Basonuclin as a cell marker in the formation and cycling of the murine hair follicle

Role of R5 Pyocin in the Predominance of High-Risk Pseudomonas aeruginosa Isolates

Infections with antimicrobial resistant pathogens, such as Pseudomonas aeruginosa, are a frequent occurrence in healthcare settings. Human P. aeruginosa infections are predominantly caused by a small number of sequence types (ST), such as ST235, ST111, and ST175. Although ST111 is recognized as one of the most prevalent high-risk P. aeruginosa clones worldwide and frequently exhibits multidrug-resistant or extensively drug-resistant phenotypes, the basis for this dominance remains unclear. In this study, we used a genome-wide transposon insertion library screen to discover that the competitive advantage of ST111 strains over certain non-ST111 strains is through production of R pyocins. We confirmed this finding by showing that competitive dominance was lost by ST111 mutants with R pyocin gene deletions. Further investigation showed that sensitivity to ST111 R pyocin (specifically R5 pyocin) is caused by deficiency in the O-antigen ligase waaL, which leaves lipopolysaccharide (LPS) bereft of O antigen, enabling pyocins to bind the LPS core. In contrast, sensitivity of waaL mutants to R1 or R2 pyocins depended on additional genomic changes. In addition, we found the PA14 mutants in lipopolysaccharide biosynthesis (waaL, wbpL, wbpM) that cause high susceptibility to R pyocins also exhibit poor swimming motility. Analysis of 5,135 typed P. aeruginosa strains revealed that several international, high-risk sequence types (including ST235, ST111, and ST175) are enriched for R5 pyocin production, indicating a correlation between these phenotypes and suggesting a novel approach for evaluating risk from emerging prevalent P. aeruginosa strains. Overall, our study sheds light on the mechanisms underlying the dominance of ST111 strains and highlighting the role of waaL in extending spectrum of R pyocin susceptibility.

PRMT1 Inhibition Selectively Targets BNC1-Dependent Proliferation, but not Migration in Squamous Cell Carcinoma

Squamous Cell Carcinoma (SCC) develops in stratified epithelial tissues and demonstrates frequent alterations in transcriptional regulators. We sought to discover SCC-specific transcriptional programs and identified the transcription factor Basonuclin 1 (BNC1) as highly expressed in SCC compared to other tumor types. RNA-seq and ChIP-seq analysis identified pro-proliferative genes activated by BNC1 in SCC cells and keratinocytes. Inhibition of BNC1 in SCC cells suppressed proliferation and increased migration via FRA1. In contrast, BNC1 reduction in keratinocytes caused differentiation, which was abrogated by IRF6 knockdown, leading to increased migration. Protein interactome analysis identified PRMT1 as a co-activator of BNC1-dependent proliferative genes. Inhibition of PRMT1 resulted in a dose-dependent reduction in SCC cell proliferation without increasing migration. Importantly, therapeutic inhibition of PRMT1 in SCC xenografts significantly reduced tumor size, resembling functional effects of BNC1 knockdown. Together, we identify BNC1-PRMT1 as an SCC-lineage specific transcriptional axis that promotes cancer growth, which can be therapeutically targeted to inhibit SCC tumorigenesis.

Functional anatomy of the hair follicle: The Secondary Hair Germ

The secondary hair germ (SHG)-a transitory structure in the lower portion of the mouse telogen hair follicle (HF)-is directly involved in anagen induction and eventual HF regrowth. Some crucial aspects of SHG functioning and ontogenetic relations with other HF parts, however, remain undefined. According to recent evidence (in contrast to previous bulge-centric views), the SHG is the primary target of anagen-inducing signalling and a source of both the outer root sheath (ORS) and ascending HF layers during the initial (morphogenetic) anagen subphase. The SHG is comprised of two functionally distinct cell populations. Its lower portion (originating from lower HF cells that survived catagen) forms all ascending HF layers, while the upper SHG (formed by bulge-derived cells) builds up the ORS. The predetermination of SHG cells to a specific morphogenetic fate contradicts their attribution to the "stem cell" category and supports SHG designation as a "germinative" or a "founder" cell population. The mechanisms of this predetermination driving transition of the SHG from "refractory" to the "competent" state during the telogen remain unknown. Functionally, the SHG serves as a barrier, protecting the quiescent bulge stem cell niche from the extensive follicular papilla/SHG signalling milieu. The formation of the SHG is a prerequisite for efficient "precommitment" of these cells and provides for easier sensing and a faster response to anagen-inducing signals. In general, the formation of the SHG is an evolutionary adaptation, which allowed the ancestors of modern Muridae to acquire a specific, highly synchronized pattern of hair cycling.

The importance of basonuclin 2 in adult mice and its relation to basonuclin 1

BNC2 is an extremely conserved zinc finger protein with important functions in the development of craniofacial bones and male germ cells. Because disruption of the Bnc2 gene in mice causes neonatal lethality, the function of the protein in adult animals has not been studied. Until now BNC2 was considered to have a wider tissue distribution than its paralog, BNC1, but the precise cell types expressing Bnc2 are largely unknown. We identify here the cell types containing BNC2 in the mouse and we show the unexpected presence of BNC1 in many BNC2-containing cells. BNC1 and BNC2 are colocalized in male and female germ cells, ovarian epithelial cells, sensory neurons, hair follicle keratinocytes and connective cells of organ capsules. In many cell lineages, the two basonuclins appear and disappear synchronously. Within the male germ cell lineage, BNC1 and BNC2 are found in prospermatogonia and undifferentiated spermatogonia, and disappear abruptly from differentiating spermatogonia. During oogenesis, the two basonuclins accumulate specifically in maturing oocytes. During the development of hair follicles, BNC1 and BNC2 concentrate in the primary hair germs. As follicle morphogenesis proceeds, cells possessing BNC1 and BNC2 invade the dermis and surround the papilla. During anagen, BNC1 and BNC2 are largely restricted to the basal layer of the outer root sheath and the matrix. During catagen, the compartment of cells possessing BNC1 and BNC2 regresses, and in telogen, the two basonuclins are confined to the secondary hair germ. During the next anagen, the BNC1/BNC2-containing cell population regenerates the hair follicle. By examining Bnc2(-/-) mice that have escaped the neonatal lethality usually associated with lack of BNC2, we demonstrate that BNC2 possesses important functions in many of the cell types where it resides. Hair follicles of postnatal Bnc2(-/-) mice do not fully develop during the first cycle and thereafter remain blocked in telogen. It is concluded that the presence of BNC2 in the secondary hair germ is required to regenerate the transient segment of the follicle. Postnatal Bnc2(-/-) mice also show severe dwarfism, defects in oogenesis and alterations of palatal rugae. Although the two basonuclins possess very similar zinc fingers and are largely coexpressed, BNC1 cannot substitute for BNC2. This is shown incontrovertibly in knockin mice expressing Bnc1 instead of Bnc2 as these mice invariably die at birth with craniofacial abnormalities undistinguishable from those of Bnc2(-/-) mice. The function of the basonuclins in the secondary hair germ is of particular interest.

A pair of transmembrane receptors essential for the retention and pigmentation of hair

Hair follicles are simple, accessible models for many developmental processes. Here, using mutant mice, we show that Bmpr2, a known receptor for bone morphogenetic proteins (Bmps), and Acvr2a, a known receptor for Bmps and activins, are individually redundant but together essential for multiple follicular traits. When Bmpr2/Acvr2a function is reduced in cutaneous epithelium, hair follicles undergo rapid cycles of hair generation and loss. Alopecia results from a failure to terminate hair development properly, as hair clubs never form, and follicular retraction is slowed. Hair regeneration is rapid due to premature activation of new hair-production programs. Hair shafts differentiate aberrantly due to impaired arrest of medullary-cell proliferation. When Bmpr2/Acvr2a function is reduced in melanocytes, gray hair develops, as melanosomes differentiate but fail to grow, resulting in organelle miniaturization. We conclude that Bmpr2 and Acvr2a normally play cell-type-specific, necessary roles in organelle biogenesis and the shutdown of developmental programs and cell division.

Dedicated epithelial recipient cells determine pigmentation patterns

Mammals generate external coloration via dedicated pigment-producing cells but arrange pigment into patterns through mechanisms largely unknown. Here, using mice as models, we show that patterns ultimately emanate from dedicated pigment-receiving cells. These pigment recipients are epithelial cells that recruit melanocytes to their position in the skin and induce the transfer of melanin. We identify Foxn1 (a transcription factor) as an activator of this "pigment recipient phenotype" and Fgf2 (a growth factor and Foxn1 target) as a signal released by recipients. When Foxn1 - and thus dedicated recipients - are redistributed in the skin, new patterns of pigmentation develop, suggesting a mechanism for the evolution of coloration. We conclude that recipients provide a cutaneous template or blueprint that instructs melanocytes where to place pigment. As Foxn1 and Fgf2 also modulate epithelial growth and differentiation, the Foxn1 pathway should serve as a nexus coordinating cell division, differentiation, and pigmentation.

Cell-type-specific regulation of RNA polymerase I transcription: a new frontier

Ribosomal RNA transcription was one of the first model systems for molecular characterization of a transcription regulatory mechanism and certainly one of the best studied in the widest range of organisms. In multicellular organisms, however, the issue of cell-type-specific regulation of rRNA transcription has not been well addressed. Here I propose that a systematic study of cell-type-specific regulation of rRNA transcription may reveal new regulatory mechanisms that have not been previously realized. Specifically, issues concerning the cell-type-specific requirement for rRNA production, the universality of Pol I transcription complex and the division of rDNA into regulatory subdomains are discussed.

Re-epithelialisation and the possible involvement of the transcription factor, basonuclin

This article briefly summarises the basic mechanism of re-epithelialisation and discusses the possible role of the cell-type-specific transcription factor, basonuclin. Re-epithelialisation is initiated by a signal resulting from the absence of neighbouring cells at the wound edge. Basal cells at the wound edge become flattened and lose their intercellular desmosomes and substratum attachment. The amount of cytoplasmic actinomyosin filaments that insert into the new adhesion complexes is increased, and contraction of those filaments produces cell movement. The epithelial cells at the wound edge migrate on a provisional matrix using the newly expressed integrin receptors. Once re-epithelialisation is complete, the epithelial cells revert to the normal phenotype of basal epidermal cells, firmly attach to the newly developed basement membrane zone through hemidesmosomes and resume standard differentiation. Protein synthesis increases in the epidermal cells at the wound edge during re-epithelialisation. Active protein synthesis requires accelerated transcription of ribosomal RNA genes. The transcription factor basonuclin binds to the ribosomal RNA gene promoter and increases the transcription of the genes. Therefore, it is speculated that basonuclin in epithelial cells is required in the process of re-epithelialisation.

Identification of Basonuclin2, a DNA-binding zinc-finger protein expressed in germ tissues and skin keratinocytes

We used a bioinformatics approach to identify Basonuclin2, the second member of the Basonuclin zinc-finger family of transcription factors. The mouse Basonuclin2 protein consists of 1049 amino acids and contains three pairs of zinc fingers in the C-terminus that show a high level of amino acid sequence similarity with Basonuclin1. In addition, other characteristic domains of Basonuclin1, such as the serine strip and a nuclear localization signal, are also present in Basonuclin2. We used genomic and in silico database analysis to identify the human and rat homologs of basonuclin2. A search of the mouse genome showed that the basonuclin2 gene maps to chromosome 4 and consists of six exons spanning approximately 300 kb. Northern blot analysis revealed multiple transcripts of basonuclin2 in tissues of the reproductive system (ovary and testis) and also in kidney and skin. We demonstrate that, as expected from sequence conservation, recombinant Basonuclin2 can bind to a sequence in the promoter of a rRNA gene previously characterized as a Basonuclin-binding site. Full-length Basonuclin2 exclusively localizes to the nucleus, indicating that it likely plays an important role in nuclear function, probably in gene regulation. Our study establishes Basonuclin2 as a novel member of the Basonuclin family. Moreover, the structural and functional similarities with Basonuclin1 suggest that Basonuclin2 may play an analogous function in germ cells and skin keratinocytes.

Gli proteins up-regulate the expression of basonuclin in Basal cell carcinoma

Tumorigenesis is frequently accompanied by enhanced rRNA transcription, but the signaling mechanisms responsible for such enhancement remain unclear. Here, we report evidence suggesting a novel link between deregulated Hedgehog signaling and the augmented rRNA transcription in cancer. Aberrant activation of the Hedgehog pathway in keratinocytes is a hallmark of basal cell carcinoma (BCC), the most common cancer in light-skinned individuals. We show that Gli proteins, downstream effectors of the Hedgehog pathway, increase expression of a novel rRNA gene (rDNA) transcription factor, basonuclin, whose expression is markedly elevated in BCCs. The promoter of the human basonuclin gene contains a Gli-binding site, which is required for Gli protein binding and transcriptional activation. We show also that the level of 47S pre-rRNA is much higher in BCCs than in normal epidermis, suggesting an accelerated rRNA transcription in the neoplastic cells. Within BCC, those cells expressing the highest level of basonuclin also exhibit the greatest increase in 47S pre-rRNA, consistent with a role for basonuclin in increasing rRNA transcription in these cells. Our data suggest that Hedgehog-Gli pathway enhances rRNA transcription in BCC by increasing basonuclin gene expression.

Basonuclin 2: an extremely conserved homolog of the zinc finger protein basonuclin

Basonuclin is a zinc finger protein specific to basal keratinocytes and germ cells. In keratinocytes, basonuclin behaves as a stem cell marker and is thought to be a transcription factor that maintains proliferative capacity and prevents terminal differentiation. The human gene is located on chromosome 15. We have discovered in the chicken the existence of basonuclin 2, a basonuclin homolog. We also report the entire sequence of mouse and human basonuclin 2; the corresponding genes are located on mouse chromosome 4 and human chromosome 9. Although the amino acid sequence of basonuclin 2 differs extensively from that of basonuclin 1, the two proteins share essential features. Both contain three paired zinc fingers, a nuclear localization signal, and a serine stripe. The basonuclin 2 mRNA has a wider tissue distribution than the basonuclin 1 mRNA: it is particularly abundant in testis, kidney, uterus, and intestine. The extreme conservation of the basonuclin 2 amino acid sequence across vertebrates suggests that basonuclin 2 serves an important function, presumably as a regulatory protein of DNA transcription.

Ectodysplasin regulates pattern formation in the mammalian hair coat

In mammalian skin, hair follicles develop at regular intervals and with site-specific morphologies. This process generates distinct patterns of hair, but the mechanisms that establish these patterns remain largely unknown. Here we present evidence of follicular patterning by ectodysplasin-A1 (Eda-A1), a signaling protein necessary for the proper development of hair and other appendages. In transgenic mice, Eda-A1 was targeted to the epithelial compartment of the developing skin. At periodic locations, multiple hair follicles were induced side by side, without any interfollicular space. These follicles grew into the dermis as a fusion and subsequently branched to create discrete stalks and hair bulbs. Thus, at sites where interfollicular skin normally forms, hair follicles developed instead. This result shows that Eda-A1 can regulate basic developmental decisions, as cells were switched from interfollicular to follicular fates. Given these effects, it is likely that Eda-A1 is among the key regulators of pattern formation in the skin.

Molecular control of epithelial-mesenchymal interactions during hair follicle cycling

Epithelial-mesenchymal interactions play pivotal roles in the morphogenesis of many organs and various types of appendages. During hair follicle development, extensive interactions between two embryologically different hair follicle compartments (epidermal keratinocytes and dermal papilla fibroblasts) lead to the formation of the hair shaft-producing mini-organ that shows cyclic activity during postnatal life with periods of active growth, involution and resting. During the hair cycle, the epithelium and the mesenchyme are regulated by a distinct set of molecular signals that are unique for every distinct phase of the hair cycle. In telogen hair follicles, epithelial-mesenchymal interactions are characterized by a predominance of inhibitory signals that retain the hair follicle in a quiescent state. During anagen, a large variety of growth stimulatory pathways are activated in the epithelium and in the mesenchyme, the coordination of which are essential for proper hair fiber formation. During catagen, the termination of anagen-specific signaling interactions between the epithelium and the mesenchyme leads to apoptosis in the hair follicle epithelium, while activation of selected signaling pathways promotes the transition of the dermal papilla into a quiescent state. The signaling exchange between the follicular epithelium and the mesenchyme is modulated by proteoglycans, such as versican, which may significantly enhance or reduce the biological activities of secreted growth stimulators. However, additional research will be required to bridge the gap between our current understanding of mechanisms underlying epithelial-mesenchymal interactions in hair follicles and the potential clinical application of growth modulators involved in those interactions. Further progress in this area of research will hopefully lead to the development of new drugs for the treatment of hair growth disorders.

Redefining the skin's pigmentary system with a novel tyrosinase assay

In mammalian skin, melanin is produced by melanocytes and transferred to epithelial cells, with the epithelial cells thought to receive pigment only and not generate it. Melanin formation requires the enzyme tyrosinase, which catalyzes multiple reactions in the melanin biosynthetic pathway. Here, we reassess cutaneous melanogenesis using tyramide-based tyrosinase assay (TTA), a simple test for tyrosinase activity in situ. In the TTA procedure, tyrosinase reacts with biotinyl tyramide, causing the substrate to deposit near the enzyme. These biotinylated deposits are then visualized with streptavidin conjugated to a fluorescent dye. In the skin and eye, TTA was highly specific for tyrosinase and served as a sensitive indicator of pigment cell distribution and status. In clinical skin samples, the assay detected pigment cell defects, such as melanocytic nevi and vitiligo, providing confirmation of medical diagnoses. In murine skin, TTA identified a new tyrosinase-positive cell type--the medullary cells of the hair--providing the first example of cutaneous epithelial cells with a melanogenic activity. Presumably, the epithelial tyrosinase originates in melanocytes and is acquired by medullary cells during pigment transfer. As tyrosinase by itself can generate pigment from tyrosine, it is likely that medullary cells produce melanin de novo. Thus, we propose that melanocytes convert medullary cells into pigment cells by transfer of the melanogenic apparatus, an unusual mechanism of differentiation that expands the skin's pigmentary system.

Controls of hair follicle cycling

Nearly 50 years ago, Chase published a review of hair cycling in which he detailed hair growth in the mouse and integrated hair biology with the biology of his day. In this review we have used Chase as our model and tried to put the adult hair follicle growth cycle in perspective. We have tried to sketch the adult hair follicle cycle, as we know it today and what needs to be known. Above all, we hope that this work will serve as an introduction to basic biologists who are looking for a defined biological system that illustrates many of the challenges of modern biology: cell differentiation, epithelial-mesenchymal interactions, stem cell biology, pattern formation, apoptosis, cell and organ growth cycles, and pigmentation. The most important theme in studying the cycling hair follicle is that the follicle is a regenerating system. By traversing the phases of the cycle (growth, regression, resting, shedding, then growth again), the follicle demonstrates the unusual ability to completely regenerate itself. The basis for this regeneration rests in the unique follicular epithelial and mesenchymal components and their interactions. Recently, some of the molecular signals making up these interactions have been defined. They involve gene families also found in other regenerating systems such as fibroblast growth factor, transforming growth factor-beta, Wnt pathway, Sonic hedgehog, neurotrophins, and homeobox. For the immediate future, our challenge is to define the molecular basis for hair follicle growth control, to regenerate a mature hair follicle in vitro from defined populations, and to offer real solutions to our patients' problems.

Basonuclin in murine corneal and lens epithelia correlates with cellular maturation and proliferative ability

Basonuclin is a zinc finger protein with highly restricted tissue distribution. It has been found in abundance only in keratinocytes of stratified epithelia and the germ cells of the testis and ovary. We studied the expression pattern of basonuclin in relation to cellular proliferation and differentiation in murine corneal and lens epithelia, two self-renewing tissues in the eye which contain cells that proliferate throughout life. Mouse corneal and lens epithelial cells at various stages of development were labeled with BrdU for 90 min to detect cells in S phase and to establish proliferative rates. Whole eyes of mouse or rat were processed for frozen sections and cellular basonuclin was detected by either a rabbit antimouse- or a rabbit anti-human-basonuclin antibody. Basonuclin was expressed in virtually all cells in the basal layer of corneal epithelium and in the pre-equatorial lens epithelium, the respective proliferative compartments of adult corneal and lens epithelia. Basonuclin expression in corneal epithelium began at post-natal life day 4, first in a few cells and then spread to virtually all basal cells at day 20. Basonuclin was consistently absent in limbal epithelium. Lens basonuclin, which was detected earlier than that of the cornea, was confined to the pre-equatorial epithelium and was absent in equatorial cells that expressed p57KIP2, an early differentiation marker for these cells. An important distinction between corneal and lens basonuclin is that the former is predominantly nuclear whereas the latter cytoplasmic.

Association of p63 with proliferative potential in normal and neoplastic human keratinocytes

p63, a recently identified member of the p53 gene family, encodes multiple products with transactivating, death-inducing, and dominant-negative activities. We show that in normal human epidermis, in hair follicles, and in stratified epidermal cultures, p63 protein is principally restricted to cells with high proliferative potential and is absent from the cells that are undergoing terminal differentiation. In normal human epidermis and in hair follicles, basal cells with abundant p63 are interspersed with cells with little or no p63. Whenever p63 mRNA is present, it encodes mainly truncated, potentially dominant-negative isotypes. In squamous cell carcinomas, the number of cells containing p63 and their distribution depends on the degree of anaplasia. In highly differentiated tumors, p63 is confined to a ring of basal-like cells surrounding, but at a distance from, centers of terminal differentiation. In less differentiated tumors, most cells contain p63 and their distribution is chaotic with respect to centers of terminal differentiation. p63 appears to be a valuable diagnostic marker for anaplastic keratinocytes.

Basonuclin is associated with the ribosomal RNA genes on human keratinocyte mitotic chromosomes

Basonuclin is a zinc finger protein mainly expressed in keratinocytes of the basal layer of epidermis and the outer root sheath of hair follicles. It is also found in abundance in the germ cells of testis and ovary. In cultured keratinocytes, basonuclin is associated with chromatin in all phases of the cell cycle, including mitosis. By immunocytochemical methods, we demonstrate here that in mitosis basonuclin is associated with the short arms of the acrocentric chromosomes and with other loci on many metaphase chromosomes of human keratinocytes. Using the evolutionarily highly conserved N-terminal pair of zinc fingers in an electrophoresis mobility shift assay, we demonstrate that the DNA target sequences of basonuclin on the acrocentric chromosomes are likely to be within the promoter region of the 45S rRNA gene transcription unit. DNase I footprinting shows that basonuclin zinc fingers interact with the upstream control element of this promoter, which is necessary for the high level of transcription of the rRNA genes. This result suggests that basonuclin may be a tissue-specific transcription factor for the ribosomal RNA genes.

Basonuclin, a zinc finger protein of keratinocytes and reproductive germ cells, binds to the rRNA gene promoter

Basonuclin is a protein containing three pairs of C(2)H(2) zinc fingers. The protein has been found in the basal (germinal) cell layer of stratified squamous epithelia, such as the epidermis, and in germ cells of the testis and ovary. We show here that the human protein has specific affinity for a segment of the promoter of the gene for rRNA. Basonuclin interacts with two separate parts of the promoter, each possessing dyad symmetry. The upstream part, but not the downstream part, is known to bind UBF1, a transcription factor for rDNA. Basonuclin is likely to be a cell-type-specific regulatory protein for rDNA transcription.

Highly persistent label-retaining cells in the hair follicles of mice and their fate following induction of anagen

We have identified some unusually persistent label-retaining cells in the hair follicles of mice, and have investigated their role in hair growth. Three-dimensional reconstruction of dorsal underfur follicles from serial sections made 14 mo after complete labeling of epidermis and hair follicles in neonatal mice disclosed the presence of highly persistent label-retaining cells associated with the first-generation follicle involved in the production of the first wave of hairs, commonly called the bulge. The label-retaining cells were most often found on the ventral surface of the first-generation follicle, five cell positions from the base, near the attachment site of the arrector pilorum muscle. No label-retaining cells were found in the hair canal, sebaceous gland, or hair germ. These label-retaining cells remained in the follicle following induction of anagen by plucking of the hairs. Surprisingly, they were not part of the first wave of mitotic activity following plucking, but instead underwent mitosis beginning 42 h after plucking. Label-retaining cells or their labeled daughters were not found in the hair germs through 48 h following induction of anagen by plucking, but instead remained in their subsebaceous follicular location even upon completion of the hair growth cycle 21 d later. These label-retaining cells are, therefore, unlikely to contribute to the formation of a new anagen follicle.