hanover, NH, USA.
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Tong SM, Zhang AX, Guo CT, Ying SH, Feng MG. Daylight length-dependent translocation of VIVID photoreceptor in cells and its essential role in conidiation and virulence of Beauveria bassiana. Environ Microbiol 2017; 20:169-185. [PMID: 28967173 DOI: 10.1111/1462-2920.13951] [Citation(s) in RCA: 35] [Impact Index Per Article: 5.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 06/04/2017] [Accepted: 09/27/2017] [Indexed: 12/21/2022]
Abstract
The fungal insect pathogen Beauveria bassiana has the blue-light photoreceptor VIVID (VVD) but lacks a pigmentation pattern to trace its light responses. Here, we show that the fungal vvd is transcriptionally expressed, and linked to other blue/red photoreceptor genes, in a daylight length-dependent manner. GFP-tagged VVD fusion protein was localized to periphery, cytoplasm and vacuoles of hyphal cells in light/dark (L:D) cycles of 24:0 and 16:8 and aggregated in cytoplasm with shortening daylight until transfer into nuclei in full darkness. Deletion of vvd caused more reduced (91%) conidiation capacity in L:D 12:12 cycle of blue light (450/480 nm) than of yellow-to-red (540-760 nm) and white lights (∼70%). The conidiation defect worsened with shortened daylight in different L:D cycles of white light, coinciding well with drastic repression of key activator genes in central development pathway. Intriguingly, the deletion mutant displayed blocked secretion of cuticle-degrading Pr1 proteases, retarded dimorphic transition in insect haemocoel, and hence a lethal action twice longer than those for control strains against Galleria mellonella regardless of the infection passing or bypassing insect cuticle. Conclusively, VVD sustains normal conidiation in a daylight length-dependent manner and acts as a vital virulence factor in B. bassiana.
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Affiliation(s)
- Sen-Miao Tong
- Institute of Microbiology, College of Life Sciences, Zhejiang University, Hangzhou, Zhejiang, People's Republic of China
| | - An-Xue Zhang
- Institute of Microbiology, College of Life Sciences, Zhejiang University, Hangzhou, Zhejiang, People's Republic of China
| | - Chong-Tao Guo
- Institute of Microbiology, College of Life Sciences, Zhejiang University, Hangzhou, Zhejiang, People's Republic of China
| | - Sheng-Hua Ying
- Institute of Microbiology, College of Life Sciences, Zhejiang University, Hangzhou, Zhejiang, People's Republic of China
| | - Ming-Guang Feng
- Institute of Microbiology, College of Life Sciences, Zhejiang University, Hangzhou, Zhejiang, People's Republic of China
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Xu X, Chen X, Yu W, Liu Y, Zhang W, Lan J. Cloning and analysis of the Glwc-1 and Glwc-2 genes encoding putative blue light photoreceptor from Ganoderma lucidum. J Basic Microbiol 2017; 57:705-711. [PMID: 28543056 DOI: 10.1002/jobm.201700016] [Citation(s) in RCA: 3] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 01/10/2017] [Revised: 05/01/2017] [Accepted: 05/06/2017] [Indexed: 11/09/2022]
Abstract
Blue light plays an important role during the growth of Ganoderma lucidum, one of the best-known medicinal macrofungi in China. In the present study, we cloned Glwc-1 and Glwc-2, the homologue of the blue light photoreceptors Ncwc-1 and Ncwc-2 of Neurospora crassa, from G. lucidum. The deduced amino acid sequence of Glwc-1 contained the similar function domains as NcWC-1 including LOV, PAS B, PAS C, and PAC domains. The deduced amino acid sequence of Glwc-2 contained PAS domain and GATA-type zinc finger (Znf) domain as well as NcWC-2. Phylogenetic analysis based on fungal WC-1 and WC-2 supported GlWC-1 and GlWC-2 were blue light receptors. The expression of Glwc-1 and Glwc-2 indicated that they might play an important role during the primordium differentiation process of G. lucidum, and the external blue light stimulation increased the expression of Glwc-1 and Glwc-2.
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Affiliation(s)
- Xinran Xu
- Institute of Medicinal Plant Development, Chinese Academy of Medical Sciences & Peking Union Medical College, Beijing, China
| | - Xiangdong Chen
- Institute of Medicinal Plant Development, Chinese Academy of Medical Sciences & Peking Union Medical College, Beijing, China
| | - Wumengxiao Yu
- Institute of Medicinal Plant Development, Chinese Academy of Medical Sciences & Peking Union Medical College, Beijing, China
| | - Yu Liu
- Institute of Medicinal Plant Development, Chinese Academy of Medical Sciences & Peking Union Medical College, Beijing, China
| | - Weiwei Zhang
- Institute of Medicinal Plant Development, Chinese Academy of Medical Sciences & Peking Union Medical College, Beijing, China
| | - Jin Lan
- Institute of Medicinal Plant Development, Chinese Academy of Medical Sciences & Peking Union Medical College, Beijing, China
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Photoreceptors in the dark: A functional white collar-like complex and other putative light-sensing components encoded by the genome of the subterranean fungus Tuber melanosporum. Fungal Biol 2017; 121:253-263. [PMID: 28215352 DOI: 10.1016/j.funbio.2016.12.003] [Citation(s) in RCA: 3] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 08/30/2016] [Revised: 12/21/2016] [Accepted: 12/22/2016] [Indexed: 12/29/2022]
Abstract
Light is perceived and transduced by fungi, where it modulates processes as diverse as growth and morphogenesis, sexual development and secondary metabolism. A special case in point is that of fungi with a subterranean, light-shielded habitat such as Tuber spp. Using as reference the genome sequence of the black truffle Tuber melanosporum, we used bioinformatic prediction tools and expression data to gain insight on the photoreceptor systems of this hypogeous ectomycorrhizal fungus. These include a chromophore-less opsin, a putative red-light-sensing phytochrome not expressed at detectable levels in any of the examined lifecycle stages, and a nearly canonical two-component (WC-1/WC-2) photoreceptor system similar to the Neurospora white collar complex (WCC). Multiple evidence, including expression at relatively high levels in all lifecycle stages except for fruiting-bodies and the results of heterologous functional complementation experiments conducted in Neurospora, suggests that the Tuber WCC is likely functional and capable of responding to blue-light. The other putative T. melanosporum photoreceptor components, especially the chromophore-less opsin and the likely non-functional phytochrome, may instead represent signatures of adaptation to a hypogeous (light-shielded) lifestyle.
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Photoreceptors mapping from past history till date. JOURNAL OF PHOTOCHEMISTRY AND PHOTOBIOLOGY B-BIOLOGY 2016; 162:223-231. [PMID: 27387671 DOI: 10.1016/j.jphotobiol.2016.06.020] [Citation(s) in RCA: 12] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 04/25/2016] [Accepted: 06/13/2016] [Indexed: 12/14/2022]
Abstract
The critical source of information in plants is light, which is perceived by receptors present in plants and animals. Receptors present in plant and animal system regulate important processes, and knowing the chromophores and signalling domains for each receptor could pave a way to trace out links between these receptors. The signalling mechanism for each receptor will give insight knowledge. This review has focussed on the photoreceptors from past history till date, that have evolved in the plant as well as in the animal system (to lesser extent). We have also focussed our attention on finding the links between the receptors by showing the commonalities as well as the differences between them, and also tried to trace out the links with the help of chromophores and signalling domain. Several photoreceptors have been traced out, which share similarity in the chromophore as well as in the signalling domain, which indicate towards the evolution of photoreceptors from one another. For instance, cryptochrome has been found to evolve three times from CPD photolyase as well as evolution of different types of phytochrome is a result of duplication and divergence. In addition, similarity between the photoreceptors suggested towards evolution from one another. This review has also discussed possible mechanism for each receptor i.e. how they regulate developmental processes and involve what kinds of regulators and also gives an insight on signalling mechanisms by these receptors. This review could also be a new initiative in the study of UVR8 associated studies.
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Glantz ST, Carpenter EJ, Melkonian M, Gardner KH, Boyden ES, Wong GKS, Chow BY. Functional and topological diversity of LOV domain photoreceptors. Proc Natl Acad Sci U S A 2016; 113:E1442-51. [PMID: 26929367 PMCID: PMC4801262 DOI: 10.1073/pnas.1509428113] [Citation(s) in RCA: 109] [Impact Index Per Article: 13.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 01/08/2023] Open
Abstract
Light-oxygen-voltage sensitive (LOV) flavoproteins are ubiquitous photoreceptors that mediate responses to environmental cues. Photosensory inputs are transduced into signaling outputs via structural rearrangements in sensor domains that consequently modulate the activity of an effector domain or multidomain clusters. Establishing the diversity in effector function and sensor-effector topology will inform what signaling mechanisms govern light-responsive behaviors across multiple kingdoms of life and how these signals are transduced. Here, we report the bioinformatics identification of over 6,700 candidate LOV domains (including over 4,000 previously unidentified sequences from plants and protists), and insights from their annotations for ontological function and structural arrangements. Motif analysis identified the sensors from ∼42 million ORFs, with strong statistical separation from other flavoproteins and non-LOV members of the structurally related Per-aryl hydrocarbon receptor nuclear translocator (ARNT)-Sim family. Conserved-domain analysis determined putative light-regulated function and multidomain topologies. We found that for certain effectors, sensor-effector linker length is discretized based on both phylogeny and the preservation of α-helical heptad repeats within an extended coiled-coil linker structure. This finding suggests that preserving sensor-effector orientation is a key determinant of linker length, in addition to ancestry, in LOV signaling structure-function. We found a surprisingly high prevalence of effectors with functions previously thought to be rare among LOV proteins, such as regulators of G protein signaling, and discovered several previously unidentified effectors, such as lipases. This work highlights the value of applying genomic and transcriptomic technologies to diverse organisms to capture the structural and functional variation in photosensory proteins that are vastly important in adaptation, photobiology, and optogenetics.
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Affiliation(s)
- Spencer T Glantz
- Department of Bioengineering, University of Pennsylvania, Philadelphia, PA 19104
| | - Eric J Carpenter
- Department of Biological Sciences, University of Alberta, Edmonton, AB, Canada T6G 2E9
| | - Michael Melkonian
- Institute of Botany, Cologne Biocenter, University of Cologne, 50674 Cologne, Germany
| | - Kevin H Gardner
- Structural Biology Initiative, CUNY Advanced Science Research Center, City College of New York, New York, NY 10031; Department of Chemistry and Biochemistry, City College of New York, New York, NY 10031; Biochemistry, Chemistry and Biology Programs, Graduate Center, The City University of New York, New York, NY 10031
| | - Edward S Boyden
- The Media Laboratory, Massachusetts Institute of Technology, Cambridge, MA 02139; Department of Biological Engineering, Massachusetts Institute of Technology, Cambridge, MA 02139; Department of Brain and Cognitive Sciences, Massachusetts Institute of Technology, Cambridge, MA 02139; McGovern Institute for Brain Sciences, Massachusetts Institute of Technology, Cambridge, MA 02139
| | - Gane Ka-Shu Wong
- Department of Biological Sciences, University of Alberta, Edmonton, AB, Canada T6G 2E9; Department of Medicine, University of Alberta, Edmonton, AB, Canada T6G 2E1; BGI-Shenzhen, Beishan Industrial Zone, Yantian District, Shenzhen 518083, China
| | - Brian Y Chow
- Department of Bioengineering, University of Pennsylvania, Philadelphia, PA 19104;
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Fuller K, Dunlap J, Loros J. Fungal Light Sensing at the Bench and Beyond. ADVANCES IN GENETICS 2016; 96:1-51. [DOI: 10.1016/bs.adgen.2016.08.002] [Citation(s) in RCA: 26] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/12/2022]
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Alternative Use of DNA Binding Domains by the Neurospora White Collar Complex Dictates Circadian Regulation and Light Responses. Mol Cell Biol 2015; 36:781-93. [PMID: 26711258 DOI: 10.1128/mcb.00841-15] [Citation(s) in RCA: 31] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 08/31/2015] [Accepted: 12/15/2015] [Indexed: 01/09/2023] Open
Abstract
In the Neurospora circadian system, the White Collar complex (WCC) of WC-1 and WC-2 drives transcription of the circadian pacemaker gene frequency (frq), whose gene product, FRQ, as a part of the FRQ-FRH complex (FFC), inhibits its own expression. The WCC is also the principal Neurospora photoreceptor; WCC-mediated light induction of frq resets the clock, and all acute light induction is triggered by WCC binding to promoters of light-induced genes. However, not all acutely light-induced genes are also clock regulated, and conversely, not all clock-regulated direct targets of WCC are light induced; the structural determinants governing the shift from WCC's dark circadian role to its light activation role are poorly described. We report that the DBD region (named for being defective in binding DNA), a basic region in WC-1 proximal to the DNA-binding zinc finger (ZnF) whose function was previously ascribed to nuclear localization, instead plays multiple essential roles assisting in DNA binding and mediating interactions with the FFC. DNA binding for light induction by the WCC requires only WC-2, whereas DNA binding for circadian functions requires WC-2 as well as the ZnF and DBD motif of WC-1. The data suggest a means by which alterations in the tertiary and quaternary structures of the WCC can lead to its distinct functions in the dark and in the light.
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Dasgupta A, Fuller KK, Dunlap JC, Loros JJ. Seeing the world differently: variability in the photosensory mechanisms of two model fungi. Environ Microbiol 2015; 18:5-20. [PMID: 26373782 DOI: 10.1111/1462-2920.13055] [Citation(s) in RCA: 46] [Impact Index Per Article: 5.1] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 07/16/2015] [Revised: 09/01/2015] [Accepted: 09/12/2015] [Indexed: 12/14/2022]
Abstract
Light plays an important role for most organisms on this planet, serving either as a source of energy or information for the adaptation of biological processes to specific times of day. The fungal kingdom is estimated to contain well over a million species, possibly 10-fold more, and it is estimated that a majority of the fungi respond to light, eliciting changes in several physiological characteristics including pathogenesis, development and secondary metabolism. Two model organisms for photobiological studies have taken centre-stage over the last few decades--Neurospora crassa and Aspergillus nidulans. In this review, we will first discuss our understanding of the light response in N. crassa, about which the most is known, and will then juxtapose N. crassa with A. nidulans, which, as will be described below, provides an excellent template for understanding photosensory cross-talk. Finally, we will end with a commentary on the variability of the light response among other relevant fungi, and how our molecular understanding in the aforementioned model organisms still provides a strong base for dissecting light responses in such species.
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Affiliation(s)
- Arko Dasgupta
- Department of Genetics, Geisel School of Medicine at Dartmouth, Hanover, NH, USA
| | - Kevin K Fuller
- Department of Genetics, Geisel School of Medicine at Dartmouth, Hanover, NH, USA
| | - Jay C Dunlap
- Department of Genetics, Geisel School of Medicine at Dartmouth, Hanover, NH, USA
| | - Jennifer J Loros
- Department of Biochemistry, Geisel School of Medicine at Dartmouth, Hanover, NH, USA
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Proietto M, Bianchi MM, Ballario P, Brenna A. Epigenetic and Posttranslational Modifications in Light Signal Transduction and the Circadian Clock in Neurospora crassa. Int J Mol Sci 2015; 16:15347-83. [PMID: 26198228 PMCID: PMC4519903 DOI: 10.3390/ijms160715347] [Citation(s) in RCA: 13] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 05/12/2015] [Revised: 06/24/2015] [Accepted: 06/30/2015] [Indexed: 12/15/2022] Open
Abstract
Blue light, a key abiotic signal, regulates a wide variety of physiological processes in many organisms. One of these phenomena is the circadian rhythm presents in organisms sensitive to the phase-setting effects of blue light and under control of the daily alternation of light and dark. Circadian clocks consist of autoregulatory alternating negative and positive feedback loops intimately connected with the cellular metabolism and biochemical processes. Neurospora crassa provides an excellent model for studying the molecular mechanisms involved in these phenomena. The White Collar Complex (WCC), a blue-light receptor and transcription factor of the circadian oscillator, and Frequency (FRQ), the circadian clock pacemaker, are at the core of the Neurospora circadian system. The eukaryotic circadian clock relies on transcriptional/translational feedback loops: some proteins rhythmically repress their own synthesis by inhibiting the activity of their transcriptional factors, generating self-sustained oscillations over a period of about 24 h. One of the basic mechanisms that perpetuate self-sustained oscillations is post translation modification (PTM). The acronym PTM generically indicates the addition of acetyl, methyl, sumoyl, or phosphoric groups to various types of proteins. The protein can be regulatory or enzymatic or a component of the chromatin. PTMs influence protein stability, interaction, localization, activity, and chromatin packaging. Chromatin modification and PTMs have been implicated in regulating circadian clock function in Neurospora. Research into the epigenetic control of transcription factors such as WCC has yielded new insights into the temporal modulation of light-dependent gene transcription. Here we report on epigenetic and protein PTMs in the regulation of the Neurospora crassa circadian clock. We also present a model that illustrates the molecular mechanisms at the basis of the blue light control of the circadian clock.
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Affiliation(s)
- Marco Proietto
- Department of Biology and Biotechnologies "Charles Darwin", Sapienza-University of Rome, Piazzale Aldo Moro 5, Rome 00185, Italy.
| | - Michele Maria Bianchi
- Department of Biology and Biotechnologies "Charles Darwin", Sapienza-University of Rome, Piazzale Aldo Moro 5, Rome 00185, Italy.
| | - Paola Ballario
- Department of Biology and Biotechnologies "Charles Darwin", Sapienza-University of Rome, Piazzale Aldo Moro 5, Rome 00185, Italy.
- Pasteur Institute, Cenci Bolognetti Foundation and Department of Biology and Biotechnology "Charles Darwin", Sapienza-University of Rome, Piazzale Aldo Moro 5, Rome 00185, Italy.
| | - Andrea Brenna
- Department of Biology and Biotechnologies "Charles Darwin", Sapienza-University of Rome, Piazzale Aldo Moro 5, Rome 00185, Italy.
- Pasteur Institute, Cenci Bolognetti Foundation and Department of Biology and Biotechnology "Charles Darwin", Sapienza-University of Rome, Piazzale Aldo Moro 5, Rome 00185, Italy.
- Department of Biology, Division of Biochemistry, University of Fribourg, Chemin du Musée 5, Fribourg 1700, Switzerland.
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Sancar C, Ha N, Yilmaz R, Tesorero R, Fisher T, Brunner M, Sancar G. Combinatorial control of light induced chromatin remodeling and gene activation in Neurospora. PLoS Genet 2015; 11:e1005105. [PMID: 25822411 PMCID: PMC4378982 DOI: 10.1371/journal.pgen.1005105] [Citation(s) in RCA: 40] [Impact Index Per Article: 4.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 11/28/2014] [Accepted: 02/25/2015] [Indexed: 02/07/2023] Open
Abstract
Light is an important environmental cue that affects physiology and development of Neurospora crassa. The light-sensing transcription factor (TF) WCC, which consists of the GATA-family TFs WC1 and WC2, is required for light-dependent transcription. SUB1, another GATA-family TF, is not a photoreceptor but has also been implicated in light-inducible gene expression. To assess regulation and organization of the network of light-inducible genes, we analyzed the roles of WCC and SUB1 in light-induced transcription and nucleosome remodeling. We show that SUB1 co-regulates a fraction of light-inducible genes together with the WCC. WCC induces nucleosome eviction at its binding sites. Chromatin remodeling is facilitated by SUB1 but SUB1 cannot activate light-inducible genes in the absence of WCC. We identified FF7, a TF with a putative O-acetyl transferase domain, as an interaction partner of SUB1 and show their cooperation in regulation of a fraction of light-inducible and a much larger number of non light-inducible genes. Our data suggest that WCC acts as a general switch for light-induced chromatin remodeling and gene expression. SUB1 and FF7 synergistically determine the extent of light-induction of target genes in common with WCC but have in addition a role in transcription regulation beyond light-induced gene expression. In this study we have investigated the roles of the Neurospora transcription factors (TFs) WCC and SUB1 in light-activation of transcription. In principle TFs could exert identical functions for transcriptional activation and the extent of transcription will be determined by the sum of activity of the TFs. In this case however, we found that the activity of the main blue-light photoreceptor WCC is essential for the activation of light-inducible genes. SUB1 cooperates synergistically with the WCC to enhance expression of a subset of genes controlled directly by the light-activated WCC but cannot activate its light-inducible target genes in the absence of WCC. WCC evicts nucleosomes at its binding sites. This process is supported by SUB1 at a subset of common target genes. Light-dependent nucleosome loss generally correlates with but is not dependent on induction of transcription. Light-induced nucleosome eviction by the WCC/SUB1 could sensitize promoters for activation via endogenous and exogenous cues other than light, which may modulate the plasticity of the light-responsive transcriptome.
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Affiliation(s)
- Cigdem Sancar
- Biochemistry Center, University of Heidelberg, Heidelberg, Germany
| | - Nati Ha
- Biochemistry Center, University of Heidelberg, Heidelberg, Germany
| | - Rüstem Yilmaz
- Institute of Human Genetics, University of Ulm, Ulm, Germany
| | - Rafael Tesorero
- Biochemistry Center, University of Heidelberg, Heidelberg, Germany
| | - Tamas Fisher
- Biochemistry Center, University of Heidelberg, Heidelberg, Germany
| | - Michael Brunner
- Biochemistry Center, University of Heidelberg, Heidelberg, Germany
- * E-mail:
| | - Gencer Sancar
- Biochemistry Center, University of Heidelberg, Heidelberg, Germany
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Crane BR, Young MW. Interactive features of proteins composing eukaryotic circadian clocks. Annu Rev Biochem 2015; 83:191-219. [PMID: 24905781 DOI: 10.1146/annurev-biochem-060713-035644] [Citation(s) in RCA: 87] [Impact Index Per Article: 9.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/09/2022]
Abstract
Research into the molecular mechanisms of eukaryotic circadian clocks has proceeded at an electrifying pace. In this review, we discuss advances in our understanding of the structures of central molecular players in the timing oscillators of fungi, insects, and mammals. A series of clock protein structures demonstrate that the PAS (Per/Arnt/Sim) domain has been used with great variation to formulate the transcriptional activators and repressors of the clock. We discuss how posttranslational modifications and external cues, such as light, affect the conformation and function of core clock components. Recent breakthroughs have also revealed novel interactions among clock proteins and new partners that couple the clock to metabolic and developmental pathways. Overall, a picture of clock function has emerged wherein conserved motifs and structural platforms have been elaborated into a highly dynamic collection of interacting molecules that undergo orchestrated changes in chemical structure, conformational state, and partners.
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Affiliation(s)
- Brian R Crane
- Department of Chemistry and Chemical Biology, Cornell University, Ithaca, New York 14853;
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The histone H3 lysine 9 methyltransferase DIM-5 modifies chromatin at frequency and represses light-activated gene expression. G3-GENES GENOMES GENETICS 2014; 5:93-101. [PMID: 25429045 PMCID: PMC4291474 DOI: 10.1534/g3.114.015446] [Citation(s) in RCA: 22] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 01/22/2023]
Abstract
The transcriptional program controlling the circadian rhythm requires coordinated regulation of chromatin. Characterization of the chromodomain helicase DNA-binding enzyme CHD1 revealed DNA methylation in the promoter of the central clock gene frequency (frq) in Neurospora crassa. In this report, we show that the DNA methylation at frq is not only dependent on the DNA methyltransferase DIM-2 but also on the H3K9 methyltransferase DIM-5 and HP1. Histone H3 lysine 9 trimethylation (H3K9me3) occurs at frq and is most prominent 30 min after light-activated expression. Strains lacking dim-5 have an increase in light-induced transcription, and more White Collar-2 is found associated with the frq promoter. Consistent with the notion that DNA methylation assists in establishing the proper circadian phase, loss of H3K9 methylation results in a phase advance suggesting it delays the onset of frq expression. The dim-5 deletion strain displays an increase in circadian-regulated conidia formation on race tubes and there is a synthetic genetic interaction between dim-5 and ras-1bd. These results indicate DIM-5 has a regulatory role in muting circadian output. Overall, the data support a model where facultative heterochromatic at frq serves to establish the appropriate phase, mute the light response, and repress circadian output.
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Yang T, Xiong W, Dong C. Cloning and analysis of the Oswc-1 gene encoding a putative blue light photoreceptor from Ophiocordyceps sinensis. MYCOSCIENCE 2014. [DOI: 10.1016/j.myc.2013.09.003] [Citation(s) in RCA: 7] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/17/2022]
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Gyöngyösi N, Káldi K. Interconnections of reactive oxygen species homeostasis and circadian rhythm in Neurospora crassa. Antioxid Redox Signal 2014; 20:3007-23. [PMID: 23964982 DOI: 10.1089/ars.2013.5558] [Citation(s) in RCA: 27] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Submit a Manuscript] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 10/26/2022]
Abstract
SIGNIFICANCE Both circadian rhythm and the production of reactive oxygen species (ROS) are fundamental features of aerobic eukaryotic cells. The circadian clock enhances the fitness of organisms by enabling them to anticipate cycling changes in the surroundings. ROS generation in the cell is often altered in response to environmental changes, but oscillations in ROS levels may also reflect endogenous metabolic fluctuations governed by the circadian clock. On the other hand, an effective regulation and timing of antioxidant mechanisms may be crucial in the defense of cellular integrity. Thus, an interaction between the circadian timekeeping machinery and ROS homeostasis or signaling in both directions may be of advantage at all phylogenetic levels. RECENT ADVANCES The Frequency-White Collar-1 and White Collar-2 oscillator (FWO) of the filamentous fungus Neurospora crassa is well characterized at the molecular level. Several members of the ROS homeostasis were found to be controlled by the circadian clock, and ROS levels display circadian rhythm in Neurospora. On the other hand, multiple data indicate that ROS affect the molecular oscillator. CRITICAL ISSUES Increasing evidence suggests the interplay between ROS homeostasis and oscillators that may be partially or fully independent of the FWO. In addition, ROS may be part of a complex cellular network synchronizing non-transcriptional oscillators with timekeeping machineries based on the classical transcription-translation feedback mechanism. FUTURE DIRECTIONS Further investigations are needed to clarify how the different layers of the bidirectional interactions between ROS homeostasis and circadian regulation are interconnected.
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Ruger-Herreros C, Gil-Sánchez MDM, Sancar G, Brunner M, Corrochano LM. Alteration of light-dependent gene regulation by the absence of the RCO-1/RCM-1 repressor complex in the fungus Neurospora crassa. PLoS One 2014; 9:e95069. [PMID: 24747913 PMCID: PMC3991626 DOI: 10.1371/journal.pone.0095069] [Citation(s) in RCA: 11] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.1] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 10/29/2013] [Accepted: 03/23/2014] [Indexed: 12/04/2022] Open
Abstract
The activation of transcription by light in the fungus Neurospora crassa requires the White Collar Complex (WCC), a photoreceptor and transcription factor complex. After light reception two WCCs interact and bind the promoters of light-regulated genes to activate transcription. This process is regulated by VVD, a small photoreceptor that disrupts the interaction between WCCs and leads to a reduction in transcription after long exposures to light. The N. crassa RCO-1/RCM-1 repressor complex is the homolog of the Tup1-Ssn6 repressor complex in yeast, and its absence modifies photoadaptation. We show that the absence of the RCO-1/RCM-1 repressor complex leads to several alterations in transcription that are gene-specific: an increase in the accumulation of mRNAs in the dark, a repression of transcription, and a derepression of transcription after long exposures to light. The absence of the RCO-1/RCM-1 repressor complex leads to lower VVD levels that are available for the regulation of the activity of the WCC. The reduction in the amount of VVD results in increased WCC binding to the promoters of light-regulated genes in the dark and after long exposures to light, leading to the modification of photoadaptation that has been observed in rco-1 and rcm-1 mutants. Our results show that the photoadaptation phenotype of mutants in the RCO-1/RCM-1 repressor complex is, at least in part, an indirect consequence of the reduction of vvd transcription, and the resulting modification in the regulation of transcription by the WCC.
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Affiliation(s)
| | | | - Gencer Sancar
- Biochemistry Center, University of Heidelberg, Heidelberg, Germany
| | - Michael Brunner
- Biochemistry Center, University of Heidelberg, Heidelberg, Germany
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Yang T, Dong C. Photo morphogenesis and photo response of the blue-light receptor gene Cmwc-1 in different strains of Cordyceps militaris. FEMS Microbiol Lett 2014; 352:190-7. [PMID: 24484244 DOI: 10.1111/1574-6968.12393] [Citation(s) in RCA: 37] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 12/10/2013] [Revised: 01/07/2014] [Accepted: 01/27/2014] [Indexed: 12/22/2022] Open
Abstract
Light is a necessary environmental factor for stroma formation and development of Cordyceps militaris, a well-known edible and medicinal fungus. In this study, photo morphogenesis and the blue-light receptor gene were studied using five representative strains of C. militaris. The results suggest that light was essential for colony pigmentation and could promote conidia production. Cmwc-1, the homologe of the blue-light photoreceptor of Neurospora crassa, was cloned from the genome of C. militaris by Hi-tail PCR. The protein CmWC-1 was characterized by the presence of the LOV and PAS domains and a GATA-type Znf domain. Genetic variation analysis of Cmwc-1 in different strains showed that 15-bp deletions occurred in three strains that resulted in 5-Gln deletions in the transcription activation domain. Phylogenetic analysis based on the Sordariomycetes WC-1-like proteins suggested that the sequence of WC-1 could be used as a candidate marker for phylogenetic analysis in fungi. Cmwc-1 mRNA was light inducible and the expression level increased significantly after irradiation in all tested strains. The sequence of CmWC-1 and the relative expressions responding to irradiation in degenerate and albino strains were similar as the cultivated one. This report will help to open the still-unexplored field of stroma development for this fungus.
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Affiliation(s)
- Tao Yang
- State Key Laboratory of Mycology, Institute of Microbiology, Chinese Academy of Sciences, Beijing, China; University of Chinese Academy of Sciences, Beijing, China
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Light-Induced Differences in Conformational Dynamics of the Circadian Clock Regulator VIVID. J Mol Biol 2014; 426:601-10. [DOI: 10.1016/j.jmb.2013.10.035] [Citation(s) in RCA: 13] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 03/02/2013] [Revised: 10/14/2013] [Accepted: 10/28/2013] [Indexed: 12/24/2022]
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Kim J, Geng R, Gallenstein RA, Somers DE. The F-box protein ZEITLUPE controls stability and nucleocytoplasmic partitioning of GIGANTEA. Development 2013; 140:4060-9. [PMID: 24004949 DOI: 10.1242/dev.096651] [Citation(s) in RCA: 60] [Impact Index Per Article: 5.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 02/03/2023]
Abstract
Nucleocytoplasmic partitioning of core clock components is essential for the proper operation of the circadian system. Previous work has shown that the F-box protein ZEITLUPE (ZTL) and clock element GIGANTEA (GI) heterodimerize in the cytosol, thereby stabilizing ZTL. Here, we report that ZTL post-translationally and reciprocally regulates protein levels and nucleocytoplasmic distribution of GI in Arabidopsis. We use ectopic expression of the N-terminus of ZTL, which contains the novel, light-absorbing region of ZTL (the LOV domain), transient expression assays and ztl mutants to establish that the levels of ZTL, a cytosolic protein, help govern the abundance and distribution of GI in the cytosol and nucleus. Ectopic expression of the ZTL N-terminus lengthens period, delays flowering time and alters hypocotyl length. We demonstrate that these phenotypes can be explained by the competitive interference of the LOV domain with endogenous GI-ZTL interactions. A complex of the ZTL N-terminus polypeptide with endogenous GI (LOV-GI) blocks normal GI function, causing degradation of endogenous ZTL and inhibition of other GI-related phenotypes. Increased cytosolic retention of GI by the LOV-GI complex additionally inhibits nuclear roles of GI, thereby lengthening flowering time. Hence, we conclude that under endogenous conditions, GI stabilization and cytoplasmic retention occurs naturally through a LOV domain-mediated GI-ZTL interaction, and that ZTL indirectly regulates GI nuclear pools by sequestering GI to the cytosol. As the absence of either GI or ZTL compromises clock function and diminishes the protein abundance of the other, our results highlight how their reciprocal co-stabilization is essential for robust circadian oscillations.
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Affiliation(s)
- Jeongsik Kim
- Department of Molecular Genetics, Ohio State University, Columbus, OH 43210, USA
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Regulation of transcription by light in Neurospora crassa: A model for fungal photobiology? FUNGAL BIOL REV 2013. [DOI: 10.1016/j.fbr.2013.02.004] [Citation(s) in RCA: 22] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/23/2022]
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Brenna A, Grimaldi B, Filetici P, Ballario P. Physical association of the WC-1 photoreceptor and the histone acetyltransferase NGF-1 is required for blue light signal transduction in Neurospora crassa. Mol Biol Cell 2012; 23:3863-72. [PMID: 22875992 PMCID: PMC3459862 DOI: 10.1091/mbc.e12-02-0142] [Citation(s) in RCA: 33] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/11/2022] Open
Abstract
In Neurospora crassa and other filamentous fungi, light-dependent-specific phenomena are regulated by transcription factors WC-1 and WC-2. In addition to its transcriptional activity, WC-1 is able to directly sense light stimuli through a LOV sensor domain. Its location in the nucleus and heterodimerization with WC-2, together with the presence of a zinc-finger DNA-binding domain and an environmental sensor domain, all resemble the functional evolutionary architecture adopted by vertebrate nuclear receptors (NRs). Here we describe a scenario in which WC-1 represents a functional orthologue of NRs and acts through association with the chromatin-modifying coactivator NGF-1, which encodes a homologue of the yeast Gcn5p acetyltransferase. To support this view, we show a direct association between WC-1 and NGF-1 that depends on a WC-1 region containing a conserved functional LXXLL motif, a signature previously described as being an exclusive feature of NR/coactivator interaction. Our data suggest that a WC-1/NGF-1 complex is preassembled in the dark on light-inducible promoters and that, after exposure to light stimulation, NGF-1-associated HAT activity leads to histone H3 acetylation and transcriptional activation. Finally, we provide evidence for a NGF-1-independent acetylated form of WC-1. Overall our data indicate that Neurospora and higher eukaryotes share a common mechanism for the signal transduction of environmental stimuli.
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Affiliation(s)
- Andrea Brenna
- Pasteur Cenci Bolognetti Foundation, Department of Biology and Biotechnology "Charles Darwin," Sapienza University of Rome, Rome, Italy
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Schumacher J. Tools for Botrytis cinerea: New expression vectors make the gray mold fungus more accessible to cell biology approaches. Fungal Genet Biol 2012; 49:483-97. [PMID: 22503771 DOI: 10.1016/j.fgb.2012.03.005] [Citation(s) in RCA: 156] [Impact Index Per Article: 13.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 02/10/2012] [Revised: 03/16/2012] [Accepted: 03/17/2012] [Indexed: 01/01/2023]
Abstract
Targeted gene inactivation is extensively used in the plant pathogenic fungus Botrytis cinerea for gene function analysis while strategies involving the expression of reporter genes have been rarely used due to the lack of appropriate expression vectors. Hence, an approach was initiated to establish an expression system for B.cinerea possessing the following features: (i) the targeted integration of constructs at defined gene loci which are dispensable under standard growth conditions, (ii) the use of promoter and terminator sequences allowing optimal gene expression, (iii) the use of codon-optimized reporter genes (Leroch et al., 2011), (iv) the use of multiple selection markers, and (v) the incorporation of a highly efficient cloning system. A set of basic vectors was generated by yeast recombinational cloning permitting a variety of protein fusions. The successful application of the expression system for labeling F-actin, the cytosol, the nuclei, the membrane, the ER and the peroxisomes was demonstrated. In addition, cloning vectors for bimolecular fluorescence complementation (BiFC) analyses for studying protein-protein interactions in situ were generated by splitting the codon-optimized gfp. The functionality of the constructed BiFC vectors was validated by demonstrating the interaction of the two white collar-like transcription factors BcWCL1 and BcWCL2 in the nuclei of growing B. cinerea hyphae.
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Affiliation(s)
- Julia Schumacher
- Institut für Biologie und Biotechnologie der Pflanzen, Westf. Wilhelms-Universität Münster, Hindenburgplatz 55, 48143 Münster, Germany.
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Schmoll M, Tian C, Sun J, Tisch D, Glass NL. Unravelling the molecular basis for light modulated cellulase gene expression - the role of photoreceptors in Neurospora crassa. BMC Genomics 2012; 13:127. [PMID: 22462823 PMCID: PMC3364853 DOI: 10.1186/1471-2164-13-127] [Citation(s) in RCA: 50] [Impact Index Per Article: 4.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 11/21/2011] [Accepted: 03/31/2012] [Indexed: 11/29/2022] Open
Abstract
BACKGROUND Light represents an important environmental cue, which exerts considerable influence on the metabolism of fungi. Studies with the biotechnological fungal workhorse Trichoderma reesei (Hypocrea jecorina) have revealed an interconnection between transcriptional regulation of cellulolytic enzymes and the light response. Neurospora crassa has been used as a model organism to study light and circadian rhythm biology. We therefore investigated whether light also regulates transcriptional regulation of cellulolytic enzymes in N. crassa. RESULTS We show that the N. crassa photoreceptor genes wc-1, wc-2 and vvd are involved in regulation of cellulase gene expression, indicating that this phenomenon is conserved among filamentous fungi. The negative effect of VVD on production of cellulolytic enzymes is thereby accomplished by its role in photoadaptation and hence its function in White collar complex (WCC) formation. In contrast, the induction of vvd expression by the WCC does not seem to be crucial in this process. Additionally, we found that WC-1 and WC-2 not only act as a complex, but also have individual functions upon growth on cellulose. CONCLUSIONS Genome wide transcriptome analysis of photoreceptor mutants and evaluation of results by analysis of mutant strains identified several candidate genes likely to play a role in light modulated cellulase gene expression. Genes with functions in amino acid metabolism, glycogen metabolism, energy supply and protein folding are enriched among genes with decreased expression levels in the wc-1 and wc-2 mutants. The ability to properly respond to amino acid starvation, i. e. up-regulation of the cross pathway control protein cpc-1, was found to be beneficial for cellulase gene expression. Our results further suggest a contribution of oxidative depolymerization of cellulose to plant cell wall degradation in N. crassa.
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Affiliation(s)
- Monika Schmoll
- Plant and Microbial Biology Department, University of California, Berkeley, CA 94720, USA
- Research Area Gene Technology and Applied Biochemistry, Vienna University of Technology, Getreidemarkt 9, 1060 Wien, Austria
| | - Chaoguang Tian
- Plant and Microbial Biology Department, University of California, Berkeley, CA 94720, USA
- Tianjin Institute of Industrial Biotechnology, Chinese Academy of Sciences, Tianjin 300308, China
| | - Jianping Sun
- Plant and Microbial Biology Department, University of California, Berkeley, CA 94720, USA
| | - Doris Tisch
- Research Area Gene Technology and Applied Biochemistry, Vienna University of Technology, Getreidemarkt 9, 1060 Wien, Austria
| | - N Louise Glass
- Plant and Microbial Biology Department, University of California, Berkeley, CA 94720, USA
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Neurospora crassa Light Signal Transduction Is Affected by ROS. JOURNAL OF SIGNAL TRANSDUCTION 2011; 2012:791963. [PMID: 22046507 PMCID: PMC3199206 DOI: 10.1155/2012/791963] [Citation(s) in RCA: 25] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.9] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 05/17/2011] [Accepted: 06/23/2011] [Indexed: 11/17/2022]
Abstract
In the ascomycete fungus Neurospora crassa blue-violet light controls the expression of genes responsible for differentiation of reproductive structures, synthesis of secondary metabolites, and the circadian oscillator activity. A major photoreceptor in Neurospora cells is WCC, a heterodimeric complex formed by the PAS-domain-containing polypeptides WC-1 and WC-2, the products of genes white collar-1 and white collar-2. The photosignal transduction is started by photochemical activity of an excited FAD molecule noncovalently bound by the LOV domain (a specialized variant of the PAS domain). The presence of zinc fingers (the GATA-recognizing sequences) in both WC-1 and WC-2 proteins suggests that they might function as transcription factors. However, a critical analysis of the phototransduction mechanism considers the existence of residual light responses upon absence of WCC or its homologs in fungi. The data presented
point at endogenous ROS generated by a photon stimulus as an alternative input to pass on light signals to downstream targets.
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Toyooka T, Hisatomi O, Takahashi F, Kataoka H, Terazima M. Photoreactions of aureochrome-1. Biophys J 2011; 100:2801-9. [PMID: 21641326 DOI: 10.1016/j.bpj.2011.02.043] [Citation(s) in RCA: 45] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 12/27/2010] [Revised: 02/22/2011] [Accepted: 02/24/2011] [Indexed: 10/18/2022] Open
Abstract
Aureochrome is a recently discovered blue light photosensor that controls a light-dependent morphology change. As a photosensor, it has a unique DNA binding domain (bZIP). Although the biological functions of aureochrome have been revealed, the fundamental photochemistry of this protein has not been elucidated. The photochemical reaction dynamics of the LOV (light, oxygen, or voltage) domain of aureochrome-1 (AUREO1-LOV) and the LOV domain with the bZIP domain (AUREO1-ZL) were studied by employing the transient-grating (TG) technique, using size-exclusion chromatography to verify results. For both samples, adduct formation takes place with a time constant of 2.8 μs. Although significant diffusion changes were observed for both AUREO1-LOV and AUREO1-ZL after adduct formation, the origins of these changes were significantly different. The TG signal of AUREO1-LOV was strongly concentration-dependent. From analysis of the signal, it was concluded that AUREO1-LOV exists in equilibrium between the monomer and dimer, and dimerization of the monomer is the main reaction, i.e., irradiation with blue light enhances the strength of the interdomain interaction. On the other hand, the reaction of AUREO1-ZL is independent of concentration, suggesting that an intraprotein conformational change occurs in the bZIP domain with a time constant of 160 ms. These results revealed the different reactions and roles of the two domains; the LOV domain acts as a photosensor, leading to a subsequent conformational change in the bZIP domain, which should change its ability to bind to DNA. A model is proposed that demonstrates how aureochrome uses blue light to control its affinity for DNA.
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Affiliation(s)
- Tsuguyoshi Toyooka
- Department of Chemistry, Graduate School of Science, Kyoto University, Kyoto, Japan
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Abstract
LOV (light, oxygen or voltage) domains are protein photosensors that are conserved in bacteria, archaea, plants and fungi, and detect blue light via a flavin cofactor. LOV domains are present in both chemotrophic and phototrophic bacterial species, in which they are found amino-terminally of signalling and regulatory domains such as sensor histidine kinases, diguanylate cyclases-phosphodiesterases, DNA-binding domains and regulators of RNA polymerase σ-factors. In this Review, we describe the current state of knowledge about the function of bacterial LOV proteins, the structural basis of LOV domain-mediated signal transduction, and the use of LOV domains as genetically encoded photoswitches in synthetic biology.
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Abstract
Circadian clocks organize our inner physiology with respect to the external world, providing life with the ability to anticipate and thereby better prepare for major fluctuations in its environment. Circadian systems are widely represented in nearly all major branches of life, except archaebacteria, and within the eukaryotes, the filamentous fungus Neurospora crassa has served for nearly half a century as a durable model organism for uncovering the basic circadian physiology and molecular biology. Studies using Neurospora have clarified our fundamental understanding of the clock as nested positive and negative feedback loops regulated through transcriptional and post-transcriptional processes. These feedback loops are centered on a limited number of proteins that form molecular complexes, and their regulation provides a physical explanation for nearly all clock properties. This review will introduce the basics of circadian rhythms, the model filamentous fungus N. crassa, and provide an overview of the molecular components and regulation of the circadian clock.
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Kim H, Ridenour JB, Dunkle LD, Bluhm BH. Regulation of stomatal tropism and infection by light in Cercospora zeae-maydis: evidence for coordinated host/pathogen responses to photoperiod? PLoS Pathog 2011; 7:e1002113. [PMID: 21829344 PMCID: PMC3145785 DOI: 10.1371/journal.ppat.1002113] [Citation(s) in RCA: 46] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 11/24/2010] [Accepted: 04/25/2011] [Indexed: 01/23/2023] Open
Abstract
Cercospora zeae-maydis causes gray leaf spot of maize, which has become one of the most widespread and destructive diseases of maize in the world. C. zeae-maydis infects leaves through stomata, which is predicated on the ability of the pathogen to perceive stomata and reorient growth accordingly. In this study, the discovery that light was required for C. zeae-maydis to perceive stomata and infect leaves led to the identification of CRP1, a gene encoding a putative blue-light photoreceptor homologous to White Collar-1 (WC-1) of Neurospora crassa. Disrupting CRP1 via homologous recombination revealed roles in multiple aspects of pathogenesis, including tropism of hyphae to stomata, the formation of appressoria, conidiation, and the biosynthesis of cercosporin. CRP1 was also required for photoreactivation after lethal doses of UV exposure. Intriguingly, putative orthologs of CRP1 are central regulators of circadian clocks in other filamentous fungi, raising the possibility that C. zeae-maydis uses light as a key environmental input to coordinate pathogenesis with maize photoperiodic responses. This study identified a novel molecular mechanism underlying stomatal tropism in a foliar fungal pathogen, provides specific insight into how light regulates pathogenesis in C. zeae-maydis, and establishes a genetic framework for the molecular dissection of infection via stomata and the integration of host and pathogen responses to photoperiod.
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Affiliation(s)
- Hun Kim
- Department of Plant Pathology, University of Arkansas, Fayetteville, Arkansas, United States of America
| | - John B. Ridenour
- Department of Plant Pathology, University of Arkansas, Fayetteville, Arkansas, United States of America
| | - Larry D. Dunkle
- Crop Production and Pest Control Research Unit, USDA-ARS, Purdue University, West Lafayette, Indiana, United States of America
| | - Burton H. Bluhm
- Department of Plant Pathology, University of Arkansas, Fayetteville, Arkansas, United States of America
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Phosphorylations: making the Neurospora
crassa
circadian clock tick. FEBS Lett 2011; 585:1461-6. [DOI: 10.1016/j.febslet.2011.03.049] [Citation(s) in RCA: 36] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 10/20/2010] [Revised: 03/09/2011] [Accepted: 03/23/2011] [Indexed: 11/19/2022]
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44
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Light input and processing in the circadian clock ofNeurospora. FEBS Lett 2011; 585:1467-73. [DOI: 10.1016/j.febslet.2011.03.050] [Citation(s) in RCA: 39] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 10/20/2010] [Revised: 02/28/2011] [Accepted: 03/23/2011] [Indexed: 11/24/2022]
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45
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Losi A, Gärtner W. Old Chromophores, New Photoactivation Paradigms, Trendy Applications: Flavins in Blue Light-Sensing Photoreceptors†. Photochem Photobiol 2011; 87:491-510. [DOI: 10.1111/j.1751-1097.2011.00913.x] [Citation(s) in RCA: 120] [Impact Index Per Article: 9.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 01/04/2023]
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46
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Kim S, Singh P, Park J, Park S, Friedman A, Zheng T, Lee YH, Lee K. Genetic and molecular characterization of a blue light photoreceptor MGWC-1 in Magnaporth oryzae. Fungal Genet Biol 2011; 48:400-7. [PMID: 21241815 DOI: 10.1016/j.fgb.2011.01.004] [Citation(s) in RCA: 30] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 08/02/2010] [Revised: 01/10/2011] [Accepted: 01/11/2011] [Indexed: 12/18/2022]
Abstract
Three key factors involved in successful plant disease development include the presence of a susceptible host, a virulent pathogen, and a disease-conducive environment. Our understanding of how environmental factors influence disease-conducive or disease-suppressive conditions, and how a pathogen advantageously capitalizes on them, is quite limited. Utilizing the model pathosystem Magnaporthe oryzae-Oryza sativa, we found a significant light-dependent disease suppression. Our genetic data suggest that the blue-light receptor MGWC-1 in M. oryzae is involved in light-dependent disease suppression during the dark-phase (disease-conducive light condition) immediately after pathogen-host contact. Sensing "darkness" is accomplished by MGWC-1, a blue-light receptor in M. oryzae. To explore the potential molecular mechanisms of light-dependent disease suppression we performed a genome-wide microarray experiment and identified several groups of gene families that are differentially regulated during the light-to-dark transition. Our genetic and molecular data provide insights into how a fungal pathogen utilizes ambient light signals for successful disease development.
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Affiliation(s)
- Soonok Kim
- Department of Plant Pathology and Plant-Microbe Biology, Cornell University, Ithaca, NY 14853, USA
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47
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Jolma IW, Laerum OD, Lillo C, Ruoff P. Circadian oscillators in eukaryotes. WILEY INTERDISCIPLINARY REVIEWS-SYSTEMS BIOLOGY AND MEDICINE 2011; 2:533-549. [PMID: 20836046 DOI: 10.1002/wsbm.81] [Citation(s) in RCA: 26] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/11/2022]
Abstract
The biological clock, present in nearly all eukaryotes, has evolved such that organisms can adapt to our planet's rotation in order to anticipate the coming day or night as well as unfavorable seasons. As all modern high-precision chronometers, the biological clock uses oscillation as a timekeeping element. In this review, we describe briefly the discovery, historical development, and general properties of circadian oscillators. The issue of temperature compensation (TC) is discussed, and our present understanding of the underlying genetic and biochemical mechanisms in circadian oscillators are described with special emphasis on Neurospora crassa, mammals, and plants.
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Affiliation(s)
- Ingunn W Jolma
- Centre of Organelle Research, Faculty of Science and Technology, University of Stavanger, Stavanger, Norway
| | - Ole Didrik Laerum
- The Gade Institute, Department of Pathology, Haukeland University Hospital, N-5021 Bergen, Norway
| | - Cathrine Lillo
- Centre of Organelle Research, Faculty of Science and Technology, University of Stavanger, Stavanger, Norway
| | - Peter Ruoff
- Centre of Organelle Research, Faculty of Science and Technology, University of Stavanger, Stavanger, Norway
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48
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Of switches and hourglasses: regulation of subcellular traffic in circadian clocks by phosphorylation. EMBO Rep 2010; 11:927-35. [PMID: 21052092 DOI: 10.1038/embor.2010.174] [Citation(s) in RCA: 18] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 07/15/2010] [Accepted: 10/21/2010] [Indexed: 01/26/2023] Open
Abstract
Investigation of the phosphorylation of circadian clock proteins has shown that this modification contributes to circadian timing in all model organisms. Phosphorylation alters the stability, transcriptional activity and subcellular localization of clock proteins during the course of a day, such that time-of-day-specific phosphorylation encodes information for measuring time and is crucial for the establishment of an approximately 24-h period. One main feature of molecular timekeeping is the daytime-specific nuclear accumulation of clock proteins, which can be regulated by phosphorylation. Here, we discuss increasing knowledge of how subcellular shuttling is regulated in circadian clocks, on the basis of recent observations in Neurospora crassa showing that clock proteins undergo maturation through sequential phosphorylation. In this model organism, clock proteins are regulated by the phosphorylation-dependent modulation of rapid shuttling cycles that alter their subcellular localization in a time-of-day-specific manner.
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49
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Kamada T, Sano H, Nakazawa T, Nakahori K. Regulation of fruiting body photomorphogenesis in Coprinopsis cinerea. Fungal Genet Biol 2010; 47:917-21. [DOI: 10.1016/j.fgb.2010.05.003] [Citation(s) in RCA: 79] [Impact Index Per Article: 5.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 01/05/2010] [Revised: 04/05/2010] [Accepted: 05/07/2010] [Indexed: 01/19/2023]
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50
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Chen CH, Dunlap JC, Loros JJ. Neurospora illuminates fungal photoreception. Fungal Genet Biol 2010; 47:922-9. [PMID: 20637887 PMCID: PMC3649881 DOI: 10.1016/j.fgb.2010.07.005] [Citation(s) in RCA: 82] [Impact Index Per Article: 5.9] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 05/11/2010] [Revised: 07/07/2010] [Accepted: 07/08/2010] [Indexed: 10/19/2022]
Abstract
Light not only is indispensable as an energy source for life on earth but also serves as an essential environmental cue conveying the information of daily and seasonal time to organisms across different kingdoms. Although the molecular mechanisms underlying light responses are actively explored in various light-sensitive organisms, these studies are either hindered by the complexity of the systems or an incomplete familiarity with the light signaling components involved in the scheme. Therefore, study of a simple and well-characterized model system is desirable to expand our knowledge of basic properties underlying the regulation of biological light responses. This review will briefly introduce the basic light sensing machinery in Neurospora crassa, a filamentous fungus, and then focus on the most recent advances in employing Neurospora as a model to study light signaling cascades, photoadaptation, and circadian clock-modulated effects in eukaryotic cells. Also, we will summarize the functions of a number of putative photoreceptors in Neurospora, and discuss the implications of the study of Neurospora to the field of fungal photobiology and some challenges for future studies.
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Affiliation(s)
- Chen-Hui Chen
- Department of Genetics, Dartmouth Medical School, Hanover, NH 03755, USA
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