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Cioccolo S, Barritt JD, Pollock N, Hall Z, Babuta J, Sridhar P, Just A, Morgner N, Dafforn T, Gould I, Byrne B. The mycobacterium lipid transporter MmpL3 is dimeric in detergent solution, SMALPs and reconstituted nanodiscs. RSC Chem Biol 2024; 5:901-913. [PMID: 39211474 PMCID: PMC11352979 DOI: 10.1039/d4cb00110a] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 05/21/2024] [Accepted: 07/26/2024] [Indexed: 09/04/2024] Open
Abstract
The mycobacterial membrane protein large 3 (MmpL3) transports key precursor lipids to the outer membrane of Mycobacterium species. Multiple structures of MmpL3 from both M. tuberculosis and M. smegmatis in various conformational states indicate that the protein is both structurally and functionally monomeric. However, most other resistance, nodulation and cell division (RND) transporters structurally characterised to date are either dimeric or trimeric. Here we present an in depth biophysical and computational analysis revealing that MmpL3 from M. smegmatis exists as a dimer in a variety of membrane mimetic systems (SMALPs, detergent-based solution and nanodiscs). Sucrose gradient separation of MmpL3 populations from M. smegmatis, reconstituted into nanodiscs, identified monomeric and dimeric populations of the protein using laser induced liquid bead ion desorption (LILBID), a native mass spectrometry technique. Preliminary cryo-EM analysis confirmed that MmpL3 forms physiological dimers. Untargeted lipidomics experiments on membrane protein co-purified lipids revealed PE and PG lipid classes were predominant. Molecular dynamics (MD) simulations, in the presence of physiologically-relevant lipid compositions revealed the likely dimer interface.
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Affiliation(s)
- Sara Cioccolo
- Department of Life Sciences, Imperial College London Exhibition Road, South Kensington London SW7 2AZ UK
- Department of Chemistry, Molecular Sciences Research Hub, Imperial College London Shepherd's Bush London W12 0BZ UK
| | - Joseph D Barritt
- Department of Life Sciences, Imperial College London Exhibition Road, South Kensington London SW7 2AZ UK
| | - Naomi Pollock
- School of Biosciences, University of Birmingham Birmingham UK
| | - Zoe Hall
- Division of Systems Medicine, Imperial College London London UK
| | - Julia Babuta
- Division of Systems Medicine, Imperial College London London UK
| | - Pooja Sridhar
- School of Biosciences, University of Birmingham Birmingham UK
| | - Alicia Just
- Institute of Physical and Theoretical Chemistry, J.W. Goethe-University Frankfurt am Main Germany
| | - Nina Morgner
- Institute of Physical and Theoretical Chemistry, J.W. Goethe-University Frankfurt am Main Germany
| | - Tim Dafforn
- School of Biosciences, University of Birmingham Birmingham UK
| | - Ian Gould
- Department of Chemistry, Molecular Sciences Research Hub, Imperial College London Shepherd's Bush London W12 0BZ UK
| | - Bernadette Byrne
- Department of Life Sciences, Imperial College London Exhibition Road, South Kensington London SW7 2AZ UK
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Vadankula GR, Nilkanth VV, Rizvi A, Yandrapally S, Agarwal A, Chirra H, Biswas R, Arifuddin M, Nema V, Mallika A, Mande SC, Banerjee S. Confronting Tuberculosis: A Synthetic Quinoline-Isonicotinic Acid Hydrazide Hybrid Compound as a Potent Lead Molecule Against Mycobacterium tuberculosis. ACS Infect Dis 2024; 10:2288-2302. [PMID: 38717380 DOI: 10.1021/acsinfecdis.4c00277] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 06/15/2024]
Abstract
The current tuberculosis (TB) treatment is challenged by a complex first-line treatment for drug-sensitive (DS) TB. Additionally, the prevalence of multidrug (MDR)- and extensively drug (XDR)-resistant TB necessitates the search for new drug prototypes. We synthesized and screened 30 hybrid compounds containing aminopyridine and 2-chloro-3-formyl quinoline to arrive at a compound with potent antimycobacterial activity, UH-NIP-16. Subsequently, antimycobacterial activity against DS and MDR Mycobacterium tuberculosis (M.tb) strains were performed. It demonstrated an MIC50 value of 1.86 ± 0.21 μM for laboratory pathogenic M.tb strain H37Rv and 3.045 ± 0.813 μM for a clinical M.tb strain CDC1551. UH-NIP-16 also decreased the MIC50 values of streptomycin, isoniazid, ethambutol, and bedaquiline to about 45, 55, 68, and 76%, respectively, when used in combination, potentiating their activities. The molecule was active against a clinical MDR M.tb strain. Cytotoxicity on PBMCs from healthy donors and on human cell lines was found to be negligible. Further, blind docking of UH-NIP-16 using Auto Dock Vina and MGL tools onto diverse M.tb proteins showed high binding affinities with multiple M.tb proteins, the top five targets being metabolically critical proteins CelA1, DevS, MmaA4, lysine acetyltransferase, and immunity factor for tuberculosis necrotizing toxin. These bindings were confirmed by fluorescence spectroscopy using a representative protein, MmaA4. Envisaging that a pathogen will have a lower probability of developing resistance to a hybrid molecule with multiple targets, we propose that UH-NIP-16 can be further developed as a lead molecule with the bacteriostatic potential against M.tb, both alone and in combination with first-line drugs.
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Affiliation(s)
- Govinda Raju Vadankula
- Laboratory of Molecular Pathogenesis, Department of Biochemistry, School of Life Sciences, University of Hyderabad (UoH), Hyderabad 500046, India
| | - Vipul V Nilkanth
- Laboratory of Molecular Pathogenesis, Department of Biochemistry, School of Life Sciences, University of Hyderabad (UoH), Hyderabad 500046, India
- Bioinformatics Centre, Savitribai Phule Pune University, Pune 411007, India
| | - Arshad Rizvi
- Laboratory of Molecular Pathogenesis, Department of Biochemistry, School of Life Sciences, University of Hyderabad (UoH), Hyderabad 500046, India
| | - Sriram Yandrapally
- Laboratory of Molecular Pathogenesis, Department of Biochemistry, School of Life Sciences, University of Hyderabad (UoH), Hyderabad 500046, India
| | - Anushka Agarwal
- Laboratory of Molecular Pathogenesis, Department of Biochemistry, School of Life Sciences, University of Hyderabad (UoH), Hyderabad 500046, India
| | - Hepshibha Chirra
- Department of Medicinal Chemistry, National Institute of Pharmaceutical Education and Research (NIPER), Hyderabad 500037, India
| | - Rashmita Biswas
- Department of Medicinal Chemistry, National Institute of Pharmaceutical Education and Research (NIPER), Hyderabad 500037, India
| | - Mohammed Arifuddin
- Department of Medicinal Chemistry, National Institute of Pharmaceutical Education and Research (NIPER), Hyderabad 500037, India
| | - Vijay Nema
- Molecular Biology Division, ICMR-National Institute for Translational Virology and AIDS Research, Pune 411026, India
| | - Alvala Mallika
- Department of Medicinal Chemistry, National Institute of Pharmaceutical Education and Research (NIPER), Hyderabad 500037, India
| | - Shekhar C Mande
- National Centre for Cell Science, Pune 411007, India
- Bioinformatics Centre, Savitribai Phule Pune University, Pune 411007, India
| | - Sharmistha Banerjee
- Laboratory of Molecular Pathogenesis, Department of Biochemistry, School of Life Sciences, University of Hyderabad (UoH), Hyderabad 500046, India
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3
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Bories P, Rima J, Tranier S, Marcoux J, Grimoire Y, Tomaszczyk M, Launay A, Fata K, Marrakchi H, Burlet‐Schiltz O, Mourey L, Ducoux‐Petit M, Bardou F, Bon C, Quémard A. HadBD dehydratase from Mycobacterium tuberculosis fatty acid synthase type II: A singular structure for a unique function. Protein Sci 2024; 33:e4964. [PMID: 38501584 PMCID: PMC10949391 DOI: 10.1002/pro.4964] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 11/21/2023] [Revised: 02/20/2024] [Accepted: 03/04/2024] [Indexed: 03/20/2024]
Abstract
Worldwide, tuberculosis is the second leading infectious killer and multidrug resistance severely hampers disease control. Mycolic acids are a unique category of lipids that are essential for viability, virulence, and persistence of the causative agent, Mycobacterium tuberculosis (Mtb). Therefore, enzymes involved in mycolic acid biosynthesis represent an important class of drug targets. We previously showed that the (3R)-hydroxyacyl-ACP dehydratase (HAD) protein HadD is dedicated mainly to the production of ketomycolic acids and plays a determinant role in Mtb biofilm formation and virulence. Here, we discovered that HAD activity requires the formation of a tight heterotetramer between HadD and HadB, a HAD unit encoded by a distinct chromosomal region. Using biochemical, structural, and cell-based analyses, we showed that HadB is the catalytic subunit, whereas HadD is involved in substrate binding. Based on HadBDMtb crystal structure and substrate-bound models, we identified determinants of the ultra-long-chain lipid substrate specificity and revealed details of structure-function relationship. HadBDMtb unique function is partly due to a wider opening and a higher flexibility of the substrate-binding crevice in HadD, as well as the drastically truncated central α-helix of HadD hotdog fold, a feature described for the first time in a HAD enzyme. Taken together, our study shows that HadBDMtb , and not HadD alone, is the biologically relevant functional unit. These results have important implications for designing innovative antivirulence molecules to fight tuberculosis, as they suggest that the target to consider is not an isolated subunit, but the whole HadBD complex.
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Affiliation(s)
- Pascaline Bories
- Institut de Pharmacologie et de Biologie Structurale (IPBS)Université de Toulouse, CNRS, Université Toulouse III ‐ Paul Sabatier (UPS)ToulouseFrance
| | - Julie Rima
- Institut de Pharmacologie et de Biologie Structurale (IPBS)Université de Toulouse, CNRS, Université Toulouse III ‐ Paul Sabatier (UPS)ToulouseFrance
| | - Samuel Tranier
- Institut de Pharmacologie et de Biologie Structurale (IPBS)Université de Toulouse, CNRS, Université Toulouse III ‐ Paul Sabatier (UPS)ToulouseFrance
| | - Julien Marcoux
- Institut de Pharmacologie et de Biologie Structurale (IPBS)Université de Toulouse, CNRS, Université Toulouse III ‐ Paul Sabatier (UPS)ToulouseFrance
| | - Yasmina Grimoire
- Institut de Pharmacologie et de Biologie Structurale (IPBS)Université de Toulouse, CNRS, Université Toulouse III ‐ Paul Sabatier (UPS)ToulouseFrance
| | - Mathilde Tomaszczyk
- Institut de Pharmacologie et de Biologie Structurale (IPBS)Université de Toulouse, CNRS, Université Toulouse III ‐ Paul Sabatier (UPS)ToulouseFrance
| | - Anne Launay
- Service de TP de BiochimieUniversité de Toulouse, Université Toulouse III ‐ Paul Sabatier (UPS)ToulouseFrance
| | - Karine Fata
- Service de TP de BiochimieUniversité de Toulouse, Université Toulouse III ‐ Paul Sabatier (UPS)ToulouseFrance
| | - Hedia Marrakchi
- Institut de Pharmacologie et de Biologie Structurale (IPBS)Université de Toulouse, CNRS, Université Toulouse III ‐ Paul Sabatier (UPS)ToulouseFrance
| | - Odile Burlet‐Schiltz
- Institut de Pharmacologie et de Biologie Structurale (IPBS)Université de Toulouse, CNRS, Université Toulouse III ‐ Paul Sabatier (UPS)ToulouseFrance
| | - Lionel Mourey
- Institut de Pharmacologie et de Biologie Structurale (IPBS)Université de Toulouse, CNRS, Université Toulouse III ‐ Paul Sabatier (UPS)ToulouseFrance
| | - Manuelle Ducoux‐Petit
- Institut de Pharmacologie et de Biologie Structurale (IPBS)Université de Toulouse, CNRS, Université Toulouse III ‐ Paul Sabatier (UPS)ToulouseFrance
| | - Fabienne Bardou
- Institut de Pharmacologie et de Biologie Structurale (IPBS)Université de Toulouse, CNRS, Université Toulouse III ‐ Paul Sabatier (UPS)ToulouseFrance
| | - Cécile Bon
- Institut de Pharmacologie et de Biologie Structurale (IPBS)Université de Toulouse, CNRS, Université Toulouse III ‐ Paul Sabatier (UPS)ToulouseFrance
| | - Annaïk Quémard
- Institut de Pharmacologie et de Biologie Structurale (IPBS)Université de Toulouse, CNRS, Université Toulouse III ‐ Paul Sabatier (UPS)ToulouseFrance
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4
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Xia F, Zhang H, Yang H, Zheng M, Min W, Sun C, Yuan K, Yang P. Targeting polyketide synthase 13 for the treatment of tuberculosis. Eur J Med Chem 2023; 259:115702. [PMID: 37544185 DOI: 10.1016/j.ejmech.2023.115702] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 06/17/2023] [Revised: 07/15/2023] [Accepted: 07/29/2023] [Indexed: 08/08/2023]
Abstract
Tuberculosis (TB) is one of the most threatening diseases for humans, however, the drug treatment strategy for TB has been stagnant and inadequate, which could not meet current treatment needs. TB is caused by Mycobacterial tuberculosis, which has a unique cell wall that plays a crucial role in its growth, virulence, and drug resistance. Polyketide synthase 13 (Pks13) is an essential enzyme that catalyzes the biosynthesis of the cell wall and its critical role is only found in Mycobacteria. Therefore, Pks13 is a promising target for developing novel anti-TB drugs. In this review, we first introduced the mechanism of targeting Pks13 for TB treatment. Subsequently, we focused on summarizing the recent advance of Pks13 inhibitors, including the challenges encountered during their discovery and the rational design strategies employed to overcome these obstacles, which could be helpful for the development of novel Pks13 inhibitors in the future.
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Affiliation(s)
- Fei Xia
- State Key Laboratory of Natural Medicines and Jiangsu Key Laboratory of Drug Design and Optimization, China Pharmaceutical University, Nanjing, 210009, China; Department of Medicinal Chemistry, School of Pharmacy, China Pharmaceutical University, Nanjing, 211198, China
| | - Haoling Zhang
- State Key Laboratory of Natural Medicines and Jiangsu Key Laboratory of Drug Design and Optimization, China Pharmaceutical University, Nanjing, 210009, China; Department of Medicinal Chemistry, School of Pharmacy, China Pharmaceutical University, Nanjing, 211198, China
| | - Huanaoyu Yang
- State Key Laboratory of Natural Medicines and Jiangsu Key Laboratory of Drug Design and Optimization, China Pharmaceutical University, Nanjing, 210009, China; Department of Medicinal Chemistry, School of Pharmacy, China Pharmaceutical University, Nanjing, 211198, China
| | - Mingming Zheng
- State Key Laboratory of Natural Medicines and Jiangsu Key Laboratory of Drug Design and Optimization, China Pharmaceutical University, Nanjing, 210009, China; Department of Medicinal Chemistry, School of Pharmacy, China Pharmaceutical University, Nanjing, 211198, China
| | - Wenjian Min
- State Key Laboratory of Natural Medicines and Jiangsu Key Laboratory of Drug Design and Optimization, China Pharmaceutical University, Nanjing, 210009, China; Department of Medicinal Chemistry, School of Pharmacy, China Pharmaceutical University, Nanjing, 211198, China
| | - Chengliang Sun
- State Key Laboratory of Natural Medicines and Jiangsu Key Laboratory of Drug Design and Optimization, China Pharmaceutical University, Nanjing, 210009, China; Department of Medicinal Chemistry, School of Pharmacy, China Pharmaceutical University, Nanjing, 211198, China.
| | - Kai Yuan
- State Key Laboratory of Natural Medicines and Jiangsu Key Laboratory of Drug Design and Optimization, China Pharmaceutical University, Nanjing, 210009, China; Department of Medicinal Chemistry, School of Pharmacy, China Pharmaceutical University, Nanjing, 211198, China.
| | - Peng Yang
- State Key Laboratory of Natural Medicines and Jiangsu Key Laboratory of Drug Design and Optimization, China Pharmaceutical University, Nanjing, 210009, China; Department of Medicinal Chemistry, School of Pharmacy, China Pharmaceutical University, Nanjing, 211198, China; Institute of Innovative Drug Discovery and Development, China Pharmaceutical University, Nanjing, 211198, China.
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5
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Alcaraz M, Edwards TE, Kremer L. New therapeutic strategies for Mycobacterium abscessus pulmonary diseases - untapping the mycolic acid pathway. Expert Rev Anti Infect Ther 2023; 21:813-829. [PMID: 37314394 PMCID: PMC10529309 DOI: 10.1080/14787210.2023.2224563] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 02/28/2023] [Accepted: 06/08/2023] [Indexed: 06/15/2023]
Abstract
INTRODUCTION Treatment options against Mycobacterium abscessus infections are very limited. New compounds are needed to cure M. abscessus pulmonary diseases. While the mycolic acid biosynthetic pathway has been largely exploited for the treatment of tuberculosis, this metabolic process has been overlooked in M. abscessus, although it offers many potential drug targets for the treatment of this opportunistic pathogen. AREAS COVERED Herein, the authors review the role of the MmpL3 membrane protein and the enoyl-ACP reductase InhA involved in the transport and synthesis of mycolic acids, respectively. They discuss their importance as two major vulnerable drug targets in M. abscessus and report the activity of MmpL3 and InhA inhibitors. In particular, they focus on NITD-916, a direct InhA inhibitor against M. abscessus, particularly warranted in the context of multidrug resistance. EXPERT OPINION There is an increasing body of evidence validating the mycolic acid pathway as an attractive drug target to be further exploited for M. abscessus lung disease treatments. The NITD-916 studies provide a proof-of-concept that direct inhibitors of InhA are efficient in vitro, in macrophages and in zebrafish. Future work is now required to improve the activity and pharmacological properties of these inhibitors and their evaluation in pre-clinical models.
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Affiliation(s)
- Matthéo Alcaraz
- Centre National de la Recherche Scientifique UMR 9004, Institut de Recherche en Infectiologie de Montpellier (IRIM), Université de Montpellier, 1919 route de Mende, 34293, Montpellier, France
| | - Thomas E. Edwards
- UCB BioSciences, Bainbridge Island, WA 98109 USA
- Seattle Structural Genomics Center for Infectious Disease (SSGCID), Seattle, WA 98109 USA
| | - Laurent Kremer
- Centre National de la Recherche Scientifique UMR 9004, Institut de Recherche en Infectiologie de Montpellier (IRIM), Université de Montpellier, 1919 route de Mende, 34293, Montpellier, France
- INSERM, IRIM, 34293 Montpellier, France
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6
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Hailu E, Cantillon D, Madrazo C, Rose G, Wheeler PR, Golby P, Adnew B, Gagneux S, Aseffa A, Gordon SV, Comas I, Young DB, Waddell SJ, Larrouy-Maumus G, Berg S. Lack of methoxy-mycolates characterizes the geographically restricted lineage 7 of Mycobacterium tuberculosis complex. Microb Genom 2023; 9. [PMID: 37171244 PMCID: PMC10272862 DOI: 10.1099/mgen.0.001011] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 05/13/2023] Open
Abstract
Lineage 7 (L7) emerged in the phylogeny of the Mycobacterium tuberculosis complex (MTBC) subsequent to the branching of 'ancient' lineage 1 and prior to the Eurasian dispersal of 'modern' lineages 2, 3 and 4. In contrast to the major MTBC lineages, the current epidemiology suggests that prevalence of L7 is highly confined to the Ethiopian population, or when identified outside of Ethiopia, it has mainly been in patients of Ethiopian origin. To search for microbiological factors that may contribute to its restricted distribution, we compared the genome of L7 to the genomes of globally dispersed MTBC lineages. The frequency of predicted functional mutations in L7 was similar to that documented in other lineages. These include mutations characteristic of modern lineages - such as constitutive expression of nitrate reductase - as well as mutations in the VirS locus that are commonly found in ancient lineages. We also identified and characterized multiple lineage-specific mutations in L7 in biosynthesis pathways of cell wall lipids, including confirmed deficiency of methoxy-mycolic acids due to a stop-gain mutation in the mmaA3 gene that encodes a methoxy-mycolic acid synthase. We show that the abolished biosynthesis of methoxy-mycolates of L7 alters the cell structure and colony morphology on selected growth media and impacts biofilm formation. The loss of these mycolic acid moieties may change the host-pathogen dynamic for L7 isolates, explaining the limited geographical distribution of L7 and contributing to further understanding the spread of MTBC lineages across the globe.
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Affiliation(s)
- Elena Hailu
- Armauer Hansen Research Institute, Addis Ababa, Ethiopia
| | - Daire Cantillon
- Present address: Department of Tropical Biology, Liverpool School of Tropical Medicine, Liverpool, UK
- Brighton and Sussex Centre for Global Health Research, Department of Global Health and Infection, Brighton and Sussex Medical School, University of Sussex, Falmer, UK
| | - Carlos Madrazo
- Biomedicine Institute of Valencia, Spanish Research Council (IBV-CSIC), Valencia, Spain
| | - Graham Rose
- Present address: North Thames Genomic Laboratory Hub, Great Ormond Street Hospital for Children, London, UK
- Francis Crick Institute, London, UK
| | | | - Paul Golby
- Animal and Plant Health Agency, Weybridge, UK
| | | | - Sebastien Gagneux
- Swiss Tropical and Public Health Institute, Allschwil, Switzerland
- University of Basel, Basel, Switzerland
| | - Abraham Aseffa
- Armauer Hansen Research Institute, Addis Ababa, Ethiopia
| | - Stephen V Gordon
- School of Veterinary Medicine, University College Dublin, Dublin, Ireland
| | - Iñaki Comas
- Biomedicine Institute of Valencia, Spanish Research Council (IBV-CSIC), Valencia, Spain
| | - Douglas B Young
- Francis Crick Institute, London, UK
- MRC Centre for Molecular Bacteriology and Infection, Imperial College London, London, UK
| | - Simon J Waddell
- Brighton and Sussex Centre for Global Health Research, Department of Global Health and Infection, Brighton and Sussex Medical School, University of Sussex, Falmer, UK
| | - Gerald Larrouy-Maumus
- MRC Centre for Molecular Bacteriology and Infection, Imperial College London, London, UK
| | - Stefan Berg
- Present address: Bernhard Nocht Institute for Tropical Medicine, Hamburg, Germany
- Animal and Plant Health Agency, Weybridge, UK
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Williams JT, Abramovitch RB. Molecular Mechanisms of MmpL3 Function and Inhibition. Microb Drug Resist 2023; 29:190-212. [PMID: 36809064 PMCID: PMC10171966 DOI: 10.1089/mdr.2021.0424] [Citation(s) in RCA: 2] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 02/23/2023] Open
Abstract
Mycobacteria species include a large number of pathogenic organisms such as Mycobacterium tuberculosis, Mycobacterium leprae, and various non-tuberculous mycobacteria. Mycobacterial membrane protein large 3 (MmpL3) is an essential mycolic acid and lipid transporter required for growth and cell viability. In the last decade, numerous studies have characterized MmpL3 with respect to protein function, localization, regulation, and substrate/inhibitor interactions. This review summarizes new findings in the field and seeks to assess future areas of research in our rapidly expanding understanding of MmpL3 as a drug target. An atlas of known MmpL3 mutations that provide resistance to inhibitors is presented, which maps amino acid substitutions to specific structural domains of MmpL3. In addition, chemical features of distinct classes of Mmpl3 inhibitors are compared to provide insights into shared and unique features of varied MmpL3 inhibitors.
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Affiliation(s)
- John T Williams
- Department of Microbiology and Molecular Genetics, Michigan State University, East Lansing, Michigan, USA
| | - Robert B Abramovitch
- Department of Microbiology and Molecular Genetics, Michigan State University, East Lansing, Michigan, USA
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8
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Yan W, Zheng Y, Dou C, Zhang G, Arnaout T, Cheng W. The pathogenic mechanism of Mycobacterium tuberculosis: implication for new drug development. MOLECULAR BIOMEDICINE 2022; 3:48. [PMID: 36547804 PMCID: PMC9780415 DOI: 10.1186/s43556-022-00106-y] [Citation(s) in RCA: 3] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 09/11/2022] [Accepted: 11/15/2022] [Indexed: 12/24/2022] Open
Abstract
Mycobacterium tuberculosis (Mtb), the causative agent of tuberculosis (TB), is a tenacious pathogen that has latently infected one third of the world's population. However, conventional TB treatment regimens are no longer sufficient to tackle the growing threat of drug resistance, stimulating the development of innovative anti-tuberculosis agents, with special emphasis on new protein targets. The Mtb genome encodes ~4000 predicted proteins, among which many enzymes participate in various cellular metabolisms. For example, more than 200 proteins are involved in fatty acid biosynthesis, which assists in the construction of the cell envelope, and is closely related to the pathogenesis and resistance of mycobacteria. Here we review several essential enzymes responsible for fatty acid and nucleotide biosynthesis, cellular metabolism of lipids or amino acids, energy utilization, and metal uptake. These include InhA, MmpL3, MmaA4, PcaA, CmaA1, CmaA2, isocitrate lyases (ICLs), pantothenate synthase (PS), Lysine-ε amino transferase (LAT), LeuD, IdeR, KatG, Rv1098c, and PyrG. In addition, we summarize the role of the transcriptional regulator PhoP which may regulate the expression of more than 110 genes, and the essential biosynthesis enzyme glutamine synthetase (GlnA1). All these enzymes are either validated drug targets or promising target candidates, with drugs targeting ICLs and LAT expected to solve the problem of persistent TB infection. To better understand how anti-tuberculosis drugs act on these proteins, their structures and the structure-based drug/inhibitor designs are discussed. Overall, this investigation should provide guidance and support for current and future pharmaceutical development efforts against mycobacterial pathogenesis.
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Affiliation(s)
- Weizhu Yan
- grid.412901.f0000 0004 1770 1022Division of Respiratory and Critical Care Medicine, Respiratory Infection and Intervention Laboratory of Frontiers Science Center for Disease-Related Molecular Network, State Key Laboratory of Biotherapy, West China Hospital of Sichuan University, Chengdu, 610041 China
| | - Yanhui Zheng
- grid.412901.f0000 0004 1770 1022Division of Respiratory and Critical Care Medicine, Respiratory Infection and Intervention Laboratory of Frontiers Science Center for Disease-Related Molecular Network, State Key Laboratory of Biotherapy, West China Hospital of Sichuan University, Chengdu, 610041 China
| | - Chao Dou
- grid.412901.f0000 0004 1770 1022Division of Respiratory and Critical Care Medicine, Respiratory Infection and Intervention Laboratory of Frontiers Science Center for Disease-Related Molecular Network, State Key Laboratory of Biotherapy, West China Hospital of Sichuan University, Chengdu, 610041 China
| | - Guixiang Zhang
- grid.13291.380000 0001 0807 1581Division of Gastrointestinal Surgery, Department of General Surgery and Gastric Cancer center, West China Hospital, Sichuan University, No. 37. Guo Xue Xiang, Chengdu, 610041 China
| | - Toufic Arnaout
- Kappa Crystals Ltd., Dublin, Ireland ,MSD Dunboyne BioNX, Co. Meath, Ireland
| | - Wei Cheng
- grid.412901.f0000 0004 1770 1022Division of Respiratory and Critical Care Medicine, Respiratory Infection and Intervention Laboratory of Frontiers Science Center for Disease-Related Molecular Network, State Key Laboratory of Biotherapy, West China Hospital of Sichuan University, Chengdu, 610041 China
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9
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Singh BK, Biswas R, Bhattacharyya S, Basak A, Das AK. The C‐terminal end of mycobacterial HadBC regulates AcpM interaction during the FAS‐II pathway: a structural perspective. FEBS J 2022; 289:4963-4980. [DOI: 10.1111/febs.16405] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 10/02/2021] [Revised: 01/22/2022] [Accepted: 02/15/2022] [Indexed: 11/26/2022]
Affiliation(s)
- Bina Kumari Singh
- School of Biosciences Indian Institute of Technology Kharagpur India
| | - Rupam Biswas
- Department of Biotechnology Indian Institute of Technology Kharagpur India
| | - Sudipta Bhattacharyya
- Department of Bioscience & Bioengineering Indian Institute of Technology Jodhpur India
| | - Amit Basak
- Department of Chemistry Indian Institute of Technology Kharagpur India
| | - Amit K. Das
- Department of Biotechnology Indian Institute of Technology Kharagpur India
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10
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García-Morales L, Del Portillo P, Anzola JM, Ares MA, Helguera-Repetto AC, Cerna-Cortes JF, Méndez-Tenorio A, García MJ, Otal I, Martín C, Gonzalez-y-Merchand JA, Rivera-Gutiérrez S. The Lack of the TetR-Like Repressor Gene BCG_2177c (Rv2160A) May Help Mycobacteria Overcome Intracellular Redox Stress and Survive Longer Inside Macrophages When Surrounded by a Lipid Environment. Front Cell Infect Microbiol 2022; 12:907890. [PMID: 35873160 PMCID: PMC9301340 DOI: 10.3389/fcimb.2022.907890] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 03/30/2022] [Accepted: 06/06/2022] [Indexed: 11/23/2022] Open
Abstract
Mycobacteria, like other microorganisms, survive under different environmental variations by expressing an efficient adaptive response, oriented by regulatory elements, such as transcriptional repressors of the TetR family. These repressors in mycobacteria also appear to be related to cholesterol metabolism. In this study, we have evaluated the effect of a fatty acid (oleic–palmitic–stearic)/cholesterol mixture on some phenotypic and genotypic characteristics of a tetR-mutant strain (BCG_2177c mutated gene) of M. bovis BCG, a homologous of Rv2160A of M. tuberculosis. In order to accomplish this, we have analyzed the global gene expression of this strain by RNA-seq and evaluated its neutral-lipid storage capacity and potential to infect macrophages. We have also determined the macrophage response by measuring some pro- and anti-inflammatory cytokine expressions. In comparison with wild-type microorganisms, we showed that the mutation in the BCG_2177c gene did not affect the growth of M. bovis BCG in the presence of lipids but it probably modified the structure/composition of its cell envelope. Compared to with dextrose, an overexpression of the transcriptome of the wild-type and mutant strains was observed when these mycobacteria were cultured in lipids, mainly at the exponential phase. Twelve putative intracellular redox balance maintenance genes and four others coding for putative transcriptional factors (including WhiB6 and three TetR-like) were the main elements repeatedly overexpressed when cultured in the presence of lipids. These genes belonged to the central part of what we called the “genetic lipid signature” for M. bovis BCG. We have also found that all these mycobacteria genotypic changes affected the outcome of BCG-infected macrophages, being the mutant strain most adapted to persist longer inside the host. This high persistence result was also confirmed when mutant-infected macrophages showed overexpression of the anti-inflammatory cytokine TGF-β versus pro-inflammatory cytokines. In summary, the lack of this TetR-like repressor expression, within a lipid environment, may help mycobacteria overcome intracellular redox stress and survive longer inside their host.
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Affiliation(s)
- Lázaro García-Morales
- Departamento de Microbiología, Escuela Nacional de Ciencias Biológicas, Instituto Politécnico Nacional, Ciudad de México, Mexico
- Departamento de Biomedicina Molecular, Centro de Investigación y de Estudios Avanzados del Instituto Politécnico Nacional, Ciudad de México, Mexico
| | - Patricia Del Portillo
- Grupo de Biotecnología Molecular, Grupo de Bioinformática y Biología Computacional, Corporación CorpoGen, Bogotá, Colombia
| | - Juan M. Anzola
- Grupo de Biotecnología Molecular, Grupo de Bioinformática y Biología Computacional, Corporación CorpoGen, Bogotá, Colombia
- Facultad de Ingeniería y Ciencias Básicas, Universidad Central, Bogotá, D.C., Colombia
| | - Miguel A. Ares
- Departamento de Microbiología, Escuela Nacional de Ciencias Biológicas, Instituto Politécnico Nacional, Ciudad de México, Mexico
- Unidad de Investigación Médica en Enfermedades Infecciosas y Parasitarias, Hospital de Pediatría, Centro Médico Nacional Siglo XXI, Instituto Mexicano del Seguro Social, Ciudad de México, Mexico
| | - Addy C. Helguera-Repetto
- Departamento de Inmuno-Bioquímica, Instituto Nacional de Perinatología Isidro Espinosa de los Reyes, Ciudad de México, Mexico
| | - Jorge F. Cerna-Cortes
- Departamento de Microbiología, Escuela Nacional de Ciencias Biológicas, Instituto Politécnico Nacional, Ciudad de México, Mexico
| | - Alfonso Méndez-Tenorio
- Laboratorio de Bioinformática y Biotecnología Genómica, Departamento de Bioquímica, Escuela Nacional de Ciencias Biológicas, Instituto Politécnico Nacional, Ciudad de México, Mexico
| | - María J. García
- Departamento de Medicina Preventiva, Facultad de Medicina, Universidad Autónoma de Madrid, Madrid, Spain
| | - Isabel Otal
- Grupo de Genética de Micobacterias, Universidad de Zaragoza, IIS Aragón, Zaragoza, Spain
- Centro de Investigación Biomédica en Red (CIBER) Enfermedades Respiratorias, Instituto de Salud Carlos III, Madrid, Spain
| | - Carlos Martín
- Grupo de Genética de Micobacterias, Universidad de Zaragoza, IIS Aragón, Zaragoza, Spain
- Centro de Investigación Biomédica en Red (CIBER) Enfermedades Respiratorias, Instituto de Salud Carlos III, Madrid, Spain
- Servicio de Microbiología, Hospital Universitario Miguel Servet, Zaragoza, Spain
| | - Jorge A. Gonzalez-y-Merchand
- Departamento de Microbiología, Escuela Nacional de Ciencias Biológicas, Instituto Politécnico Nacional, Ciudad de México, Mexico
- *Correspondence: Jorge A. Gonzalez-y-Merchand, ; Sandra Rivera-Gutiérrez,
| | - Sandra Rivera-Gutiérrez
- Departamento de Microbiología, Escuela Nacional de Ciencias Biológicas, Instituto Politécnico Nacional, Ciudad de México, Mexico
- *Correspondence: Jorge A. Gonzalez-y-Merchand, ; Sandra Rivera-Gutiérrez,
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11
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Modak B, Girkar S, Narayan R, Kapoor S. Mycobacterial Membranes as Actionable Targets for Lipid-Centric Therapy in Tuberculosis. J Med Chem 2022; 65:3046-3065. [PMID: 35133820 DOI: 10.1021/acs.jmedchem.1c01870] [Citation(s) in RCA: 13] [Impact Index Per Article: 6.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 01/02/2023]
Abstract
Infectious diseases remain significant health concerns worldwide, and resistance is particularly common in patients with tuberculosis caused by Mycobacterium tuberculosis. The development of anti-infectives with novel modes of action may help overcome resistance. In this regard, membrane-active agents, which modulate membrane components essential for the survival of pathogens, present attractive antimicrobial agents. Key advantages of membrane-active compounds include their ability to target slow-growing or dormant bacteria and their favorable pharmacokinetics. Here, we comprehensively review recent advances in the development of membrane-active chemotypes that target mycobacterial membranes and discuss clinically relevant membrane-active antibacterial agents that have shown promise in counteracting bacterial infections. We discuss the relationship between the membrane properties and the synthetic requirements within the chemical scaffold, as well as the limitations of current membrane-active chemotypes. This review will lay the chemical groundwork for the development of membrane-active antituberculosis agents and will foster the discovery of more effective antitubercular agents.
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Affiliation(s)
- Biswabrata Modak
- Department of Chemistry, Indian Institute of Technology Bombay, Mumbai 400076, India
| | - Siddhali Girkar
- School of Chemical and Materials Sciences, Indian Institute of Technology Goa, Goa 403110, India
| | - Rishikesh Narayan
- School of Chemical and Materials Sciences, Indian Institute of Technology Goa, Goa 403110, India
| | - Shobhna Kapoor
- Department of Chemistry, Indian Institute of Technology Bombay, Mumbai 400076, India.,Graduate School of Integrated Sciences for Life, Hiroshima University, Hiroshima 739-8528, Japan
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12
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Lane TR, Urbina F, Rank L, Gerlach J, Riabova O, Lepioshkin A, Kazakova E, Vocat A, Tkachenko V, Cole S, Makarov V, Ekins S. Machine Learning Models for Mycobacterium tuberculosisIn Vitro Activity: Prediction and Target Visualization. Mol Pharm 2022; 19:674-689. [PMID: 34964633 PMCID: PMC9121329 DOI: 10.1021/acs.molpharmaceut.1c00791] [Citation(s) in RCA: 1] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/28/2022]
Abstract
Tuberculosis (TB) is a major global health challenge, with approximately 1.4 million deaths per year. There is still a need to develop novel treatments for patients infected with Mycobacterium tuberculosis (Mtb). There have been many large-scale phenotypic screens that have led to the identification of thousands of new compounds. Yet, there is very limited investment in TB drug discovery which points to the need for new methods to increase the efficiency of drug discovery against Mtb. We have used machine learning approaches to learn from the public Mtb data, resulting in many data sets and models with robust enrichment and hit rates leading to the discovery of new active compounds. Recently, we have curated predominantly small-molecule Mtb data and developed new machine learning classification models with 18 886 molecules at different activity cutoffs. We now describe the further validation of these Bayesian models using a library of over 1000 molecules synthesized as part of EU-funded New Medicines for TB and More Medicines for TB programs. We highlight molecular features which are enriched in these active compounds. In addition, we provide new regression and classification models that can be used for scoring compound libraries or used to design new molecules. We have also visualized these molecules in the context of known molecular targets and identified clusters in chemical property space, which may aid in future target identification efforts. Finally, we are also making these data sets publicly available, representing a significant increase to the available Mtb inhibition data in the public domain.
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Affiliation(s)
- Thomas R. Lane
- Collaborations Pharmaceuticals, Inc., 840 Main Campus Drive, Lab 3510 Raleigh, NC 27606, USA
| | - Fabio Urbina
- Collaborations Pharmaceuticals, Inc., 840 Main Campus Drive, Lab 3510 Raleigh, NC 27606, USA
| | - Laura Rank
- Collaborations Pharmaceuticals, Inc., 840 Main Campus Drive, Lab 3510 Raleigh, NC 27606, USA
| | - Jacob Gerlach
- Collaborations Pharmaceuticals, Inc., 840 Main Campus Drive, Lab 3510 Raleigh, NC 27606, USA
| | - Olga Riabova
- Research Center of Biotechnology RAS, 119071 Moscow, Russia
| | | | - Elena Kazakova
- Research Center of Biotechnology RAS, 119071 Moscow, Russia
| | - Anthony Vocat
- Global Health Institute, Ecole Polytechnique Fédérale de Lausanne, Lausanne 1015, Switzerland
| | - Valery Tkachenko
- Science Data Experts, 14909 Forest Landing Cir, Rockville, MD 20850
| | | | - Vadim Makarov
- Research Center of Biotechnology RAS, 119071 Moscow, Russia
| | - Sean Ekins
- Collaborations Pharmaceuticals, Inc., 840 Main Campus Drive, Lab 3510 Raleigh, NC 27606, USA
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13
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Galy R, Ballereau S, Génisson Y, Mourey L, Plaquevent JC, Maveyraud L. Fragment-Based Ligand Discovery Applied to the Mycolic Acid Methyltransferase Hma (MmaA4) from Mycobacterium tuberculosis: A Crystallographic and Molecular Modelling Study. Pharmaceuticals (Basel) 2021; 14:ph14121282. [PMID: 34959681 PMCID: PMC8708032 DOI: 10.3390/ph14121282] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 11/09/2021] [Revised: 11/29/2021] [Accepted: 12/05/2021] [Indexed: 11/16/2022] Open
Abstract
The mycolic acid biosynthetic pathway represents a promising source of pharmacological targets in the fight against tuberculosis. In Mycobacterium tuberculosis, mycolic acids are subject to specific chemical modifications introduced by a set of eight S-adenosylmethionine dependent methyltransferases. Among these, Hma (MmaA4) is responsible for the introduction of oxygenated modifications. Crystallographic screening of a library of fragments allowed the identification of seven ligands of Hma. Two mutually exclusive binding modes were identified, depending on the conformation of residues 147–154. These residues are disordered in apo-Hma but fold upon binding of the S-adenosylmethionine (SAM) cofactor as well as of analogues, resulting in the formation of the short η1-helix. One of the observed conformations would be incompatible with the presence of the cofactor, suggesting that allosteric inhibitors could be designed against Hma. Chimeric compounds were designed by fusing some of the bound fragments, and the relative binding affinities of initial fragments and evolved compounds were investigated using molecular dynamics simulation and generalised Born and Poisson–Boltzmann calculations coupled to the surface area continuum solvation method. Molecular dynamics simulations were also performed on apo-Hma to assess the structural plasticity of the unliganded protein. Our results indicate a significant improvement in the binding properties of the designed compounds, suggesting that they could be further optimised to inhibit Hma activity.
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Affiliation(s)
- Romain Galy
- Institut de Pharmacologie et de Biologie Structurale, Université Toulouse III—Paul Sabatier, Centre National de la Recherche Scientifique, 31077 Toulouse, France; (R.G.); (L.M.)
| | - Stéphanie Ballereau
- Laboratoire de Synthèse et Physico-Chimie de Molécules d’Intérêt Biologique, Université Toulouse III—Paul Sabatier, Centre National de la Recherche Scientifique, 31062 Toulouse, France; (S.B.); (Y.G.); (J.-C.P.)
| | - Yves Génisson
- Laboratoire de Synthèse et Physico-Chimie de Molécules d’Intérêt Biologique, Université Toulouse III—Paul Sabatier, Centre National de la Recherche Scientifique, 31062 Toulouse, France; (S.B.); (Y.G.); (J.-C.P.)
| | - Lionel Mourey
- Institut de Pharmacologie et de Biologie Structurale, Université Toulouse III—Paul Sabatier, Centre National de la Recherche Scientifique, 31077 Toulouse, France; (R.G.); (L.M.)
| | - Jean-Christophe Plaquevent
- Laboratoire de Synthèse et Physico-Chimie de Molécules d’Intérêt Biologique, Université Toulouse III—Paul Sabatier, Centre National de la Recherche Scientifique, 31062 Toulouse, France; (S.B.); (Y.G.); (J.-C.P.)
| | - Laurent Maveyraud
- Institut de Pharmacologie et de Biologie Structurale, Université Toulouse III—Paul Sabatier, Centre National de la Recherche Scientifique, 31077 Toulouse, France; (R.G.); (L.M.)
- Correspondence: ; Tel.: +33-561-17-54-35
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14
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Grinter R, Greening C. Cofactor F420: an expanded view of its distribution, biosynthesis and roles in bacteria and archaea. FEMS Microbiol Rev 2021; 45:fuab021. [PMID: 33851978 PMCID: PMC8498797 DOI: 10.1093/femsre/fuab021] [Citation(s) in RCA: 14] [Impact Index Per Article: 4.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 01/05/2021] [Accepted: 04/11/2021] [Indexed: 12/11/2022] Open
Abstract
Many bacteria and archaea produce the redox cofactor F420. F420 is structurally similar to the cofactors FAD and FMN but is catalytically more similar to NAD and NADP. These properties allow F420 to catalyze challenging redox reactions, including key steps in methanogenesis, antibiotic biosynthesis and xenobiotic biodegradation. In the last 5 years, there has been much progress in understanding its distribution, biosynthesis, role and applications. Whereas F420 was previously thought to be confined to Actinobacteria and Euryarchaeota, new evidence indicates it is synthesized across the bacterial and archaeal domains, as a result of extensive horizontal and vertical biosynthetic gene transfer. F420 was thought to be synthesized through one biosynthetic pathway; however, recent advances have revealed variants of this pathway and have resolved their key biosynthetic steps. In parallel, new F420-dependent biosynthetic and metabolic processes have been discovered. These advances have enabled the heterologous production of F420 and identified enantioselective F420H2-dependent reductases for biocatalysis. New research has also helped resolve how microorganisms use F420 to influence human and environmental health, providing opportunities for tuberculosis treatment and methane mitigation. A total of 50 years since its discovery, multiple paradigms associated with F420 have shifted, and new F420-dependent organisms and processes continue to be discovered.
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Affiliation(s)
- Rhys Grinter
- Department of Microbiology, Monash Biomedicine Discovery Institute, Monash University, Clayton, VIC 3800, Australia
| | - Chris Greening
- Department of Microbiology, Monash Biomedicine Discovery Institute, Monash University, Clayton, VIC 3800, Australia
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15
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Sundararajan S, Muniyan R. Latent tuberculosis: interaction of virulence factors in Mycobacterium tuberculosis. Mol Biol Rep 2021; 48:6181-6196. [PMID: 34351540 DOI: 10.1007/s11033-021-06611-7] [Citation(s) in RCA: 13] [Impact Index Per Article: 4.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 06/11/2021] [Accepted: 07/29/2021] [Indexed: 11/28/2022]
Abstract
Tuberculosis (TB) remains a prominent health concern worldwide. Besides extensive research and vaccinations available, attempts to control the pandemic are cumbersome due to the complex physiology of Mycobacterium tuberculosis (Mtb). Alongside the emergence of drug-resistant TB, latent TB has worsened the condition. The tubercle bacilli are unusually behaved and successful with its strategies to modulate genes to evade host immune system and persist within macrophages. Under latent/unfavorable conditions, Mtb conceals itself from immune system and modulates its genes. Among many intracellular modulated genes, important are those involved in cell entry, fatty acid degradation, mycolic acid synthesis, phagosome acidification inhibition, inhibition of phagosome-lysosome complex and chaperon protein modulation. Though the study on these genes date back to early times of TB, an insight on their inter-relation within and to newly evolved genes are still required. This review focuses on the findings and discussions on these genes, possible mechanism, credibility as target for novel drugs and repurposed drugs and their interaction that enables Mtb in survival, pathogenesis, resistance and latency.
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Affiliation(s)
- Sadhana Sundararajan
- School of Biosciences and Technology, Vellore Institute of Technology, Vellore, Tamil Nadu, 632014, India
| | - Rajiniraja Muniyan
- School of Biosciences and Technology, Vellore Institute of Technology, Vellore, Tamil Nadu, 632014, India.
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16
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Halder SK, Elma F. In silico identification of novel chemical compounds with antituberculosis activity for the inhibition of InhA and EthR proteins from Mycobacterium tuberculosis. J Clin Tuberc Other Mycobact Dis 2021; 24:100246. [PMID: 34124395 PMCID: PMC8173314 DOI: 10.1016/j.jctube.2021.100246] [Citation(s) in RCA: 7] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 01/08/2023] Open
Abstract
Tuberculosis (TB) continuously poses a major public health concern around the globe, with a mounting death toll of approximately 1.4 million in 2019. Reduced bioavailability, elevated toxicity, increased side effects, and resistance of multiple first-line and second-line TB medications, including isoniazid, ethionamide necessitate studies of new drugs. The method of computational biology and bioinformatics approach allows virtual screening of a large number of drugs, reduces growing side effects of medications, and predicts potential drug resistance over time. In this study, we have analyzed fifty small molecules with antituberculosis properties using in silico approach including molecular docking, drug-likeness assessment, ADMET (absorption, distribution, metabolism, excretion, toxicity) profile evaluation, P450 site of metabolism prediction, and molecular dynamics simulation. Among those fifty compounds, 3-[3-(4-Fluorophenyl)-1,2,4-oxadiazol-5-yl]-N-(2-methylphenyl) piperidine-1-carboxamide (C22) and 5-(4-Ethyl-phenyl)-2-(1H-tetrazol-5-ylmethyl)-2H-tetrazole (C29) were found to pass the two-step molecular docking, P450 site of metabolism prediction and pharmacokinetics analysis successfully. Their binding stability for target proteins has been evaluated through root mean square deviation and root mean square fluctuation, Radius of gyration analysis from 10 ns Molecular Dynamics Simulation (MDS). Our identified drugs (C22 and C29) performed better than the control drugs (Isoniazid, Ethionamide) regarding binding affinity and molecular stability with the regulatory proteins (InhA, EthR) of Mycobacterium tuberculosis. The study proposed these compounds as effective therapeutic agents for Tuberculosis drug discovery, but further in vitro and in vivo testing are needed to substantiate their potential as novel drugs and modes of action.
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Affiliation(s)
- Sajal Kumar Halder
- Department of Biochemistry and Molecular Biology, Jahangirnagar University, Savar, Dhaka 1342, Bangladesh
- Research assistant at Padma Bioresearch, Dhaka, Bangladesh
| | - Fatiha Elma
- Department of Biochemistry and Molecular Biology, Jahangirnagar University, Savar, Dhaka 1342, Bangladesh
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17
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Holzheimer M, Buter J, Minnaard AJ. Chemical Synthesis of Cell Wall Constituents of Mycobacterium tuberculosis. Chem Rev 2021; 121:9554-9643. [PMID: 34190544 PMCID: PMC8361437 DOI: 10.1021/acs.chemrev.1c00043] [Citation(s) in RCA: 22] [Impact Index Per Article: 7.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/13/2022]
Abstract
![]()
The pathogen Mycobacterium tuberculosis (Mtb), causing
tuberculosis disease, features an extraordinary
thick cell envelope, rich in Mtb-specific lipids,
glycolipids, and glycans. These cell wall components are often directly
involved in host–pathogen interaction and recognition, intracellular
survival, and virulence. For decades, these mycobacterial natural
products have been of great interest for immunology and synthetic
chemistry alike, due to their complex molecular structure and the
biological functions arising from it. The synthesis of many of these
constituents has been achieved and aided the elucidation of their
function by utilizing the synthetic material to study Mtb immunology. This review summarizes the synthetic efforts of a quarter
century of total synthesis and highlights how the synthesis layed
the foundation for immunological studies as well as drove the field
of organic synthesis and catalysis to efficiently access these complex
natural products.
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Affiliation(s)
- Mira Holzheimer
- Stratingh Institute for Chemistry, University of Groningen, 9747 AG Groningen, The Netherlands
| | - Jeffrey Buter
- Stratingh Institute for Chemistry, University of Groningen, 9747 AG Groningen, The Netherlands
| | - Adriaan J Minnaard
- Stratingh Institute for Chemistry, University of Groningen, 9747 AG Groningen, The Netherlands
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18
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Madacki J, Kopál M, Jackson M, Korduláková J. Mycobacterial Epoxide Hydrolase EphD Is Inhibited by Urea and Thiourea Derivatives. Int J Mol Sci 2021; 22:2884. [PMID: 33809178 PMCID: PMC7998700 DOI: 10.3390/ijms22062884] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 01/29/2021] [Revised: 03/01/2021] [Accepted: 03/10/2021] [Indexed: 11/16/2022] Open
Abstract
The genome of the human intracellular pathogen Mycobacterium tuberculosis encodes an unusually large number of epoxide hydrolases, which are thought to be involved in lipid metabolism and detoxification reactions needed to endure the hostile environment of host macrophages. These enzymes therefore represent suitable targets for compounds such as urea derivatives, which are known inhibitors of soluble epoxide hydrolases. In this work, we studied in vitro the effect of the thiourea drug isoxyl on six epoxide hydrolases of M. tuberculosis using a fatty acid substrate. We show that one of the proteins inhibited by isoxyl is EphD, an enzyme involved in the metabolism of mycolic acids, key components of the mycobacterial cell wall. By analyzing mycolic acid profiles, we demonstrate the inhibition of EphD epoxide hydrolase activity by isoxyl and two other urea-based inhibitors, thiacetazone and AU1235, inside the mycobacterial cell.
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Affiliation(s)
- Jan Madacki
- Department of Biochemistry, Faculty of Natural Sciences, Comenius University in Bratislava, Mlynská Dolina, Ilkovičova 6, 842 15 Bratislava, Slovakia; (J.M.); (M.K.)
| | - Martin Kopál
- Department of Biochemistry, Faculty of Natural Sciences, Comenius University in Bratislava, Mlynská Dolina, Ilkovičova 6, 842 15 Bratislava, Slovakia; (J.M.); (M.K.)
| | - Mary Jackson
- Mycobacteria Research Laboratories, Department of Microbiology, Immunology and Pathology, Colorado State University, Fort Collins, CO 80523-1682, USA;
| | - Jana Korduláková
- Department of Biochemistry, Faculty of Natural Sciences, Comenius University in Bratislava, Mlynská Dolina, Ilkovičova 6, 842 15 Bratislava, Slovakia; (J.M.); (M.K.)
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19
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Chauhan A, Kumar M, Kumar A, Kanchan K. Comprehensive review on mechanism of action, resistance and evolution of antimycobacterial drugs. Life Sci 2021; 274:119301. [PMID: 33675895 DOI: 10.1016/j.lfs.2021.119301] [Citation(s) in RCA: 12] [Impact Index Per Article: 4.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 11/23/2020] [Revised: 02/14/2021] [Accepted: 02/24/2021] [Indexed: 01/04/2023]
Abstract
Tuberculosis is one of the deadliest infectious diseases existing in the world since ancient times and still possesses serious threat across the globe. Each year the number of cases increases due to high drug resistance shown by Mycobacterium tuberculosis (Mtb). Available antimycobacterial drugs have been classified as First line, Second line and Third line antibiotics depending on the time of their discoveries and their effectiveness in the treatment. These antibiotics have a broad range of targets ranging from cell wall to metabolic processes and their non-judicious and uncontrolled usage in the treatment for years has created a significant problem called multi-drug resistant (MDR) tuberculosis. In this review, we have summarized the mechanism of action of all the classified antibiotics currently in use along with the resistance mechanisms acquired by Mtb. We have focused on the new drug candidates/repurposed drugs, and drug in combinations, which are in clinical trials for either treating the MDR tuberculosis more effectively or involved in reducing the time required for the chemotherapy of drug sensitive TB. This information is not discussed very adequately on a single platform. Additionally, we have discussed the recent technologies that are being used to discover novel resistance mechanisms acquired by Mtb and for exploring novel drugs. The story of intrinsic resistance mechanisms and evolution in Mtb is far from complete. Therefore, we have also discussed intrinsic resistance mechanisms of Mtb and their evolution with time, emphasizing the hope for the development of novel antimycobacterial drugs for effective therapy of tuberculosis.
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Affiliation(s)
- Aditi Chauhan
- Amity Institute of Molecular Medicine and Stem Cell Research, Amity University Uttar Pradesh, Noida 201313, India
| | - Manoj Kumar
- Amity Food and Agriculture Foundation, Amity University Uttar Pradesh, Noida 201313, India
| | - Awanish Kumar
- Department of Bio Technology, National Institute of Technology, Raipur, India
| | - Kajal Kanchan
- Amity Institute of Molecular Medicine and Stem Cell Research, Amity University Uttar Pradesh, Noida 201313, India.
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20
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Pouget M, Coussens AK, Ruggiero A, Koch A, Thomas J, Besra GS, Wilkinson RJ, Bhatt A, Pollakis G, Paxton WA. Generation of Liposomes to Study the Effect of Mycobacterium Tuberculosis Lipids on HIV-1 cis- and trans-Infections. Int J Mol Sci 2021; 22:ijms22041945. [PMID: 33669411 PMCID: PMC7920488 DOI: 10.3390/ijms22041945] [Citation(s) in RCA: 2] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 12/14/2020] [Revised: 02/01/2021] [Accepted: 02/11/2021] [Indexed: 12/13/2022] Open
Abstract
Tuberculosis (TB) is the leading cause of death among HIV-1-infected individuals and Mycobacterium tuberculosis (Mtb) co-infection is an early precipitate to AIDS. We aimed to determine whether Mtb strains differentially modulate cellular susceptibility to HIV-1 infection (cis- and trans-infection), via surface receptor interaction by their cell envelope lipids. Total lipids from pathogenic (lineage 4 Mtb H37Rv, CDC1551 and lineage 2 Mtb HN878, EU127) and non-pathogenic (Mycobacterium bovis BCG and Mycobacterium smegmatis) Mycobacterium strains were integrated into liposomes mimicking the lipid distribution and antigen accessibility of the mycobacterial cell wall. The resulting liposomes were tested for modulating in vitro HIV-1 cis- and trans-infection of TZM-bl cells using single-cycle infectious virus particles. Mtb glycolipids did not affect HIV-1 direct infection however, trans-infection of both R5 and X4 tropic HIV-1 strains were impaired in the presence of glycolipids from M. bovis, Mtb H37Rv and Mtb EU127 strains when using Raji-DC-SIGN cells or immature and mature dendritic cells (DCs) to capture virus. SL1, PDIM and TDM lipids were identified to be involved in DC-SIGN recognition and impairment of HIV-1 trans-infection. These findings indicate that variant strains of Mtb have differential effect on HIV-1 trans-infection with the potential to influence HIV-1 disease course in co-infected individuals.
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Affiliation(s)
- Marion Pouget
- Department of Clinical Infection, Microbiology and Immunology, Institute of Infection, Veterinary and Ecological Sciences, University of Liverpool, Liverpool L69 7BE, UK; (M.P.); (A.R.); (J.T.)
- UCD Centre for Experimental Pathogen Host Research, University College Dublin, Belfield, Dublin 4, Ireland
| | - Anna K. Coussens
- Wellcome Center for Infectious Diseases Research in Africa, Institute of Infectious Disease and Molecular Medicine and Department of Medicine, University of Cape Town, Observatory, Cape Town 7925, South Africa; (A.K.C.); (A.K.); (R.J.W.)
- Walter and Eliza Hall Institute of Medical Research, Parkville 3279, Australia
| | - Alessandra Ruggiero
- Department of Clinical Infection, Microbiology and Immunology, Institute of Infection, Veterinary and Ecological Sciences, University of Liverpool, Liverpool L69 7BE, UK; (M.P.); (A.R.); (J.T.)
- Academic Department of Pediatrics (DPUO), IRCCS Ospedale Pediatrico Bambino Gesù, Piazza S. Onofrio 4, 00165 Rome, Italy
| | - Anastasia Koch
- Wellcome Center for Infectious Diseases Research in Africa, Institute of Infectious Disease and Molecular Medicine and Department of Medicine, University of Cape Town, Observatory, Cape Town 7925, South Africa; (A.K.C.); (A.K.); (R.J.W.)
| | - Jordan Thomas
- Department of Clinical Infection, Microbiology and Immunology, Institute of Infection, Veterinary and Ecological Sciences, University of Liverpool, Liverpool L69 7BE, UK; (M.P.); (A.R.); (J.T.)
| | - Gurdyal S. Besra
- Institute of Microbiology and Infection and School of Biosciences, University of Birmingham, Birmingham B15 2TT, UK; (G.S.B.); (A.B.)
| | - Robert J. Wilkinson
- Wellcome Center for Infectious Diseases Research in Africa, Institute of Infectious Disease and Molecular Medicine and Department of Medicine, University of Cape Town, Observatory, Cape Town 7925, South Africa; (A.K.C.); (A.K.); (R.J.W.)
- Department of Infectious Diseases, Imperial College, London W2 1PG, UK
- The Francis Crick Institute, London NW1 1AT, UK
| | - Apoorva Bhatt
- Institute of Microbiology and Infection and School of Biosciences, University of Birmingham, Birmingham B15 2TT, UK; (G.S.B.); (A.B.)
| | - Georgios Pollakis
- Department of Clinical Infection, Microbiology and Immunology, Institute of Infection, Veterinary and Ecological Sciences, University of Liverpool, Liverpool L69 7BE, UK; (M.P.); (A.R.); (J.T.)
- Correspondence: (G.P.); (W.A.P.); Tel.: +44-151-795-9681 (G.P.); +44-151-795-9605 (W.A.P.)
| | - William A. Paxton
- Department of Clinical Infection, Microbiology and Immunology, Institute of Infection, Veterinary and Ecological Sciences, University of Liverpool, Liverpool L69 7BE, UK; (M.P.); (A.R.); (J.T.)
- Correspondence: (G.P.); (W.A.P.); Tel.: +44-151-795-9681 (G.P.); +44-151-795-9605 (W.A.P.)
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21
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The thick waxy coat of mycobacteria, a protective layer against antibiotics and the host's immune system. Biochem J 2020; 477:1983-2006. [PMID: 32470138 PMCID: PMC7261415 DOI: 10.1042/bcj20200194] [Citation(s) in RCA: 76] [Impact Index Per Article: 19.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 03/09/2020] [Revised: 04/30/2020] [Accepted: 05/04/2020] [Indexed: 12/22/2022]
Abstract
Tuberculosis, caused by the pathogenic bacterium Mycobacterium tuberculosis (Mtb), is the leading cause of death from an infectious disease, with a mortality rate of over a million people per year. This pathogen's remarkable resilience and infectivity is largely due to its unique waxy cell envelope, 40% of which comprises complex lipids. Therefore, an understanding of the structure and function of the cell wall lipids is of huge indirect clinical significance. This review provides a synopsis of the cell envelope and the major lipids contained within, including structure, biosynthesis and roles in pathogenesis.
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22
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Batt SM, Burke CE, Moorey AR, Besra GS. Antibiotics and resistance: the two-sided coin of the mycobacterial cell wall. Cell Surf 2020; 6:100044. [PMID: 32995684 PMCID: PMC7502851 DOI: 10.1016/j.tcsw.2020.100044] [Citation(s) in RCA: 25] [Impact Index Per Article: 6.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 06/30/2020] [Revised: 08/26/2020] [Accepted: 08/26/2020] [Indexed: 01/07/2023] Open
Abstract
Mycobacterium tuberculosis, the bacterium responsible for tuberculosis, is the global leading cause of mortality from an infectious agent. Part of this success relies on the unique cell wall, which consists of a thick waxy coat with tightly packed layers of complexed sugars, lipids and peptides. This coat provides a protective hydrophobic barrier to antibiotics and the host's defences, while enabling the bacterium to spread efficiently through sputum to infect and survive within the macrophages of new hosts. However, part of this success comes at a cost, with many of the current first- and second-line drugs targeting the enzymes involved in cell wall biosynthesis. The flip side of this coin is that resistance to these drugs develops either in the target enzymes or the activation pathways of the drugs, paving the way for new resistant clinical strains. This review provides a synopsis of the structure and synthesis of the cell wall and the major current drugs and targets, along with any mechanisms of resistance.
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Affiliation(s)
- Sarah M. Batt
- Institute of Microbiology and Infection, School of Biosciences, University of Birmingham, Edgbaston, Birmingham B15 2TT, UK
| | - Christopher E. Burke
- Institute of Microbiology and Infection, School of Biosciences, University of Birmingham, Edgbaston, Birmingham B15 2TT, UK
| | - Alice R. Moorey
- Institute of Microbiology and Infection, School of Biosciences, University of Birmingham, Edgbaston, Birmingham B15 2TT, UK
| | - Gurdyal S. Besra
- Institute of Microbiology and Infection, School of Biosciences, University of Birmingham, Edgbaston, Birmingham B15 2TT, UK
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23
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Puhl AC, Lane TR, Vignaux PA, Zorn KM, Capodagli GC, Neiditch MB, Freundlich JS, Ekins S. Computational Approaches to Identify Molecules Binding to Mycobacterium tuberculosis KasA. ACS OMEGA 2020; 5:29935-29942. [PMID: 33251429 PMCID: PMC7689923 DOI: 10.1021/acsomega.0c04271] [Citation(s) in RCA: 7] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 09/01/2020] [Accepted: 10/07/2020] [Indexed: 05/05/2023]
Abstract
Tuberculosis is caused by Mycobacterium tuberculosis (Mtb) and is a deadly disease resulting in the deaths of approximately 1.5 million people with 10 million infections reported in 2018. Recently, a key condensation step in the synthesis of mycolic acids was shown to require β-ketoacyl-ACP synthase (KasA). A crystal structure of KasA with the small molecule DG167 was recently described, which provided a starting point for using computational structure-based approaches to identify additional molecules binding to this protein. We now describe structure-based pharmacophores, docking and machine learning studies with Assay Central as a computational tool for the identification of small molecules targeting KasA. We then tested these compounds using nanoscale differential scanning fluorimetry and microscale thermophoresis. Of note, we identified several molecules including the Food and Drug Administration (FDA)-approved drugs sildenafil and flubendazole with K d values between 30-40 μM. This may provide additional starting points for further optimization.
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Affiliation(s)
- Ana C. Puhl
- Collaborations
Pharmaceuticals, Inc., 840 Main Campus Drive, Lab 3510, Raleigh, North Carolina 27606, United States
| | - Thomas R. Lane
- Collaborations
Pharmaceuticals, Inc., 840 Main Campus Drive, Lab 3510, Raleigh, North Carolina 27606, United States
| | - Patricia A. Vignaux
- Collaborations
Pharmaceuticals, Inc., 840 Main Campus Drive, Lab 3510, Raleigh, North Carolina 27606, United States
| | - Kimberley M. Zorn
- Collaborations
Pharmaceuticals, Inc., 840 Main Campus Drive, Lab 3510, Raleigh, North Carolina 27606, United States
| | - Glenn C. Capodagli
- Department
of Microbiology, Biochemistry, and Molecular Genetics, Rutgers University − New Jersey Medical School, Newark, New Jersey 07103, United States
| | - Matthew B. Neiditch
- Department
of Microbiology, Biochemistry, and Molecular Genetics, Rutgers University − New Jersey Medical School, Newark, New Jersey 07103, United States
| | - Joel S. Freundlich
- Department
of Pharmacology, Physiology, and Neuroscience, Rutgers University − New Jersey Medical School, Newark, New Jersey 07103, United States
- Division
of Infectious Disease, Department of Medicine and the Ruy V. Lourenço
Center for the Study of Emerging and Re-emerging Pathogens, Rutgers University - New Jersey Medical School, Newark, New Jersey 07103, United States
| | - Sean Ekins
- Collaborations
Pharmaceuticals, Inc., 840 Main Campus Drive, Lab 3510, Raleigh, North Carolina 27606, United States
- . Tel.: +1 215-687-1320
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24
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Veeravarapu H, Tirumalasetty M, Kurati S, Wunnava U, Krishna Kumar Muthyala M. Design, synthesis, antimycobacterial activity and molecular docking studies of novel 3- (N-substituted glycinamido) benzoic acid analogues as anti tubercular agents. Bioorg Med Chem Lett 2020; 30:127603. [PMID: 33039564 DOI: 10.1016/j.bmcl.2020.127603] [Citation(s) in RCA: 3] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 06/22/2020] [Revised: 09/30/2020] [Accepted: 10/03/2020] [Indexed: 01/19/2023]
Abstract
We have recently identified mycolic acid methyl transferase (MmaA1) enzyme inhibitors as potential antitubercular agents using in silico modelling techniques. In continuation of that study, we synthesised a series of novel 3-(N-substituted glycinamido) benzoic acid derivatives with an aim to optimise the lead molecule. The newly synthesised compounds were evaluated for their in vitro antimycobacterial activity against M. tuberculosis H37Rv. Among these, 5 compounds A3, A4, A5, A6 and A10 exhibited most potent activity with an MIC value of 1.6 μg/ml. Further molecular docking studies were carried out to investigate the binding mode of the ligands with MmaA1 protein. The docking studies revealed that the ligands made strong interactions with the catalytic site residues TRP30, TYR 32, GLY 71, TRP 74, GLY 76, ALA 77 and GLU 136 of MmaA1 protein. Druglikeness and leadlikeness properties of the compounds were also studied using computational tools. The results of in silico and in vitro studies indicate that these novel compounds are propitious leads for tuberculosis therapy.
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Affiliation(s)
- Hymavathi Veeravarapu
- Pharmaceutical Chemistry Research Lab, AU College of Pharmaceutical Sciences, Andhra University, Visakhapatnam, India
| | - Mohan Tirumalasetty
- Pharmaceutical Chemistry Research Lab, AU College of Pharmaceutical Sciences, Andhra University, Visakhapatnam, India
| | - SonyPriya Kurati
- Pharmaceutical Chemistry Research Lab, AU College of Pharmaceutical Sciences, Andhra University, Visakhapatnam, India
| | - Umarani Wunnava
- Pharmaceutical Chemistry Research Lab, AU College of Pharmaceutical Sciences, Andhra University, Visakhapatnam, India
| | - Murali Krishna Kumar Muthyala
- Pharmaceutical Chemistry Research Lab, AU College of Pharmaceutical Sciences, Andhra University, Visakhapatnam, India.
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25
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Zaveri A, Wang R, Botella L, Sharma R, Zhu L, Wallach JB, Song N, Jansen RS, Rhee KY, Ehrt S, Schnappinger D. Depletion of the DarG antitoxin in Mycobacterium tuberculosis triggers the DNA-damage response and leads to cell death. Mol Microbiol 2020; 114:641-652. [PMID: 32634279 PMCID: PMC7689832 DOI: 10.1111/mmi.14571] [Citation(s) in RCA: 17] [Impact Index Per Article: 4.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 05/07/2020] [Revised: 06/28/2020] [Accepted: 07/01/2020] [Indexed: 01/01/2023]
Abstract
Of the ~80 putative toxin-antitoxin (TA) modules encoded by the bacterial pathogen Mycobacterium tuberculosis (Mtb), three contain antitoxins essential for bacterial viability. One of these, Rv0060 (DNA ADP-ribosyl glycohydrolase, DarGMtb ), functions along with its cognate toxin Rv0059 (DNA ADP-ribosyl transferase, DarTMtb ), to mediate reversible DNA ADP-ribosylation (Jankevicius et al., 2016). We demonstrate that DarTMtb -DarGMtb form a functional TA pair and essentiality of darGMtb is dependent on the presence of darTMtb , but simultaneous deletion of both darTMtb -darGMtb does not alter viability of Mtb in vitro or in mice. The antitoxin, DarGMtb , forms a cytosolic complex with DNA-repair proteins that assembles independently of either DarTMtb or interaction with DNA. Depletion of DarGMtb alone is bactericidal, a phenotype that is rescued by expression of an orthologous antitoxin, DarGTaq , from Thermus aquaticus. Partial depletion of DarGMtb triggers a DNA-damage response and sensitizes Mtb to drugs targeting DNA metabolism and respiration. Induction of the DNA-damage response is essential for Mtb to survive partial DarGMtb -depletion and leads to a hypermutable phenotype.
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Affiliation(s)
- Anisha Zaveri
- Department of Microbiology and Immunology, Weill Cornell Medicine, New York, NY, USA
| | - Ruojun Wang
- Department of Microbiology and Immunology, Weill Cornell Medicine, New York, NY, USA
| | - Laure Botella
- Department of Microbiology and Immunology, Weill Cornell Medicine, New York, NY, USA
| | - Ritu Sharma
- Department of Microbiology and Immunology, Weill Cornell Medicine, New York, NY, USA
| | - Linnan Zhu
- Department of Microbiology and Immunology, Weill Cornell Medicine, New York, NY, USA
| | - Joshua B Wallach
- Department of Microbiology and Immunology, Weill Cornell Medicine, New York, NY, USA
| | - Naomi Song
- Department of Microbiology and Immunology, Weill Cornell Medicine, New York, NY, USA
| | - Robert S Jansen
- Department of Medicine, Weill Cornell Medicine, New York, NY, USA
| | - Kyu Y Rhee
- Department of Medicine, Weill Cornell Medicine, New York, NY, USA
| | - Sabine Ehrt
- Department of Microbiology and Immunology, Weill Cornell Medicine, New York, NY, USA
| | - Dirk Schnappinger
- Department of Microbiology and Immunology, Weill Cornell Medicine, New York, NY, USA
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26
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Shetye GS, Franzblau SG, Cho S. New tuberculosis drug targets, their inhibitors, and potential therapeutic impact. Transl Res 2020; 220:68-97. [PMID: 32275897 DOI: 10.1016/j.trsl.2020.03.007] [Citation(s) in RCA: 88] [Impact Index Per Article: 22.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Submit a Manuscript] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 12/19/2019] [Revised: 02/28/2020] [Accepted: 03/09/2020] [Indexed: 11/18/2022]
Abstract
The current tuberculosis (TB) predicament poses numerous challenges and therefore every incremental scientific work and all positive socio-political engagements, are steps taken in the right direction to eradicate TB. Progression of the late stage TB-drug pipeline into the clinics is an immediate deliverable of this global effort. At the same time, fueling basic research and pursuing early discovery work must be sustained to maintain a healthy TB-drug pipeline. This review encompasses a broad analysis of chemotherapeutic strategies that target the DNA replication, protein synthesis, cell wall biosynthesis, energy metabolism and proteolysis of Mycobacterium tuberculosis (Mtb). It includes a status check of the current TB-drug pipeline with a focus on the associated biology, emerging targets, and their promising chemical inhibitors. Potential synergies and/or gaps within or across different chemotherapeutic strategies are systematically reviewed as well.
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Affiliation(s)
- Gauri S Shetye
- Institute for Tuberculosis Research, College of Pharmacy, University of Illinois at Chicago, Chicago, Illinois
| | - Scott G Franzblau
- Institute for Tuberculosis Research, College of Pharmacy, University of Illinois at Chicago, Chicago, Illinois
| | - Sanghyun Cho
- Institute for Tuberculosis Research, College of Pharmacy, University of Illinois at Chicago, Chicago, Illinois.
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27
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Moopanar K, Mvubu NE. Lineage-specific differences in lipid metabolism and its impact on clinical strains of Mycobacterium tuberculosis. Microb Pathog 2020; 146:104250. [PMID: 32407863 DOI: 10.1016/j.micpath.2020.104250] [Citation(s) in RCA: 6] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 08/19/2019] [Revised: 04/01/2020] [Accepted: 05/06/2020] [Indexed: 01/02/2023]
Abstract
Mycobacterium tuberculosis (M. tb) is the causative agent of TB and its incidences has been on the rise since 1993. Lipid metabolism is an imperative metabolic process, which grants M. tb the ability to utilize host-derived lipids as a secondary source of nutrition during infection. In addition to degrading host lipids, M. tb is proficient at using lipids, such as cholesterol, to facilitate its entry into macrophages. Mycolic acids, constituents of the mycobacterial cell wall, offer protection and aid in persistence of the bacterium. These are effectively synthesized using a complex fatty acid synthase system. Many pathogenesis studies have reported differences in lipid-metabolism of clinical strains of M. tb that belongs to diverse lineages of the Mycobacterium tuberculosis complex (MTBC). East-Asian and Euro-American lineages possess "unique" cell wall-associated lipids compared to the less transmissible Ethiopian lineage, which may offer these lineages a competitive advantage. Therefore, it is crucial to comprehend the complexities among the MTBC lineages with lipid metabolism and their impact on virulence, transmissibility and pathogenesis. Thus, this review provides an insight into lipid metabolism in various lineages of the MTBC and their impact on virulence and persistence during infection, as this may provide critical insight into developing novel therapeutics to combat TB.
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Affiliation(s)
- K Moopanar
- School of Life Sciences, College of Agriculture, Engineering and Science, University of KwaZulu-Natal, South Africa.
| | - N E Mvubu
- School of Life Sciences, College of Agriculture, Engineering and Science, University of KwaZulu-Natal, South Africa.
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28
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A Phenotypic Characterization of Two Isolates of a Multidrug-Resistant Outbreak Strain of Mycobacterium tuberculosis with Opposite Epidemiological Fitness. BIOMED RESEARCH INTERNATIONAL 2020; 2020:4741237. [PMID: 32337252 PMCID: PMC7168692 DOI: 10.1155/2020/4741237] [Citation(s) in RCA: 2] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 01/08/2020] [Revised: 02/28/2020] [Accepted: 03/04/2020] [Indexed: 11/17/2022]
Abstract
Tuberculosis (TB) is an infectious disease, caused by Mycobacterium tuberculosis, primarily affecting the lungs. The M. tuberculosis strain of the Haarlem family named M was responsible for a large multidrug-resistant TB (MDR-TB) outbreak in Buenos Aires. This outbreak started in the early 1990s and in the mid 2000s still accounted for 29% of all MDR-TB cases in Argentina. By contrast, a clonal variant of strain M, named 410, has caused a single tuberculosis case since the onset of the outbreak. The molecular bases of the high epidemiological fitness of the M strain remain unclear. To assess its unique molecular properties, herein, we performed a comparative protein and lipid analysis of a representative clone of the M strain (Mp) and the nonprosperous M variant 410. We also evaluated their growth in low pH. The variant 410 had higher levels of latency proteins under standard conditions and delayed growth at low pH, suggesting that it is more sensitive to stress stimuli than Mp. Moreover, Mp showed higher levels of mycolic acids covalently attached to the cell wall and lower accumulation of free mycolic acids in the outer layer than the 410 strain. The low expression of latency proteins together with the reduced content of surface mycolic acids may facilitate Mp to evade the host immune responses.
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29
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A Preclinical Candidate Targeting Mycobacterium tuberculosis KasA. Cell Chem Biol 2020; 27:560-570.e10. [PMID: 32197094 DOI: 10.1016/j.chembiol.2020.02.007] [Citation(s) in RCA: 16] [Impact Index Per Article: 4.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 08/20/2019] [Revised: 01/26/2020] [Accepted: 02/26/2020] [Indexed: 01/22/2023]
Abstract
Published Mycobacterium tuberculosis β-ketoacyl-ACP synthase KasA inhibitors lack sufficient potency and/or pharmacokinetic properties. A structure-based approach was used to optimize existing KasA inhibitor DG167. This afforded indazole JSF-3285 with a 30-fold increase in mouse plasma exposure. Biochemical, genetic, and X-ray studies confirmed JSF-3285 targets KasA. JSF-3285 offers substantial activity in an acute mouse model of infection and in the corresponding chronic infection model, with efficacious reductions in colony-forming units at doses as low as 5 mg/kg once daily orally and improvement of the efficacy of front-line drugs isoniazid or rifampicin. JSF-3285 is a promising preclinical candidate for tuberculosis.
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30
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Discovery of a novel dehydratase of the fatty acid synthase type II critical for ketomycolic acid biosynthesis and virulence of Mycobacterium tuberculosis. Sci Rep 2020; 10:2112. [PMID: 32034201 PMCID: PMC7005898 DOI: 10.1038/s41598-020-58967-8] [Citation(s) in RCA: 8] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 05/13/2019] [Accepted: 01/20/2020] [Indexed: 02/07/2023] Open
Abstract
The fatty acid synthase type II (FAS-II) multienzyme system builds the main chain of mycolic acids (MAs), important lipid pathogenicity factors of Mycobacterium tuberculosis (Mtb). Due to their original structure, the identification of the (3 R)-hydroxyacyl-ACP dehydratases, HadAB and HadBC, of Mtb FAS-II complex required in-depth work. Here, we report the discovery of a third dehydratase protein, HadDMtb (Rv0504c), whose gene is non-essential and sits upstream of cmaA2 encoding a cyclopropane synthase dedicated to keto- and methoxy-MAs. HadDMtb deletion triggered a marked change in Mtb keto-MA content and size distribution, deeply impacting the production of full-size molecules. Furthermore, abnormal MAs, likely generated from 3-hydroxylated intermediates, accumulated. These data strongly suggest that HadDMtb catalyzes the 3-hydroxyacyl dehydratation step of late FAS-II elongation cycles during keto-MA biosynthesis. Phenotyping of Mtb hadD deletion mutant revealed the influence of HadDMtb on the planktonic growth, colony morphology and biofilm structuration, as well as on low temperature tolerance. Importantly, HadDMtb has a strong impact on Mtb virulence in the mouse model of infection. The effects of the lack of HadDMtb observed both in vitro and in vivo designate this protein as a bona fide target for the development of novel anti-TB intervention strategies.
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31
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Keikha M, Soleimanpour S, Eslami M, Yousefi B, Karbalaei M. The mystery of tuberculosis pathogenesis from the perspective of T regulatory cells. Meta Gene 2020. [DOI: 10.1016/j.mgene.2019.100632] [Citation(s) in RCA: 6] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 02/08/2023] Open
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32
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Dulberger CL, Rubin EJ, Boutte CC. The mycobacterial cell envelope - a moving target. Nat Rev Microbiol 2019; 18:47-59. [PMID: 31728063 DOI: 10.1038/s41579-019-0273-7] [Citation(s) in RCA: 163] [Impact Index Per Article: 32.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Accepted: 09/16/2019] [Indexed: 01/12/2023]
Abstract
Mycobacterium tuberculosis, the leading cause of death due to infection, has a dynamic and immunomodulatory cell envelope. The cell envelope structurally and functionally varies across the length of the cell and during the infection process. This variability allows the bacterium to manipulate the human immune system, tolerate antibiotic treatment and adapt to the variable host environment. Much of what we know about the mycobacterial cell envelope has been gleaned from model actinobacterial species, or model conditions such as growth in vitro, in macrophages and in the mouse. In this Review, we combine data from different experimental systems to build a model of the dynamics of the mycobacterial cell envelope across space and time. We describe the regulatory pathways that control metabolism of the cell wall and surface lipids in M. tuberculosis during growth and stasis, and speculate about how this regulation might affect antibiotic susceptibility and interactions with the immune system.
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Affiliation(s)
- Charles L Dulberger
- Department of Molecular and Cellular Biology, Harvard University, Boston, MA, USA.,Department of Immunology and Infectious Diseases, Harvard T. H. Chan School of Public Health, Boston, MA, USA
| | - Eric J Rubin
- Department of Immunology and Infectious Diseases, Harvard T. H. Chan School of Public Health, Boston, MA, USA.,Department of Microbiology, Harvard Medical School, Boston, MA, USA
| | - Cara C Boutte
- Department of Biology, University of Texas at Arlington, Arlington, TX, USA.
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33
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Adaptation of Mycobacterium tuberculosis to Biofilm Growth Is Genetically Linked to Drug Tolerance. Antimicrob Agents Chemother 2019; 63:AAC.01213-19. [PMID: 31501144 DOI: 10.1128/aac.01213-19] [Citation(s) in RCA: 30] [Impact Index Per Article: 6.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 06/14/2019] [Accepted: 08/31/2019] [Indexed: 01/23/2023] Open
Abstract
Mycobacterium tuberculosis spontaneously grows at the air-medium interface, forming pellicle biofilms, which harbor more drug-tolerant persisters than planktonic cultures. The underlying basis for increased persisters in M. tuberculosis biofilms is unknown. Using a transposon sequencing (Tn-seq) approach, we show here that multiple genes that are necessary for fitness of M. tuberculosis cells within biofilms, but not in planktonic cultures, are also implicated in tolerance of bacilli to a diverse set of stressors and antibiotics. Thus, development of M. tuberculosis biofilms appears to be associated with an enrichment of population, in which challenging growth conditions within biofilm architecture select for cells that maintain intrinsic tolerance to exogenous stresses, including antibiotic exposure. We further observed that the intrinsic drug tolerance of constituent cells of a biofilm determines the frequency of persisters. These findings together allow us to propose that the selection of elite cells during biofilm development promotes the frequency of persisters. Furthermore, probing the possibility that the population enrichment is an outcome of unique environment within biofilms, we demonstrate biofilm-specific induction in the synthesis of isonitrile lipopeptide (INLP). Mutation analysis indicates that INLP is necessary for the architecture development of M. tuberculosis biofilms. In summary, this study offers an insight into persistence of M. tuberculosis biofilms under antibiotic exposure, while identifying INLP as a potential biomarker for further investigation of this phenomenon.
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34
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Study of the conformational behaviour of trehalose mycolates by FT-IR spectroscopy. Chem Phys Lipids 2019; 223:104789. [DOI: 10.1016/j.chemphyslip.2019.104789] [Citation(s) in RCA: 1] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 04/20/2019] [Revised: 06/22/2019] [Accepted: 06/25/2019] [Indexed: 11/24/2022]
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35
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Madacki J, Mas Fiol G, Brosch R. Update on the virulence factors of the obligate pathogen Mycobacterium tuberculosis and related tuberculosis-causing mycobacteria. INFECTION GENETICS AND EVOLUTION 2019; 72:67-77. [DOI: 10.1016/j.meegid.2018.12.013] [Citation(s) in RCA: 13] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 08/31/2018] [Revised: 12/02/2018] [Accepted: 12/07/2018] [Indexed: 12/21/2022]
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36
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Squeglia F, Moreira M, Ruggiero A, Berisio R. The Cell Wall Hydrolytic NlpC/P60 Endopeptidases in Mycobacterial Cytokinesis: A Structural Perspective. Cells 2019; 8:cells8060609. [PMID: 31216697 PMCID: PMC6628586 DOI: 10.3390/cells8060609] [Citation(s) in RCA: 13] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 05/30/2019] [Revised: 06/12/2019] [Accepted: 06/14/2019] [Indexed: 12/11/2022] Open
Abstract
In preparation for division, bacteria replicate their DNA and segregate the newly formed chromosomes. A division septum then assembles between the chromosomes, and the mother cell splits into two identical daughters due to septum degradation. A major constituent of bacterial septa and of the whole cell wall is peptidoglycan (PGN), an essential cell wall polymer, formed by glycan chains of β−(1-4)-linked-N-acetylglucosamine (GlcNAc) and N-acetylmuramic acid (MurNAc), cross-linked by short peptide stems. Depending on the amino acid located at the third position of the peptide stem, PGN is classified as either Lys-type or meso-diaminopimelic acid (DAP)-type. Hydrolytic enzymes play a crucial role in the degradation of bacterial septa to split the cell wall material shared by adjacent daughter cells to promote their separation. In mycobacteria, a key PGN hydrolase, belonging to the NlpC/P60 endopeptidase family and denoted as RipA, is responsible for the degradation of septa, as the deletion of the gene encoding for this enzyme generates abnormal bacteria with multiple septa. This review provides an update of structural and functional data highlighting the central role of RipA in mycobacterial cytokinesis and the fine regulation of its catalytic activity, which involves multiple molecular partners.
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Affiliation(s)
- Flavia Squeglia
- Institute of Biostructures and Bioimaging (IBB), CNR, 80134 Naples, Italy.
| | - Miguel Moreira
- Institute of Biostructures and Bioimaging (IBB), CNR, 80134 Naples, Italy.
| | - Alessia Ruggiero
- Institute of Biostructures and Bioimaging (IBB), CNR, 80134 Naples, Italy.
| | - Rita Berisio
- Institute of Biostructures and Bioimaging (IBB), CNR, 80134 Naples, Italy.
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Alsayed SSR, Beh CC, Foster NR, Payne AD, Yu Y, Gunosewoyo H. Kinase Targets for Mycolic Acid Biosynthesis in Mycobacterium tuberculosis. Curr Mol Pharmacol 2019; 12:27-49. [PMID: 30360731 DOI: 10.2174/1874467211666181025141114] [Citation(s) in RCA: 13] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 08/08/2018] [Revised: 10/11/2018] [Accepted: 10/11/2018] [Indexed: 12/12/2022]
Abstract
BACKGROUND Mycolic acids (MAs) are the characteristic, integral building blocks for the mycomembrane belonging to the insidious bacterial pathogen Mycobacterium tuberculosis (M.tb). These C60-C90 long α-alkyl-β-hydroxylated fatty acids provide protection to the tubercle bacilli against the outside threats, thus allowing its survival, virulence and resistance to the current antibacterial agents. In the post-genomic era, progress has been made towards understanding the crucial enzymatic machineries involved in the biosynthesis of MAs in M.tb. However, gaps still remain in the exact role of the phosphorylation and dephosphorylation of regulatory mechanisms within these systems. To date, a total of 11 serine-threonine protein kinases (STPKs) are found in M.tb. Most enzymes implicated in the MAs synthesis were found to be phosphorylated in vitro and/or in vivo. For instance, phosphorylation of KasA, KasB, mtFabH, InhA, MabA, and FadD32 downregulated their enzymatic activity, while phosphorylation of VirS increased its enzymatic activity. These observations suggest that the kinases and phosphatases system could play a role in M.tb adaptive responses and survival mechanisms in the human host. As the mycobacterial STPKs do not share a high sequence homology to the human's, there have been some early drug discovery efforts towards developing potent and selective inhibitors. OBJECTIVE Recent updates to the kinases and phosphatases involved in the regulation of MAs biosynthesis will be presented in this mini-review, including their known small molecule inhibitors. CONCLUSION Mycobacterial kinases and phosphatases involved in the MAs regulation may serve as a useful avenue for antitubercular therapy.
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Affiliation(s)
- Shahinda S R Alsayed
- School of Pharmacy and Biomedical Sciences, Faculty of Health Sciences, Curtin University, Perth, WA 6102, Australia
| | - Chau C Beh
- Western Australia School of Mines: Minerals, Energy and Chemical Engineering, Curtin University, Bentley 6102 WA, Australia.,David H. Koch Institute for Integrative Cancer Research, Massachusetts Institute of Technology, Cambridge, MA 02142, United States
| | - Neil R Foster
- Western Australia School of Mines: Minerals, Energy and Chemical Engineering, Curtin University, Bentley 6102 WA, Australia
| | - Alan D Payne
- School of Molecular and Life Sciences, Curtin University, Perth, WA 6102, Australia
| | - Yu Yu
- School of Pharmacy and Biomedical Sciences, Faculty of Health Sciences, Curtin University, Perth, WA 6102, Australia
| | - Hendra Gunosewoyo
- School of Pharmacy and Biomedical Sciences, Faculty of Health Sciences, Curtin University, Perth, WA 6102, Australia
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38
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Groenewald W, Parra-Cruz RA, Jäger CM, Croft AK. Revealing solvent-dependent folding behavior of mycolic acids from Mycobacterium tuberculosis by advanced simulation analysis. J Mol Model 2019; 25:68. [PMID: 30762132 PMCID: PMC7019640 DOI: 10.1007/s00894-019-3943-5] [Citation(s) in RCA: 2] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 10/05/2018] [Accepted: 01/24/2019] [Indexed: 11/09/2022]
Abstract
Mycobacterium tuberculosis remains a persistent pathogen, partly due to its lipid rich cell wall, of which mycolic acids (MAs) are a major component. The fluidity and conformational flexibilities of different MAs in the bacterial cell wall significantly influence its properties, function, and observed pathogenicity; thus, a proper conformational description of different MAs in different environments (e.g., in vacuum, in solution, in monolayers) can inform about their potential role in the complex setup of the bacterial cell wall. Previously, we have shown that molecular dynamics (MD) simulations of MA folding in vacuo can be used to characterize MA conformers in seven groupings relating to bending at the functional groups (W, U and Z-conformations). Providing a new OPLS-based forcefield parameterization for the critical cyclopropyl group of MAs and extensive simulations in explicit solvents (TIP4P water, hexane), we now present a more complete picture of MA folding properties together with improved simulation analysis techniques. We show that the 'WUZ' distance-based analysis can be used to pinpoint conformers with hairpin bends at the functional groups, with these conformers constituting only a fraction of accessible conformations. Applying principle component analysis (PCA) and refinement using free energy landscapes (FELs), we are able to discriminate a complete and unique set of conformational preferences for representative alpha-, methoxy- and keto-MAs, with overall preference for folded conformations. A control backbone-MA without any mero-chain functional groups showed significantly less folding in the mero-chain, confirming the role of functionalization in directing folding. Keto-MA showed the highest percentage of WUZ-type conformations and, in particular, a tendency to fold at its alpha-methyl trans-cyclopropane group, in agreement with results from Villeneuve et al. MAs demonstrate similar folding in vacuum and water, with a majority of folded conformations around the W-conformation, although the molecules are more flexible in vacuum than in water. Exchange between conformations, with a disperse distribution that includes unfolded conformers, is common in hexane for all MAs, although with more organization for Keto-MA. Globular, folded conformations are newly defined and may be specifically relevant in biofilms. Graphical abstract Through advanced simulation analysis, including principle component analysis and free energy landscapes, we reveal detailed physical insights into the solvent-dependant folding behavior of mycolic acids from M. tb.
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Affiliation(s)
- Wilma Groenewald
- School of Chemistry, Bangor University, Bangor, Gwynedd, LL57 2UW, UK
| | - Ricardo A Parra-Cruz
- Department of Chemical and Environmental Engineering, University of Nottingham, University Park, Nottingham, NG7 2RD, UK
| | - Christof M Jäger
- Department of Chemical and Environmental Engineering, University of Nottingham, University Park, Nottingham, NG7 2RD, UK
| | - Anna K Croft
- Department of Chemical and Environmental Engineering, University of Nottingham, University Park, Nottingham, NG7 2RD, UK.
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39
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Veale CGL. Unpacking the Pathogen Box-An Open Source Tool for Fighting Neglected Tropical Disease. ChemMedChem 2019; 14:386-453. [PMID: 30614200 DOI: 10.1002/cmdc.201800755] [Citation(s) in RCA: 37] [Impact Index Per Article: 7.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 11/27/2018] [Indexed: 12/13/2022]
Abstract
The Pathogen Box is a 400-strong collection of drug-like compounds, selected for their potential against several of the world's most important neglected tropical diseases, including trypanosomiasis, leishmaniasis, cryptosporidiosis, toxoplasmosis, filariasis, schistosomiasis, dengue virus and trichuriasis, in addition to malaria and tuberculosis. This library represents an ensemble of numerous successful drug discovery programmes from around the globe, aimed at providing a powerful resource to stimulate open source drug discovery for diseases threatening the most vulnerable communities in the world. This review seeks to provide an in-depth analysis of the literature pertaining to the compounds in the Pathogen Box, including structure-activity relationship highlights, mechanisms of action, related compounds with reported activity against different diseases, and, where appropriate, discussion on the known and putative targets of compounds, thereby providing context and increasing the accessibility of the Pathogen Box to the drug discovery community.
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Affiliation(s)
- Clinton G L Veale
- School of Chemistry and Physics, Pietermaritzburg Campus, University of KwaZulu-Natal, Private Bag X01, Scottsville, 3209, South Africa
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40
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Abstract
We report GSK3011724A (DG167) as a binary inhibitor of β-ketoacyl-ACP synthase (KasA) in Mycobacterium tuberculosis Genetic and biochemical studies established KasA as the primary target. The X-ray crystal structure of the KasA-DG167 complex refined to 2.0-Å resolution revealed two interacting DG167 molecules occupying nonidentical sites in the substrate-binding channel of KasA. The binding affinities of KasA to DG167 and its analog, 5g, which binds only once in the substrate-binding channel, were determined, along with the KasA-5g X-ray crystal structure. DG167 strongly augmented the in vitro activity of isoniazid (INH), leading to synergistic lethality, and also synergized in an acute mouse model of M. tuberculosis infection. Synergistic lethality correlated with a unique transcriptional signature, including upregulation of oxidoreductases and downregulation of molecular chaperones. The lead structure-activity relationships (SAR), pharmacokinetic profile, and detailed interactions with the KasA protein that we describe may be applied to evolve a next-generation therapeutic strategy for tuberculosis (TB).IMPORTANCE Cell wall biosynthesis inhibitors have proven highly effective for treating tuberculosis (TB). We discovered and validated members of the indazole sulfonamide class of small molecules as inhibitors of Mycobacterium tuberculosis KasA-a key component for biosynthesis of the mycolic acid layer of the bacterium's cell wall and the same pathway as that inhibited by the first-line antitubercular drug isoniazid (INH). One lead compound, DG167, demonstrated synergistic lethality in combination with INH and a transcriptional pattern consistent with bactericidality and loss of persisters. Our results also detail a novel dual-binding mechanism for this compound as well as substantial structure-activity relationships (SAR) that may help in lead optimization activities. Together, these results suggest that KasA inhibition, specifically, that shown by the DG167 series, may be developed into a potent therapy that can synergize with existing antituberculars.
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41
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LipG a bifunctional phospholipase/thioesterase involved in mycobacterial envelope remodeling. Biosci Rep 2018; 38:BSR20181953. [PMID: 30487163 PMCID: PMC6435540 DOI: 10.1042/bsr20181953] [Citation(s) in RCA: 21] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 10/04/2018] [Revised: 11/27/2018] [Accepted: 11/27/2018] [Indexed: 12/28/2022] Open
Abstract
Tuberculosis caused by Mycobacterium tuberculosis is currently one of the leading causes of death from an infectious agent. The main difficulties encountered in eradicating this bacteria are mainly related to (i) a very complex lipid composition of the bacillus cell wall, (ii) its ability to hide from the immune system inside the granulomas, and (iii) the increasing number of resistant strains. In this context, we were interested in the Rv0646c (lipGMTB ) gene located upstream to the mmaA cluster which is described as being crucial for the production of cell wall components and required for the bacilli adaptation and survival in mouse macrophages. Using biochemical experiments combined with the construction of deletion and overexpression mutant strains in Mycobacterium smegmatis, we found that LipGMTB is a cytoplasmic membrane-associated enzyme that displays both phospholipase and thioesterase activities. Overproduction of LipGMTB decreases the glycopeptidolipids (GPL) level concomitantly to an increase in phosphatidylinositol (PI) which is the precursor of the PI mannoside (PIM), an essential lipid component of the bacterial cell wall. Conversely, deletion of the lipGMS gene in M. smegmatis leads to an overproduction of GPL, and subsequently decreases the strain susceptibility to various antibiotics. All these findings demonstrate that LipG is involved in cell envelope biosynthesis/remodeling, and consequently this enzyme may thus play an important role in mycobacterial physiology.
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42
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Walton EM, Cronan MR, Cambier CJ, Rossi A, Marass M, Foglia MD, Brewer WJ, Poss KD, Stainier DYR, Bertozzi CR, Tobin DM. Cyclopropane Modification of Trehalose Dimycolate Drives Granuloma Angiogenesis and Mycobacterial Growth through Vegf Signaling. Cell Host Microbe 2018; 24:514-525.e6. [PMID: 30308157 PMCID: PMC6201760 DOI: 10.1016/j.chom.2018.09.004] [Citation(s) in RCA: 31] [Impact Index Per Article: 5.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 04/23/2018] [Revised: 08/06/2018] [Accepted: 09/06/2018] [Indexed: 01/22/2023]
Abstract
Mycobacterial infection leads to the formation of characteristic immune aggregates called granulomas, a process accompanied by dramatic remodeling of the host vasculature. As granuloma angiogenesis favors the infecting mycobacteria, it may be actively promoted by bacterial determinants during infection. Using Mycobacterium marinum-infected zebrafish as a model, we identify the enzyme proximal cyclopropane synthase of alpha-mycolates (PcaA) as an important bacterial determinant of granuloma-associated angiogenesis. cis-Cyclopropanation of mycobacterial mycolic acids by pcaA drives the activation of host Vegf signaling within granuloma macrophages. Cyclopropanation of the mycobacterial cell wall glycolipid trehalose dimycolate is both required and sufficient to induce robust host angiogenesis. Inducible genetic inhibition of angiogenesis and Vegf signaling during granuloma formation results in bacterial growth deficits. Together, these data reveal a mechanism by which PcaA-mediated cis-cyclopropanation of mycolic acids promotes bacterial growth and dissemination in vivo by eliciting granuloma vascularization and suggest potential approaches for host-directed therapies.
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Affiliation(s)
- Eric M Walton
- Department of Molecular Genetics and Microbiology, Duke University School of Medicine, Durham, NC 27710, USA
| | - Mark R Cronan
- Department of Molecular Genetics and Microbiology, Duke University School of Medicine, Durham, NC 27710, USA
| | - C J Cambier
- Department of Chemistry, Stanford University, Stanford, CA 94305, USA
| | - Andrea Rossi
- Department of Developmental Genetics, Max Planck Institute for Heart and Lung Research, Bad Nauheim, Germany
| | - Michele Marass
- Department of Developmental Genetics, Max Planck Institute for Heart and Lung Research, Bad Nauheim, Germany
| | - Matthew D Foglia
- Department of Cell Biology, Duke University School of Medicine, Durham, NC 27710, USA; Regeneration Next, Duke University, Durham, NC 27710, USA
| | - W Jared Brewer
- Department of Molecular Genetics and Microbiology, Duke University School of Medicine, Durham, NC 27710, USA
| | - Kenneth D Poss
- Department of Cell Biology, Duke University School of Medicine, Durham, NC 27710, USA; Regeneration Next, Duke University, Durham, NC 27710, USA
| | - Didier Y R Stainier
- Department of Developmental Genetics, Max Planck Institute for Heart and Lung Research, Bad Nauheim, Germany
| | - Carolyn R Bertozzi
- Department of Chemistry, Stanford University, Stanford, CA 94305, USA; Howard Hughes Medical Institute, Stanford University, Stanford, CA 94305, USA
| | - David M Tobin
- Department of Molecular Genetics and Microbiology, Duke University School of Medicine, Durham, NC 27710, USA; Department of Immunology, Duke University School of Medicine, Durham, NC 27710, USA.
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43
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Ghazaei C. Mycobacterium tuberculosis and lipids: Insights into molecular mechanisms from persistence to virulence. JOURNAL OF RESEARCH IN MEDICAL SCIENCES 2018; 23:63. [PMID: 30181745 PMCID: PMC6091133 DOI: 10.4103/jrms.jrms_904_17] [Citation(s) in RCA: 47] [Impact Index Per Article: 7.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 10/03/2017] [Revised: 04/08/2018] [Accepted: 03/10/2018] [Indexed: 11/04/2022]
Abstract
Mycobacterium tuberculosis is a causative agent of tuberculosis that causes deaths across the world. The pathogen apart from causing disease manifestations can also enter into a phase of latency to re-emerge later. Among the various factors associated with the virulence of pathogen, the lipids composing the cell wall of the bacillus have drawn much interest among. The unique composition of the cell wall composed of mycolic acid, glycolipids such as diacyltrehaloses, polyacyltrehalose, lipomannan, lipoarabinomannan (LAM), mannose-capped-LAM, sulfolipids, and trehalose-6,6'-dimycolate, all have been implicated in providing the pathogen an advantage in the host. The pathogen also alters its metabolism of fatty acids to survive the conditions in the host that is reflected in an altered cell wall composition in terms of lipids. In addition, the lipid profile of the cell wall has been shown to modulate the immune responses launched by the host, especially in the suppression, or production of inflammatory factors, cytokines, and phagocytic cells, such as dendritic cells and macrophages. Apart from M. tuberculosis, the paper also briefly looks at the role of Mycobacterium bovis and its role in tuberculosis in humans along with its lipid profile of its cell wall. This review aims to summarize the various lipids of the cell wall of M. tuberculosis along with their roles in enabling the pathogen to maintain its virulence to infect further humans and its persistence inside the host.
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Affiliation(s)
- Ciamak Ghazaei
- Department of Microbiology, University of Mohaghegh Ardabili, Ardabil, Iran
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44
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Singh P, Rameshwaram NR, Ghosh S, Mukhopadhyay S. Cell envelope lipids in the pathophysiology of Mycobacterium tuberculosis. Future Microbiol 2018; 13:689-710. [PMID: 29771143 DOI: 10.2217/fmb-2017-0135] [Citation(s) in RCA: 22] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 01/17/2023] Open
Abstract
Mycobacterium tuberculosis is an intracellular bacterium that persists and replicates inside macrophages. The bacterium possesses an unusual lipid-rich cell envelope that provides a hydrophobic impermeable barrier against many environmental stressors and allows it to survive extremely hostile intracellular surroundings. Since the lipid-rich envelope is crucial for M. tuberculosis virulence, the components of the cell wall lipid biogenesis pathways constitute an attractive target for the development of vaccines and antimycobacterial chemotherapeutics. In this review, we provide a detailed description of the mycobacterial cell envelope lipid components and their contributions to the physiology and pathogenicity of mycobacteria. We also discussed the current status of the antimycobacterial drugs that target biosynthesis, export and regulation of cell envelope lipids.
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Affiliation(s)
- Parul Singh
- Laboratory of Molecular Cell Biology, Centre for DNA Fingerprinting & Diagnostics (CDFD), Inner Ring Road, Uppal, Hyderabad, 500 039, India.,Graduate Studies, Manipal Academy of Higher Education, Manipal, Karnataka, 576 104, India
| | - Nagender Rao Rameshwaram
- Laboratory of Molecular Cell Biology, Centre for DNA Fingerprinting & Diagnostics (CDFD), Inner Ring Road, Uppal, Hyderabad, 500 039, India
| | - Sudip Ghosh
- Molecular Biology Division, National Institute of Nutrition (ICMR), Jamai-Osmania PO, Hyderabad, 500 007, India
| | - Sangita Mukhopadhyay
- Laboratory of Molecular Cell Biology, Centre for DNA Fingerprinting & Diagnostics (CDFD), Inner Ring Road, Uppal, Hyderabad, 500 039, India
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45
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Yu M, Dou C, Gu Y, Cheng W. Crystallization and structure analysis of the core motif of the Pks13 acyltransferase domain from Mycobacterium tuberculosis. PeerJ 2018; 6:e4728. [PMID: 29761048 PMCID: PMC5944431 DOI: 10.7717/peerj.4728] [Citation(s) in RCA: 4] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 11/09/2017] [Accepted: 04/17/2018] [Indexed: 02/05/2023] Open
Abstract
Type I polyketide synthase 13 (Pks13) is involved in the final step of the biosynthesis of mycolic acid in Mycobacterium tuberculosis. Recent articles have reported that Pks13 is an essential enzyme in the mycolic acid biosynthesis pathway, and it has been deeply studied as a drug target in Tuberculosis. We report a high-resolution structure of the acyltransferase (AT) domain of Pks13 at 2.59 Å resolution. Structural comparison with the full-length AT domain (PDB code, 3TZW, and 3TZZ) reveals a different orientation of the C-terminal helix and rearrangement of some conserved residues.
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Affiliation(s)
- Mingjing Yu
- Department of Respiratory and Critical Care Medicine, West China Hospital, Sichuan University, Chengdu, Sichuan, People's Republic of China
| | - Chao Dou
- Department of Respiratory and Critical Care Medicine, West China Hospital, Sichuan University, Chengdu, Sichuan, People's Republic of China
| | - Yijun Gu
- National Center for Protein Science, Shanghai, People's Republic of China
| | - Wei Cheng
- Department of Respiratory and Critical Care Medicine, West China Hospital, Sichuan University, Chengdu, Sichuan, People's Republic of China
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46
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Miyazaki J, Onozawa M, Takaoka E, Yano I. Bacillus Calmette-Guérin strain differences as the basis for immunotherapies against bladder cancer. Int J Urol 2018; 25:405-413. [DOI: 10.1111/iju.13538] [Citation(s) in RCA: 14] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 10/31/2017] [Accepted: 01/16/2018] [Indexed: 12/29/2022]
Affiliation(s)
- Jun Miyazaki
- Department of Urology; School of Medicine; International University of Health and Welfare; Chiba Japan
| | - Mizuki Onozawa
- Department of Urology; School of Medicine; International University of Health and Welfare; Chiba Japan
| | - Eiichiro Takaoka
- Department of Urology; School of Medicine; International University of Health and Welfare; Chiba Japan
| | - Ikuya Yano
- Faculty of Medicine; Osaka City University Graduate School of Medicine; Osaka Japan
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47
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Madacki J, Laval F, Grzegorzewicz A, Lemassu A, Záhorszká M, Arand M, McNeil M, Daffé M, Jackson M, Lanéelle MA, Korduláková J. Impact of the epoxide hydrolase EphD on the metabolism of mycolic acids in mycobacteria. J Biol Chem 2018; 293:5172-5184. [PMID: 29472294 DOI: 10.1074/jbc.ra117.000246] [Citation(s) in RCA: 15] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 10/03/2017] [Revised: 02/16/2018] [Indexed: 01/09/2023] Open
Abstract
Mycolic acids are the hallmark of the cell envelope in mycobacteria, which include the important human pathogens Mycobacterium tuberculosis and Mycobacterium leprae Mycolic acids are very long C60-C90 α-alkyl β-hydroxy fatty acids having a variety of functional groups on their hydrocarbon chain that define several mycolate types. Mycobacteria also produce an unusually large number of putative epoxide hydrolases, but the physiological functions of these enzymes are still unclear. Here, we report that the mycobacterial epoxide hydrolase EphD is involved in mycolic acid metabolism. We found that orthologs of EphD from M. tuberculosis and M. smegmatis are functional epoxide hydrolases, cleaving a lipophilic substrate, 9,10-cis-epoxystearic acid, in vitro and forming a vicinal diol. The results of EphD overproduction in M. smegmatis and M. bovis BCG Δhma strains producing epoxymycolic acids indicated that EphD is involved in the metabolism of these forms of mycolates in both fast- and slow-growing mycobacteria. Moreover, using MALDI-TOF-MS and 1H NMR spectroscopy of mycolic acids and lipids isolated from EphD-overproducing M. smegmatis, we identified new oxygenated mycolic acid species that accumulated during epoxymycolate depletion. Disruption of the ephD gene in M. tuberculosis specifically impaired the synthesis of ketomycolates and caused accumulation of their precursor, hydroxymycolate, indicating either direct or indirect involvement of EphD in ketomycolate biosynthesis. Our results clearly indicate that EphD plays a role in metabolism of oxygenated mycolic acids in mycobacteria.
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Affiliation(s)
- Jan Madacki
- From the Department of Biochemistry, Faculty of Natural Sciences, Comenius University, 842 15 Bratislava, Slovakia
| | - Françoise Laval
- the Tuberculosis & Infection Biology Department, Institut de Pharmacologie et de Biologie Structurale, CNRS, 31077 Toulouse, France
| | - Anna Grzegorzewicz
- the Mycobacteria Research Laboratories, Department of Microbiology, Immunology, and Pathology, Colorado State University, Fort Collins, Colorado 80523-1682, and
| | - Anne Lemassu
- the Tuberculosis & Infection Biology Department, Institut de Pharmacologie et de Biologie Structurale, CNRS, 31077 Toulouse, France
| | - Monika Záhorszká
- From the Department of Biochemistry, Faculty of Natural Sciences, Comenius University, 842 15 Bratislava, Slovakia
| | - Michael Arand
- the Institute of Pharmacology and Toxicology, University of Zürich, CH-8057 Zürich, Switzerland
| | - Michael McNeil
- the Mycobacteria Research Laboratories, Department of Microbiology, Immunology, and Pathology, Colorado State University, Fort Collins, Colorado 80523-1682, and
| | - Mamadou Daffé
- the Tuberculosis & Infection Biology Department, Institut de Pharmacologie et de Biologie Structurale, CNRS, 31077 Toulouse, France
| | - Mary Jackson
- the Mycobacteria Research Laboratories, Department of Microbiology, Immunology, and Pathology, Colorado State University, Fort Collins, Colorado 80523-1682, and
| | - Marie-Antoinette Lanéelle
- the Tuberculosis & Infection Biology Department, Institut de Pharmacologie et de Biologie Structurale, CNRS, 31077 Toulouse, France
| | - Jana Korduláková
- From the Department of Biochemistry, Faculty of Natural Sciences, Comenius University, 842 15 Bratislava, Slovakia,
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48
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Jones A, Pitts M, Al Dulayymi JR, Gibbons J, Ramsay A, Goletti D, Gwenin CD, Baird MS. New synthetic lipid antigens for rapid serological diagnosis of tuberculosis. PLoS One 2017; 12:e0181414. [PMID: 28806423 PMCID: PMC5555574 DOI: 10.1371/journal.pone.0181414] [Citation(s) in RCA: 12] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 10/06/2016] [Accepted: 07/01/2017] [Indexed: 01/30/2023] Open
Abstract
Background During pulmonary tuberculosis (PTB) antibodies are generated to trehalose esters of mycolic acids which are cell wall lipids of Mycobacterium tuberculosis (Mtb). Attempts have been made to use these complex natural mixtures in serological tests for PTB diagnosis. Aim The aim of this work was to determine whether a serological test based on a panel of defined individual trehalose esters of characteristic synthetic mycolic acids has improved diagnostic accuracy in distinguishing patients with culture positive PTB from individuals who were Mtb culture negative. Method One hundred serum samples from well-characterized patients with presumptive tuberculosis, and diagnosed as having pulmonary smear and culture positive TB, or being culture and smear negative were evaluated by ELISA using different combinations of synthetic antigens and secondary antibodies. Using cut-off values determined from these samples, we validated this study blind in samples from a further 249 presumptive TB patients. Results With the first 100 samples, detailed responses depended both on the precise structure of the antigen and on the secondary antibody. Using a single antigen, a sensitivity/specificity combination for smear and culture positive PTB detection of 85 and 88% respectively was achieved; this increased to 96% and 95% respectively by a statistical combination of the results with seven antigens. In the blind study a sensitivity/specificity of 87% and 83% was reached with a single antigen. With some synthetic antigens, the responses from all 349 samples were significantly better than those with the natural mixture. Combining the results for seven antigens allowed a distinction between culture positive and negative with a ROC AUC of 0.95. Conclusion We have identified promising antigen candidates for serological assays that could be used to diagnose PTB and which could be the basis of a much-needed, simple, rapid diagnostic test that would bring care closer to communities.
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Affiliation(s)
- Alison Jones
- School of Chemistry, Bangor University, Bangor, Gwynedd, Wales, United Kingdom
| | - Mark Pitts
- School of Chemistry, Bangor University, Bangor, Gwynedd, Wales, United Kingdom
| | | | - James Gibbons
- School of Environment, Natural Resources and Geography, Bangor University, Bangor, Gwynedd, Wales, United Kingdom
| | - Andrew Ramsay
- Special Programme for Research and Training in Tropical Diseases (TDR), World Health Organisation, Geneva, Switzerland
- University of St Andrews Medical School, St. Andrews, Scotland, United Kingdom
| | - Delia Goletti
- Translational Research Unit, Department of Epidemiology and Preclinical Research, ‘L. Spallanzani’ National Institute for Infectious Diseases, Rome, Italy
| | | | - Mark S. Baird
- School of Chemistry, Bangor University, Bangor, Gwynedd, Wales, United Kingdom
- * E-mail:
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49
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Abstract
Reversible protein phosphorylation is the most common type of epigenetic posttranslational modification in living cells used as a major regulation mechanism of biological processes. The Mycobacterium tuberculosis genome encodes for 11 serine/threonine protein kinases that are responsible for sensing environmental signals to coordinate a cellular response to ensure the pathogen's infectivity, survival, and growth. To overcome killing mechanisms generated within the host during infection, M. tuberculosis enters a state of nonreplicating persistence that is characterized by arrested growth, limited metabolic activity, and phenotypic resistance to antimycobacterial drugs. In this article we focus our attention on the role of M. tuberculosis serine/threonine protein kinases in sensing the host environment to coordinate the bacilli's physiology, including growth, cell wall components, and central metabolism, to establish a persistent infection.
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50
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Basaraba RJ, Ojha AK. Mycobacterial Biofilms: Revisiting Tuberculosis Bacilli in Extracellular Necrotizing Lesions. Microbiol Spectr 2017; 5:10.1128/microbiolspec.TBTB2-0024-2016. [PMID: 28597824 PMCID: PMC7875192 DOI: 10.1128/microbiolspec.tbtb2-0024-2016] [Citation(s) in RCA: 31] [Impact Index Per Article: 4.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 07/20/2016] [Indexed: 12/18/2022] Open
Abstract
Under detergent-free in vitro conditions, Mycobacterium tuberculosis, the etiological agent of tuberculosis in humans, spontaneously forms organized multicellular structures called biofilms. Moreover, in vitro biofilms of M. tuberculosis are more persistent against antibiotics than their single-cell planktonic counterparts, thereby raising questions about the occurrence of biofilms in the host tissues and their significance in persistence during chemotherapy of tuberculosis. In this article, we present arguments that extracellular M. tuberculosis in necrotizing lesions likely grows as biofilms.
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Affiliation(s)
- Randall J Basaraba
- College of Veterinary Medicine and Biomedical Sciences, Colorado State University, Fort Collins, Co 80524
| | - Anil K Ojha
- Wadsworth Center, NY State Department of Health and University at Albany, Albany, NY 12208
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