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Poli A, Schmitt C, Puy H, Talbi N, Lefebvre T, Gouya L. Erythropoietic protoporphyrias: updates and advances. Trends Mol Med 2024:S1471-4914(24)00128-X. [PMID: 38890030 DOI: 10.1016/j.molmed.2024.05.006] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 02/28/2024] [Revised: 05/10/2024] [Accepted: 05/15/2024] [Indexed: 06/20/2024]
Abstract
Protoporphyrias are caused by pathogenic variants in genes encoding enzymes involved in heme biosynthesis. They induce the accumulation of a hydrophobic phototoxic compound, protoporphyrin (PPIX), in red blood cells (RBCs). PPIX is responsible for painful cutaneous photosensitivity, which severely impairs quality of life. Hepatic elimination of PPIX increases the risk of cholestatic liver disease, requiring lifelong monitoring. Treatment options are scarce and mainly limited to supportive care such as protection from visible light. Here, we review the pathophysiology of protoporphyrias, their diagnosis, and current recommendations for medical care. We discuss new therapeutic strategies, some of which are currently undergoing clinical trials and are likely to radically alter the severity of the disease in the years to come.
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Affiliation(s)
- Antoine Poli
- Institut National de la Santé et de la Recherche Médicale U1149, Centre de Recherche sur l'Inflammation, Paris, France; Université Paris Cité, Paris, France; Assistance Publique-Hôpitaux de Paris, Centre de Référence Maladies Rares Porphyries, Hôpital Louis Mourier, Colombes, France; Laboratory of excellence Gr-Ex, Paris, France.
| | - Caroline Schmitt
- Institut National de la Santé et de la Recherche Médicale U1149, Centre de Recherche sur l'Inflammation, Paris, France; Université Paris Cité, Paris, France; Assistance Publique-Hôpitaux de Paris, Centre de Référence Maladies Rares Porphyries, Hôpital Louis Mourier, Colombes, France; Laboratory of excellence Gr-Ex, Paris, France
| | - Hervé Puy
- Institut National de la Santé et de la Recherche Médicale U1149, Centre de Recherche sur l'Inflammation, Paris, France; Université Paris Cité, Paris, France; Assistance Publique-Hôpitaux de Paris, Centre de Référence Maladies Rares Porphyries, Hôpital Louis Mourier, Colombes, France; Laboratory of excellence Gr-Ex, Paris, France
| | - Neila Talbi
- Institut National de la Santé et de la Recherche Médicale U1149, Centre de Recherche sur l'Inflammation, Paris, France
| | - Thibaud Lefebvre
- Institut National de la Santé et de la Recherche Médicale U1149, Centre de Recherche sur l'Inflammation, Paris, France
| | - Laurent Gouya
- Institut National de la Santé et de la Recherche Médicale U1149, Centre de Recherche sur l'Inflammation, Paris, France; Université Paris Cité, Paris, France; Assistance Publique-Hôpitaux de Paris, Centre de Référence Maladies Rares Porphyries, Hôpital Louis Mourier, Colombes, France; Laboratory of excellence Gr-Ex, Paris, France
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Lamačová LJ, Trnka J. Chelating mitochondrial iron and copper: Recipes, pitfalls and promise. Mitochondrion 2024; 78:101903. [PMID: 38777220 DOI: 10.1016/j.mito.2024.101903] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 10/20/2023] [Revised: 05/10/2024] [Accepted: 05/15/2024] [Indexed: 05/25/2024]
Abstract
Iron and copper chelation therapy plays a crucial role in treating conditions associated with metal overload, such as hemochromatosis or Wilson's disease. However, conventional chelators face challenges in reaching the core of iron and copper metabolism - the mitochondria. Mitochondria-targeted chelators can specifically target and remove metal ions from mitochondria, showing promise in treating diseases linked to mitochondrial dysfunction, including neurodegenerative diseases and cancer. Additionally, they serve as specific mitochondrial metal sensors. However, designing these new molecules presents its own set of challenges. Depending on the chelator's intended use to prevent or to promote redox cycling of the metals, the chelating moiety must possess different donor atoms and an optimal value of the electrode potential of the chelator-metal complex. Various targeting moieties can be employed for selective delivery into the mitochondria. This review also provides an overview of the current progress in the design of mitochondria-targeted chelators and their biological activity investigation.
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Affiliation(s)
- Lucie J Lamačová
- Department of Biochemistry, Cell and Molecular Biology, Third Faculty of Medicine, Charles University, Ruská 87, 100 00 Praha, Czech Republic
| | - Jan Trnka
- Department of Biochemistry, Cell and Molecular Biology, Third Faculty of Medicine, Charles University, Ruská 87, 100 00 Praha, Czech Republic.
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Yien YY, Perfetto M. Regulation of Heme Synthesis by Mitochondrial Homeostasis Proteins. Front Cell Dev Biol 2022; 10:895521. [PMID: 35832791 PMCID: PMC9272004 DOI: 10.3389/fcell.2022.895521] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 03/13/2022] [Accepted: 05/12/2022] [Indexed: 11/19/2022] Open
Abstract
Heme plays a central role in diverse, life-essential processes that range from ubiquitous, housekeeping pathways such as respiration, to highly cell-specific ones such as oxygen transport by hemoglobin. The regulation of heme synthesis and its utilization is highly regulated and cell-specific. In this review, we have attempted to describe how the heme synthesis machinery is regulated by mitochondrial homeostasis as a means of coupling heme synthesis to its utilization and to the metabolic requirements of the cell. We have focused on discussing the regulation of mitochondrial heme synthesis enzymes by housekeeping proteins, transport of heme intermediates, and regulation of heme synthesis by macromolecular complex formation and mitochondrial metabolism. Recently discovered mechanisms are discussed in the context of the model organisms in which they were identified, while more established work is discussed in light of technological advancements.
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Hunter GA, Ferreira GC. Metal ion coordination sites in ferrochelatase. Coord Chem Rev 2022. [DOI: 10.1016/j.ccr.2022.214464] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/28/2022]
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Graziadei G, Duca L, Granata F, De Luca G, De Giovanni A, Brancaleoni V, Nava I, Di Pierro E. Microcytosis in Erythropoietic Protoporphyria. Front Physiol 2022; 13:841050. [PMID: 35309058 PMCID: PMC8928159 DOI: 10.3389/fphys.2022.841050] [Citation(s) in RCA: 2] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 12/21/2021] [Accepted: 02/04/2022] [Indexed: 01/01/2023] Open
Abstract
Partial deficiency of the last enzyme of the heme biosynthetic pathway, namely, ferrochelatase (FECH), is responsible for erythropoietic protoporphyria (EPP) in humans. This disorder is characterized by painful skin photosensitivity, due to excessive protoporphyrin IX (PPIX) production in erythrocytes. Although several papers report the presence of iron deficiency anemia in about 50% of EPP patients, there is still no a conclusive explanation of the why this occurs. In the present work, we explored hematological indices and iron status in 20 unrelated Italian EPP patients in order to propose a new hypothesis. Our data show that microcytosis is present in EPP patients also in the absence of anemia and iron deficiency with a link between PPIX accumulation and reduced MCV, probably indicating an indirect condition of heme deficiency. Patients studied had a downward shift of iron parameters due to increased hepcidin concentrations only in a state of repleted iron stores. Interestingly, hemoglobin synthesis was not limited by iron supply except in cases with further iron loss, in which concomitantly increased soluble transferrin (Tf) receptor (sTfR) levels were detected. The mechanisms involved in the iron uptake downregulation in EPP remain unclear, and the role of PPIX accumulation in microcytosis.
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Affiliation(s)
- Giovanna Graziadei
- Dipartimento di Medicina Interna, Fondazione IRCCS Cà Granda Ospedale Maggiore Policlinico, Milan, Italy
| | - Lorena Duca
- Dipartimento di Medicina Interna, Fondazione IRCCS Cà Granda Ospedale Maggiore Policlinico, Milan, Italy
| | - Francesca Granata
- Dipartimento di Medicina Interna, Fondazione IRCCS Cà Granda Ospedale Maggiore Policlinico, Milan, Italy
| | | | - Anna De Giovanni
- Dipartimento di Medicina Interna, Fondazione IRCCS Cà Granda Ospedale Maggiore Policlinico, Milan, Italy
| | - Valentina Brancaleoni
- Dipartimento di Medicina Interna, Fondazione IRCCS Cà Granda Ospedale Maggiore Policlinico, Milan, Italy
| | - Isabella Nava
- Dipartimento di Medicina Interna, Fondazione IRCCS Cà Granda Ospedale Maggiore Policlinico, Milan, Italy
| | - Elena Di Pierro
- Dipartimento di Medicina Interna, Fondazione IRCCS Cà Granda Ospedale Maggiore Policlinico, Milan, Italy
- *Correspondence: Elena Di Pierro, ;
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Iron, Heme Synthesis and Erythropoietic Porphyrias: A Complex Interplay. Metabolites 2021; 11:metabo11120798. [PMID: 34940556 PMCID: PMC8705723 DOI: 10.3390/metabo11120798] [Citation(s) in RCA: 11] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 10/29/2021] [Revised: 11/18/2021] [Accepted: 11/19/2021] [Indexed: 12/13/2022] Open
Abstract
Erythropoietic porphyrias are caused by enzymatic dysfunctions in the heme biosynthetic pathway, resulting in porphyrins accumulation in red blood cells. The porphyrins deposition in tissues, including the skin, leads to photosensitivity that is present in all erythropoietic porphyrias. In the bone marrow, heme synthesis is mainly controlled by intracellular labile iron by post-transcriptional regulation: translation of ALAS2 mRNA, the first and rate-limiting enzyme of the pathway, is inhibited when iron availability is low. Moreover, it has been shown that the expression of ferrochelatase (FECH, an iron-sulfur cluster enzyme that inserts iron into protoporphyrin IX to form heme), is regulated by intracellular iron level. Accordingly, there is accumulating evidence that iron status can mitigate disease expression in patients with erythropoietic porphyrias. This article will review the available clinical data on how iron status can modify the symptoms of erythropoietic porphyrias. We will then review the modulation of heme biosynthesis pathway by iron availability in the erythron and its role in erythropoietic porphyrias physiopathology. Finally, we will summarize what is known of FECH interactions with other proteins involved in iron metabolism in the mitochondria.
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Iwasaki T, Fujimori A, Nakanishi T, Okada S, Hanawa N, Hasuike Y, Kuragano T. Saccharated ferric oxide attenuates haematopoietic response induced by epoetin beta pegol in patients undergoing haemodialysis. BMC Nephrol 2021; 22:124. [PMID: 33832448 PMCID: PMC8034147 DOI: 10.1186/s12882-021-02320-2] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 01/09/2021] [Accepted: 03/17/2021] [Indexed: 12/03/2022] Open
Abstract
Background Decreased erythropoietin levels and impaired iron metabolism due to excessive hepcidin levels are responsible for renal anaemia in patients undergoing haemodialysis. Recently, erythroferrone (ERFE) has been identified as a factor that regulates hepcidin. In addition, fibroblast growth factor 23 (FGF23), which has been recognized as a phosphorus-regulating hormone, appears to be involved in haematopoietic regulation. Clarification of the detailed mechanism of haematopoiesis could lead to the improvement of renal anaemia treatment. Methods Epoetin beta pegol (CERA) was administered to patients undergoing haemodialysis at week 0, and the same amount of CERA with saccharated ferric oxide (SFO) was administered at week 4. The changes in haematopoiesis-related biomarkers, including ERFE, intact FGF23 (iFGF23), C-terminal FGF23 (cFGF23), and inflammatory markers, were examined. Results Administration of CERA increased ERFE levels, decreased hepcidin levels, and stimulated iron usage for haematopoiesis, leading to an increase in reticulocytes (Ret) and haemoglobin (Hb). Simultaneous administration of SFO with CERA (CERA + SFO) significantly attenuated the responses of ERFE, Ret, and Hb compared with CERA alone. Although iFGF23 levels were not affected by either CERA or CERA + SFO, cFGF23 was significantly elevated from baseline after CERA. Since cFGF23 levels were not affected by CERA + SFO, cFGF23 levels after CERA + SFO were significantly lower than those after CERA alone. The ratio of iFGF23 to cFGF23 (i/cFGF23 ratio) was significantly higher after CERA + SFO than that after CERA alone. In addition, high-sensitivity C-reactive protein (hsCRP) levels were significantly higher after CERA + SFO than after CERA alone. Conclusion Administration of SFO suppressed haematopoietic responses induced by CERA. Elevation of i/cFGF23 ratio and hsCRP could account for the inhibitory effects of SFO on haematopoiesis. Trial registration This study was registered with the University Hospital Medical Information Network (ID UMIN000016552). Supplementary Information The online version contains supplementary material available at 10.1186/s12882-021-02320-2.
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Affiliation(s)
- Takahide Iwasaki
- Internal Medicine (Nephrology and Dialysis), Hyogo College of Medicine, Mukogawa-cho, Nishinomiya City, Hyogo, 663-8501, Japan
| | - Akira Fujimori
- Department of Nephrology, Konan Medical Centre, 1-5-16 Kamokogahara, Higashinada-ku, Kobe, 658-0064, Japan.
| | - Takeshi Nakanishi
- Department of Internal Medicine (Nephrology), Sumiyoshigawa Hospital, 5-6-7 Konan-cho, Higashinada-ku, Kobe, 658-0084, Japan
| | - Shioko Okada
- Department of Nephrology, Konan Medical Centre, 1-5-16 Kamokogahara, Higashinada-ku, Kobe, 658-0064, Japan
| | - Nobuto Hanawa
- Department of Nephrology, Konan Medical Centre, 1-5-16 Kamokogahara, Higashinada-ku, Kobe, 658-0064, Japan
| | - Yukiko Hasuike
- Internal Medicine (Nephrology and Dialysis), Hyogo College of Medicine, Mukogawa-cho, Nishinomiya City, Hyogo, 663-8501, Japan
| | - Takahiro Kuragano
- Internal Medicine (Nephrology and Dialysis), Hyogo College of Medicine, Mukogawa-cho, Nishinomiya City, Hyogo, 663-8501, Japan
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Solyman M, Brayton KA, Shaw DK, Omsland A, McGeehan S, Scoles GA, Noh SM. Predicted iron metabolism genes in hard ticks and their response to iron reduction in Dermacentor andersoni cells. Ticks Tick Borne Dis 2020; 12:101584. [PMID: 33059171 DOI: 10.1016/j.ttbdis.2020.101584] [Citation(s) in RCA: 4] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 07/05/2020] [Revised: 09/11/2020] [Accepted: 09/17/2020] [Indexed: 12/28/2022]
Abstract
For most organisms, iron is an essential nutrient due to its role in fundamental cellular processes. Insufficient iron causes sub-optimal metabolism with potential effects on viability, while high levels of iron are toxic due to the formation of oxidative radicals, which damage cellular components. Many molecules and processes employed in iron uptake, storage, transport and metabolism are conserved, however significant knowledge gaps remain regarding these processes in ticks due to their unique physiology. In this study, we first identified and sequenced 13 genes likely to be involved in iron metabolism in Dermacentor andersoni cells. We then developed a method to reduce iron levels in D. andersoni cells using the iron chelator 2,2'-bipyridyl and measured the transcriptional response of these genes to iron reduction. The genes include a putative transferrin receptor, divalent metal transporter 1, duodenal cytochrome b, zinc/iron transporters zip7, zip13, zip14, mitoferrin, ferrochelatase, iron regulatory protein 1, ferritin1, ferritin2, transferrin and poly r(C)-binding protein. Overall, the transcriptional response of the target genes to iron reduction was modest. The most marked changes were a decrease in ferritin2, which transports iron through the tick hemolymph, the mitochondrial iron transporter mitoferrin, and the mitochondrial enzyme ferrochelatase. Iron regulatory protein1 was the only gene with an overall increase in transcript in response to reduced iron levels. This work lays the foundation for an improved understanding of iron metabolism in ticks which may provide molecular targets for the development of novel tick control methods and aid in the understanding of tick-pathogen interactions.
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Affiliation(s)
- Muna Solyman
- Department of Veterinary Microbiology and Pathology, P. O. Box 647040, Washington State University, Pullman, Wash. 99164, USA.
| | - Kelly A Brayton
- Department of Veterinary Microbiology and Pathology, P. O. Box 647040, Washington State University, Pullman, Wash. 99164, USA.
| | - Dana K Shaw
- Department of Veterinary Microbiology and Pathology, P. O. Box 647040, Washington State University, Pullman, Wash. 99164, USA.
| | - Anders Omsland
- The Paul G. Allen School for Global Animal Health, 1155 College Ave., Washington State University, Pullman, Wash. 99164-70403, USA.
| | - Steven McGeehan
- Analytical Sciences Laboratory, University of Idaho, Moscow, ID 83844-2293, USA.
| | - Glen A Scoles
- Animal Diseases Research Unit, USDA-ARS, 3003 ADBF, Pullman, Wash. 99164-6630, USA.
| | - Susan M Noh
- Animal Diseases Research Unit, USDA-ARS, 3003 ADBF, Pullman, Wash. 99164-6630, USA.
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9
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Phillips J, Farrell C, Wang Y, Singal AK, Anderson K, Balwani M, Bissell M, Bonkovsky H, Seay T, Paw B, Desnick R, Bloomer J. Strong correlation of ferrochelatase enzymatic activity with Mitoferrin-1 mRNA in lymphoblasts of patients with protoporphyria. Mol Genet Metab 2019; 128:391-395. [PMID: 30391163 PMCID: PMC7328821 DOI: 10.1016/j.ymgme.2018.10.005] [Citation(s) in RCA: 5] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Submit a Manuscript] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 09/21/2018] [Revised: 10/20/2018] [Accepted: 10/21/2018] [Indexed: 11/25/2022]
Abstract
Accumulation of protoporphyrin IX (PPIX) and Zn-PPIX, are the clinical hallmarks of protoporphyria. Phenotypic expression of protoporphyria is due to decreased activity of ferrochelatase (FECH) or to increased activity of aminolevulinic acid synthase (ALAS) in red blood cells. Other genetic defects have been shown to contribute to disease severity including loss of function mutations in the mitochondrial AAA-ATPase, CLPX and mutations in the Iron-responsive element binding protein 2 (IRP2), in mice. It is clear that multiple paths lead to a common phenotype of excess plasma PPIX that causes a phototoxic reaction on sun exposed areas. In this study we examined the association between mitochondrial iron acquisition and utilization with activity of FECH. Our data show that there is a metabolic link between the activity FECH and levels of MFRN1 mRNA. We examined the correlation between FECH activity and MFRN1 mRNA in cell lines established from patients with the classical protoporphyria, porphyria due to defects in ALAS2 mutations. Our data confirm MFRN1 message levels positively correlated with FECH enzymatic activity in all cell types.
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Affiliation(s)
- John Phillips
- Department of Medicine, Division of Hematology, University of Utah School of Medicine, Salt Lake City, UT, United States.
| | - Collin Farrell
- Department of Medicine, Division of Hematology, University of Utah School of Medicine, Salt Lake City, UT, United States
| | - Yongming Wang
- Department of Medicine, Division of Gastroenterology and Hepatology, University of Alabama at Birmingham, Birmingham, AL, United States
| | - Ashwani K Singal
- Department of Medicine, Division of Gastroenterology and Hepatology, University of Alabama at Birmingham, Birmingham, AL, United States
| | - Karl Anderson
- Department of Medicine, Division of Gastroenterology, University of Texas Medical Branch, Galveston, TX, United States
| | - Manisha Balwani
- Department of Genetics, Icahn school of Medicine, New York, NY, United States
| | - Montgomery Bissell
- Department of Medicine, Division of Gastroenterology, University of California in San Francisco, San Francisco, CA, United States
| | - Herbert Bonkovsky
- Department of Medicine, Division of Gastroenterology, Wake Forest University, United States
| | - Toni Seay
- Department of Medicine, Division of Gastroenterology and Hepatology, University of Alabama at Birmingham, Birmingham, AL, United States
| | - Barry Paw
- Department of Medicine, Hematology, Brigham and Women's Hospital, Boston, MA, United States
| | - Robert Desnick
- Department of Genetics, Icahn school of Medicine, New York, NY, United States
| | - Joseph Bloomer
- Department of Medicine, Division of Gastroenterology and Hepatology, University of Alabama at Birmingham, Birmingham, AL, United States
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Effects of hypoxia-reoxygenation stress on mitochondrial proteome and bioenergetics of the hypoxia-tolerant marine bivalve Crassostrea gigas. J Proteomics 2019; 194:99-111. [DOI: 10.1016/j.jprot.2018.12.009] [Citation(s) in RCA: 26] [Impact Index Per Article: 5.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 10/19/2018] [Revised: 12/03/2018] [Accepted: 12/10/2018] [Indexed: 12/21/2022]
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11
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Brewer CT, Yang L, Edwards A, Lu Y, Low J, Wu J, Lee RE, Chen T. The Isoniazid Metabolites Hydrazine and Pyridoxal Isonicotinoyl Hydrazone Modulate Heme Biosynthesis. Toxicol Sci 2019; 168:209-224. [PMID: 30517741 PMCID: PMC6390808 DOI: 10.1093/toxsci/kfy294] [Citation(s) in RCA: 16] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/14/2022] Open
Abstract
In a mouse model, rifampicin and isoniazid combination treatment results in cholestatic liver injury that is associated with an increase in protoporphyrin IX, the penultimate heme precursor. Both ferrochelatase (FECH/Fech) and aminolevulinic acid synthase 1 (ALAS1/Alas1) are crucial enzymes in regulating heme biosynthesis. Isoniazid has recently been reported to upregulate Alas1 but downregulate Fech protein levels in mice; however, the mechanism by which isoniazid mediates disruption of heme synthesis has been unclear. Two metabolites of isoniazid, pyridoxal isonicotinoyl hydrazone (PIH, the isoniazid-vitamin B6 conjugate) and hydrazine, have been detected in the urine of humans treated with isoniazid. Here we show that, in primary human hepatocytes and the human hepatocellular carcinoma cell line HepG2/C3A, (1) isoniazid treatment increases Alas1 protein levels but decreases Fech levels; (2) hydrazine treatment upregulates Alas1 protein and Alas1 mRNA levels; (3) PIH treatment decreases Fech protein levels, but not Fech mRNA levels; and (4) PIH is detected after isoniazid treatment, with levels increasing further when exogenous vitamin B6 analogs are coadministered. In addition, the PIH-mediated downregulation of human FECH is associated with iron chelation. Together, these data demonstrate that hydrazine upregulates ALAS1, whereas PIH downregulates FECH, suggesting that the metabolites of isoniazid mediate its disruption of heme biosynthesis by contributing to protoporphyrin IX accumulation.
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Affiliation(s)
- Christopher Trent Brewer
- Department of Chemical Biology and Therapeutics, St Jude Children’s Research Hospital, Memphis, Tennessee 38105
- Integrated Biomedical Sciences Program, University of Tennessee Health Science Center, Memphis, Tennessee 38163
| | - Lei Yang
- Department of Chemical Biology and Therapeutics, St Jude Children’s Research Hospital, Memphis, Tennessee 38105
| | - Anne Edwards
- Department of Chemical Biology and Therapeutics, St Jude Children’s Research Hospital, Memphis, Tennessee 38105
| | - Yan Lu
- Department of Chemical Biology and Therapeutics, St Jude Children’s Research Hospital, Memphis, Tennessee 38105
| | - Jonathan Low
- Department of Chemical Biology and Therapeutics, St Jude Children’s Research Hospital, Memphis, Tennessee 38105
| | - Jing Wu
- Department of Chemical Biology and Therapeutics, St Jude Children’s Research Hospital, Memphis, Tennessee 38105
| | - Richard E Lee
- Department of Chemical Biology and Therapeutics, St Jude Children’s Research Hospital, Memphis, Tennessee 38105
| | - Taosheng Chen
- Department of Chemical Biology and Therapeutics, St Jude Children’s Research Hospital, Memphis, Tennessee 38105
- Integrated Biomedical Sciences Program, University of Tennessee Health Science Center, Memphis, Tennessee 38163
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12
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Barupala DP, Dzul SP, Riggs-Gelasco PJ, Stemmler TL. Synthesis, delivery and regulation of eukaryotic heme and Fe-S cluster cofactors. Arch Biochem Biophys 2016; 592:60-75. [PMID: 26785297 PMCID: PMC4784227 DOI: 10.1016/j.abb.2016.01.010] [Citation(s) in RCA: 24] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 09/02/2015] [Revised: 01/13/2016] [Accepted: 01/14/2016] [Indexed: 11/25/2022]
Abstract
In humans, the bulk of iron in the body (over 75%) is directed towards heme- or Fe-S cluster cofactor synthesis, and the complex, highly regulated pathways in place to accomplish biosynthesis have evolved to safely assemble and load these cofactors into apoprotein partners. In eukaryotes, heme biosynthesis is both initiated and finalized within the mitochondria, while cellular Fe-S cluster assembly is controlled by correlated pathways both within the mitochondria and within the cytosol. Iron plays a vital role in a wide array of metabolic processes and defects in iron cofactor assembly leads to human diseases. This review describes progress towards our molecular-level understanding of cellular heme and Fe-S cluster biosynthesis, focusing on the regulation and mechanistic details that are essential for understanding human disorders related to the breakdown in these essential pathways.
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Affiliation(s)
- Dulmini P Barupala
- Departments of Biochemistry and Molecular Biology, and Pharmaceutical Sciences, Wayne State University, Detroit, MI 48201, USA
| | - Stephen P Dzul
- Departments of Biochemistry and Molecular Biology, and Pharmaceutical Sciences, Wayne State University, Detroit, MI 48201, USA
| | | | - Timothy L Stemmler
- Departments of Biochemistry and Molecular Biology, and Pharmaceutical Sciences, Wayne State University, Detroit, MI 48201, USA.
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13
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Shimizu R, Lan NN, Tai TT, Adachi Y, Kawazoe A, Mu A, Taketani S. p53 directly regulates the transcription of the human frataxin gene and its lack of regulation in tumor cells decreases the utilization of mitochondrial iron. Gene 2014; 551:79-85. [PMID: 25158131 DOI: 10.1016/j.gene.2014.08.043] [Citation(s) in RCA: 27] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 05/19/2014] [Revised: 08/19/2014] [Accepted: 08/21/2014] [Indexed: 02/05/2023]
Abstract
Mitochondrial frataxin functions in iron homeostasis, biogenesis of iron-sulfur clusters, protection from oxidative stress and apoptosis, and as a tumor suppressor protein. We examined regulation of the expression of the human frataxin by p53. Pifithrin-α, an inhibitor of p53 function, and knockdown of p53 decreased the level of frataxin mRNA in human kidney HEK 293T cells. The transcriptional activity of the human frataxin gene is enhanced by the proximal promoter containing the p53-responsive element (p53RE) on the gene. Chromatin immunoprecipitation assay and electrophoretic mobility shift assay confirmed the binding of p53 to the human frataxin p53RE. The expression of wild-type p53 in human cancer HeLa cells increased the reporter activity carrying p53RE at the region of -209 to -200bp of the frataxin promoter. Finally, when the HeLa cells overexpressing frataxin were treated with 5-aminolevulinic acid (ALA), there was less accumulation of protoporphyrin than HeLa control cells, and it was sharply decreased by the addition of iron citrate, suggesting that the utilization of mitochondrial iron for heme biosynthesis can be dependent on the level of frataxin. Alternatively, the low expression of frataxin not regulated by p53 in tumor cells lowers the utilization of iron in mitochondria, causing the tumor-specific ALA-induced accumulation of protoporphyrin.
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Affiliation(s)
- Rina Shimizu
- Department of Biotechnology, Kyoto Institute of Technology, Kyoto 606-8585, Japan
| | - Nguyen Ngoc Lan
- Department of Biotechnology, Kyoto Institute of Technology, Kyoto 606-8585, Japan
| | - Tran Tien Tai
- Department of Biotechnology, Kyoto Institute of Technology, Kyoto 606-8585, Japan
| | - Yuka Adachi
- Department of Biotechnology, Kyoto Institute of Technology, Kyoto 606-8585, Japan
| | - Asako Kawazoe
- Department of Biotechnology, Kyoto Institute of Technology, Kyoto 606-8585, Japan
| | - Anfeng Mu
- Department of Biotechnology, Kyoto Institute of Technology, Kyoto 606-8585, Japan
| | - Shigeru Taketani
- Department of Biotechnology, Kyoto Institute of Technology, Kyoto 606-8585, Japan; Insect Biomedical Center, Kyoto Institute of Technology, Kyoto 606-8585, Japan.
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Barman-Aksözen J, Béguin C, Dogar AM, Schneider-Yin X, Minder EI. Iron availability modulates aberrant splicing of ferrochelatase through the iron- and 2-oxoglutarate dependent dioxygenase Jmjd6 and U2AF(65.). Blood Cells Mol Dis 2013; 51:151-61. [PMID: 23787363 DOI: 10.1016/j.bcmd.2013.05.008] [Citation(s) in RCA: 26] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 12/19/2012] [Revised: 03/20/2013] [Accepted: 05/12/2013] [Indexed: 10/26/2022]
Abstract
Erythropoietic protoporphyria (EPP) results from partial deficiency of ferrochelatase (FECH). Genetically, EPP patients differ from asymptomatic mutation carriers at the unmutated FECH allele, the expression of which is modulated by single nucleotide polymorphism IVS3-48C/T. The IVS3-48C genotype, which is present among patients, leads to correct splicing of 60% of the pre-mRNA and to alternative splicing of 40%, the latter mRNA-product being destroyed by nonsense-mediated decay. An IVS3-48T genotype generates 80% correct and 20% aberrant products. Our study demonstrated that under iron deficient conditions, the aberrant splice product was increased to 56% and 50% of total FECH mRNA in erythroleukemic K562 and lymphoblastoid cell lines, respectively, both being homozygous for IVS3-48T. Concomitantly, FECH protein was decreased. Iron deficiency had less effect on the FECH splice ratio in an IVS3-48C/C lymphoblastoid cell line. Effects similar to iron deficiency were generated by siRNA knockdown of either splicing factor U2AF(65) or Fe(II)- and 2-oxoglutarate-dependent dioxygenase Jumonji domain-containing protein 6 (Jmjd6), which interacts with U2AF(65) by lysyl-hydroxylation. Based on these results, we propose that the availability of iron, a co-factor of Jmjd6, modulates U2AF(65)-lysyl-hydroxylation. This in turn, influences the relative amounts of correct and aberrant FECH mRNA splice products and thus, regulates the FECH enzyme activity.
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15
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Sawamoto M, Imai T, Umeda M, Fukuda K, Kataoka T, Taketani S. The p53-dependent expression of frataxin controls 5-aminolevulinic acid-induced accumulation of protoporphyrin IX and photo-damage in cancerous cells. Photochem Photobiol 2013; 89:163-72. [PMID: 22862424 DOI: 10.1111/j.1751-1097.2012.01215.x] [Citation(s) in RCA: 18] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 07/05/2012] [Accepted: 07/25/2012] [Indexed: 11/29/2022]
Abstract
Mitochondrial frataxin is involved in various functions such as iron homeostasis, iron-sulfur cluster biogenesis, the protection from oxidative stress and apoptosis and acts as a tumor suppressor protein. We now show that the expression of frataxin is stimulated in a p53-dependent manner and prove that frataxin is a direct p53 target gene by showing that the p53-responsive element in the promoter of the mouse frataxin gene is bound by p53. The bacterial expression of human frataxin stimulated maturation of human ferrochelatase, which catalyzes the insertion of iron into protoporphyrin at the last step of heme biosynthesis. Overexpression of frataxin in human cancer A431 and HeLa cells lowered 5-aminolevulinic acid(ALA)-induced accumulation of protoporphyrin and induced resistance to ALA-induced photo-damage, whereas p53 silencing with siRNA in non tumor HEK293T cells down-regulated the expression of frataxin and increased the accumulation of protoporphyrin. Thus, the decrease of the expression of frataxin unregulated by p53 in tumor cells enhances ALA-induced photo-damage, by down-regulation of mitochondrial functions.
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Affiliation(s)
- Mari Sawamoto
- Department of Biotechnology, Kyoto Institute of Technology, Kyoto, Japan
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16
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González A, Bes MT, Valladares A, Peleato ML, Fillat MF. FurA is the master regulator of iron homeostasis and modulates the expression of tetrapyrrole biosynthesis genes inAnabaenasp. PCC 7120. Environ Microbiol 2012; 14:3175-87. [DOI: 10.1111/j.1462-2920.2012.02897.x] [Citation(s) in RCA: 50] [Impact Index Per Article: 4.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 07/12/2012] [Revised: 09/06/2012] [Accepted: 09/09/2012] [Indexed: 12/15/2022]
Affiliation(s)
| | | | - Ana Valladares
- Instituto de Bioquímica Vegetal y Fotosíntesis; Centro de Investigaciones Científicas Isla de la Cartuja; CSIC-Universidad de Sevilla; E-41092; Seville; Spain
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17
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Chau TT, Ishigaki M, Kataoka T, Taketani S. Ferrochelatase catalyzes the formation of Zn-protoporphyrin of dry-cured ham via the conversion reaction from heme in meat. JOURNAL OF AGRICULTURAL AND FOOD CHEMISTRY 2011; 59:12238-12245. [PMID: 22004247 DOI: 10.1021/jf203145p] [Citation(s) in RCA: 30] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 05/31/2023]
Abstract
Ferrochelatase (FECH), the enzyme at the last step of the heme-biosynthetic pathway, is involved in the formation of Zn-protoporphyrin via an iron-removal reaction of heme. To improve the efficacy of the formation of Zn-protoporphyrin from heme, the use of recombinant FECHs from porcine, yeast, and bacteria was examined. Incubation of FECH with myoglobin in the presence of ascorbic acid and cysteine resulted in the efficient conversion of myoglobin-heme to Zn-protoporphyrin. Exogenously added recombinant yeast FECH facilitates the production of Zn-protoporphyrin from myoglobin-heme and heme in meat, via the replacement of iron in the protoporphyrin ring by zinc ions. A large amount of Zn-protoporphyrin was also generated by the catalysis of FECH using an intact piece of meat as a substrate. These findings can open up possible approaches for the generation of a nontoxic bright pigment, Zn-protoporphyrin, to shorten the incubation time required to produce dry-cured ham.
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Affiliation(s)
- Tuan Thanh Chau
- Department of Biotechnology, Kyoto Institute of Technology, Kyoto 606-8585, Japan
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18
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Ohgari Y, Miyata Y, Miyagi T, Gotoh S, Ohta T, Kataoka T, Furuyama K, Taketani S. Roles of porphyrin and iron metabolisms in the δ-aminolevulinic acid (ALA)-induced accumulation of protoporphyrin and photodamage of tumor cells. Photochem Photobiol 2011; 87:1138-45. [PMID: 21668870 DOI: 10.1111/j.1751-1097.2011.00950.x] [Citation(s) in RCA: 22] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/30/2022]
Abstract
δ-Aminolevulinic acid (ALA)-induced porphyrin accumulation is widely used in the treatment of cancer, as photodynamic therapy. To clarify the mechanisms of the tumor-preferential accumulation of protoporphyrin, we examined the effect of the expression of heme-biosynthetic and -degradative enzymes on the ALA-induced accumulation of protoporphyrin as well as photodamage. The transient expression of heme-biosynthetic enzymes in HeLa cells caused variations of the ALA-induced accumulation of protoporphyrin. When ALA-treated cells were exposed to white light, the extent of photodamage of the cells was dependent on the accumulation of protoporphyrin. The decrease of the accumulation of protoporphyrin was observed in the cells treated with inducers of heme oxygenase (HO)-1. The ALA-dependent accumulation of protoporphyrin was decreased in HeLa cells by transfection with HO-1 and HO-2 cDNA. Conversely, knockdown of HO-1/-2 with siRNAs enhanced the ALA-induced protoporphyrin accumulation and photodamage. The ALA effect was decreased with HeLa cells expressing mitoferrin-2, a mitochondrial iron transporter, whereas it was enhanced by the mitoferrin-2 siRNA transfection. These results indicated that not only the production of porphyrin intermediates but also the reuse of iron from heme and mitochondrial iron utilization control the ALA-induced accumulation of protoporphyrin in cancerous cells.
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Affiliation(s)
- Yoshiko Ohgari
- Department of Biotechnology, Kyoto Institute of Technology, Kyoto, Japan
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19
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Franken ACW, Lokman BC, Ram AFJ, Punt PJ, van den Hondel CAMJJ, de Weert S. Heme biosynthesis and its regulation: towards understanding and improvement of heme biosynthesis in filamentous fungi. Appl Microbiol Biotechnol 2011; 91:447-60. [PMID: 21687966 PMCID: PMC3136693 DOI: 10.1007/s00253-011-3391-3] [Citation(s) in RCA: 35] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 03/12/2011] [Revised: 05/16/2011] [Accepted: 05/16/2011] [Indexed: 12/01/2022]
Abstract
Heme biosynthesis in fungal host strains has acquired considerable interest in relation to the production of secreted heme-containing peroxidases. Class II peroxidase enzymes have been suggested as eco-friendly replacements of polluting chemical processes in industry. These peroxidases are naturally produced in small amounts by basidiomycetes. Filamentous fungi like Aspergillus sp. are considered as suitable hosts for protein production due to their high capacity of protein secretion. For the purpose of peroxidase production, heme is considered a putative limiting factor. However, heme addition is not appropriate in large-scale production processes due to its high hydrophobicity and cost price. The preferred situation in order to overcome the limiting effect of heme would be to increase intracellular heme levels. This requires a thorough insight into the biosynthetic pathway and its regulation. In this review, the heme biosynthetic pathway is discussed with regards to synthesis, regulation, and transport. Although the heme biosynthetic pathway is a highly conserved and tightly regulated pathway, the mode of regulation does not appear to be conserved among eukaryotes. However, common factors like feedback inhibition and regulation by heme, iron, and oxygen appear to be involved in regulation of the heme biosynthesis pathway in most organisms. Therefore, they are the initial targets to be investigated in Aspergillus niger.
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Affiliation(s)
- Angelique C W Franken
- The Netherlands & Kluyver Centre for Genomics of Industrial Fermentation, PO Box 5057, 2600 GA Delft, The Netherlands
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20
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Abnormal mitoferrin-1 expression in patients with erythropoietic protoporphyria. Exp Hematol 2011; 39:784-94. [PMID: 21627978 DOI: 10.1016/j.exphem.2011.05.003] [Citation(s) in RCA: 42] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 01/20/2011] [Revised: 04/08/2011] [Accepted: 04/16/2011] [Indexed: 11/23/2022]
Abstract
OBJECTIVE Most patients with erythropoietic protoporphyria have deficient ferrochelatase (FECH) activity due to changes in FECH DNA. We evaluated seven patients with erythropoietic protoporphyria phenotype in whom abnormalities of FECH DNA were not found by conventional analysis. The major focus was mitoferrin-1 (MFRN1), the mitochondrial transporter of Fe used for heme formation by FECH and for 2Fe2S cluster synthesis, which is critical to FECH activity/stability. MATERIALS AND METHODS Four patients had a deletion in ALAS2 that causes enzyme gain-of-function, resulting in increased formation of protoporphyrin; one had a heterozygous major deletion in FECH DNA. All had an abnormal transcript of MFRN1 in messenger RNA extracted from blood leukocytes and/or liver tissue. The abnormal transcript contained an insert of intron 2 that had a stop codon. The consequences of abnormal MFRN1 expression were examined using zebrafish and yeast MFRN-deficient strains and cultured lymphoblasts from the patients. RESULTS Abnormal human MFRN1 complementary DNA showed loss-of-function in zebrafish and yeast mutants, whereas normal human MFRN1 complementary DNA rescued both. Using cultured lymphoblasts, quantitative reverse transcription polymerase chain reaction showed increased formation of abnormal transcript that was accompanied by decreased formation of normal transcript and reduced FECH activity in patients compared to normal lines. A positive correlation coefficient (0.75) was found between FECH activity and normal MFRN1 messenger RNA in lymphoblasts. However, no obvious cause for increased formation of abnormal transcript was identified in MFRN1 exons and splice junctions. CONCLUSIONS Abnormal MFRN1 expression can contribute to erythropoietic protoporphyria phenotype in some patients, probably by causing a reduction in FECH activity.
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Ohgari Y, Miyata Y, Chau TT, Kitajima S, Adachi Y, Taketani S. Quinolone compounds enhance delta-aminolevulinic acid-induced accumulation of protoporphyrin IX and photosensitivity of tumour cells. J Biochem 2011; 149:153-160. [PMID: 20961864 DOI: 10.1093/jb/mvq126] [Citation(s) in RCA: 11] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 10/08/2023] Open
Abstract
Exogenous δ-aminolevulinic acid (ALA)-induced photodynamic therapy (PDT) has been used in the treatment of cancer. To obtain a high efficacy of ALA-PDT, we have screened various chemicals affecting ALA-induced accumulation of protoporphyrin in cancerous cells. When HeLa cells were treated with quinolone chemicals including enoxacin, ciprofloxacin or norfloxacin, the ALA-induced photodamage accompanied by the accumulation of protoporphyrin was stronger than that with ALA alone. Thus, quinolone compounds such as enoxacin, ciprofloxacin and norfloxacin enhanced ALA-induced photodamage. The increased ALA-induced photodamage in enoxacin-treated HeLa cells was decreased by haemin or ferric-nitrilotriacetate (Fe-NTA), suggesting that an increase in iron supply cancels the accumulation of protoporphyrin. On the other hand, the treatment of the cells with ALA plus an inhibitor of haem oxygenase, Sn-protoporphyrin, led to an increase in the photodamage and the accumulation of protoporphyrin compared with those upon treatment with ALA alone, indicating that the cessation of recycling of iron from haem augments the accumulation. The use of quinolones plus Sn-protoporphyrin strongly enhances ALA-induced photodamage. To examine the mechanisms involved in the increased accumulation of protoporphyrin, we incubated ferric chloride with an equivalent amount of quinolones. Iron-quinolone complexes with visible colours with a maximum at 450 nm were formed. The levels of iron-metabolizing proteins in enoxacin- or ciprofloxacin-treated cells changed, indicating that quinolones decrease iron utilization for haem biosynthesis. Hence, we now propose that the use of quinolones in combination with ALA may be an extremely effective approach for the treatment modalities for PDT of various tumour tissues in clinical practice.
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Affiliation(s)
- Yoshiko Ohgari
- Department of Biotechnology, Kyoto Institute of Technology, Kyoto, Japan
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22
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Hefti M, Holenstein F, Albert I, Looser H, Luginbuehl V. Susceptibility to 5-Aminolevulinic Acid Based Photodynamic Therapy in WHO I Meningioma Cells Corresponds to Ferrochelatase Activity. Photochem Photobiol 2010; 87:235-41. [DOI: 10.1111/j.1751-1097.2010.00821.x] [Citation(s) in RCA: 36] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 10/19/2022]
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23
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Posttranslational stability of the heme biosynthetic enzyme ferrochelatase is dependent on iron availability and intact iron-sulfur cluster assembly machinery. Blood 2009; 115:860-9. [PMID: 19965627 DOI: 10.1182/blood-2009-09-243105] [Citation(s) in RCA: 79] [Impact Index Per Article: 5.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/20/2022] Open
Abstract
Mammalian ferrochelatase, the terminal enzyme in the heme biosynthetic pathway, possesses an iron-sulfur [2Fe-2S] cluster that does not participate in catalysis. We investigated ferrochelatase expression in iron-deficient erythropoietic tissues of mice lacking iron regulatory protein 2, in iron-deficient murine erythroleukemia cells, and in human patients with ISCU myopathy. Ferrochelatase activity and protein levels were dramatically decreased in Irp2(-/-) spleens, whereas ferrochelatase mRNA levels were increased, demonstrating posttranscriptional regulation of ferrochelatase in vivo. Translation of ferrochelatase mRNA was unchanged in iron-depleted murine erythroleukemia cells, and the stability of mature ferrochelatase protein was also unaffected. However, the stability of newly formed ferrochelatase protein was dramatically decreased during iron deficiency. Ferrochelatase was also severely depleted in muscle biopsies and cultured myoblasts from patients with ISCU myopathy, a disease caused by deficiency of a scaffold protein required for Fe-S cluster assembly. Together, these data suggest that decreased Fe-S cluster availability because of cellular iron depletion or impaired Fe-S cluster assembly causes reduced maturation and stabilization of apo-ferrochelatase, providing a direct link between Fe-S biogenesis and completion of heme biosynthesis. We propose that decreased heme biosynthesis resulting from impaired Fe-S cluster assembly can contribute to the pathogenesis of diseases caused by defective Fe-S cluster biogenesis.
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24
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Ma YS, Wu SB, Lee WY, Cheng JS, Wei YH. Response to the increase of oxidative stress and mutation of mitochondrial DNA in aging. Biochim Biophys Acta Gen Subj 2009; 1790:1021-9. [DOI: 10.1016/j.bbagen.2009.04.012] [Citation(s) in RCA: 76] [Impact Index Per Article: 5.1] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 12/31/2008] [Revised: 04/17/2009] [Accepted: 04/20/2009] [Indexed: 01/01/2023]
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25
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Kemmner W, Wan K, Rüttinger S, Ebert B, Macdonald R, Klamm U, Moesta KT. Silencing of human ferrochelatase causes abundant protoporphyrin-IX accumulation in colon cancer. FASEB J 2007; 22:500-9. [PMID: 17875605 DOI: 10.1096/fj.07-8888com] [Citation(s) in RCA: 80] [Impact Index Per Article: 4.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/11/2022]
Abstract
Hemes and heme proteins are vital components of essentially every cell of virtually every eukaryote organism. Previously, we demonstrated accumulation of the heme precursor protoporphyrin-IX (PpIX) in gastrointestinal tumor tissues. To elucidate the mechanisms of PpIX accumulation by quantitative reverse transcriptase-polymerase chain reaction (RT-PCR), we studied expression of the relevant enzymes of the heme synthetic pathway. Here, we describe a significant down-regulation of ferrochelatase (FECH) mRNA expression in gastric, colonic, and rectal carcinomas. Accordingly, in an in vitro model of several carcinoma cell lines, ferrochelatase down-regulation and loss of enzymatic activity corresponded with an enhanced PpIX-dependent fluorescence. Direct detection of PpIX in minute amounts was achieved by a specifically developed pulsed solid-state laser dual delay fluorimetry setup. Silencing of FECH using small interfering RNA (siRNA) technology led to a maximum 50-fold increased PpIX accumulation, imageable by a specifically adapted two-photon microscopy unit. Our results show that in malignant tissue a transcriptional down-regulation of FECH occurs, which causes endogenous PpIX accumulation. Furthermore, accumulation of intracellular PpIX because of FECH siRNA silencing provides a small-molecule-based approach to molecular imaging and molecular therapy.
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Affiliation(s)
- Wolfgang Kemmner
- Max Delbrueck Center for Molecular Medicine, Robert Roessle Str 10, 13125 Berlin, Germany.
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26
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Yamamoto F, Ohgari Y, Yamaki N, Kitajima S, Shimokawa O, Matsui H, Taketani S. The role of nitric oxide in delta-aminolevulinic acid (ALA)-induced photosensitivity of cancerous cells. Biochem Biophys Res Commun 2006; 353:541-6. [PMID: 17196160 DOI: 10.1016/j.bbrc.2006.12.007] [Citation(s) in RCA: 38] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.1] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 11/29/2006] [Accepted: 12/03/2006] [Indexed: 01/02/2023]
Abstract
Application of delta-aminolevulinic acid (ALA) results in the endogenous accumulation of protoporphyrin IX and is a useful approach in the photodynamic therapy (PDT) of cancers. To investigate the role of nitric oxide (NO) in the specific accumulation of protoporphyrin and ALA-induced PDT of cancerous cells, we transfected inducible-nitric oxide synthase (NOS2) cDNA into human embryonic kidney (HEK) 293T cells and examined the ALA-induced photo-damage as well as the accumulation of porphyrin in the cells. When the NOS2-expressing HEK293T cells were treated with ALA and then exposed to visible light, they became more sensitive to the light with accumulating porphyrins, as compared with the ALA-treated control cells. An increase in the generation of NO in transfected cells led to the accumulation of protoporphyrin with a concomitant decrease of ferrochelatase, the final step enzyme of heme biosynthesis. When mouse macrophage-like RAW264.7 cells were cultured with lipopolysaccharide and interferon-gamma, the expression of NOS2 was induced. The addition of ALA to these cells led to the accumulation of protoporphyrin and cell death upon exposure to light. The treatment of cells with an NOS inhibitor, NG-monomethyl-L-arginine acetate, resulted in the inhibition of protoporphyrin accumulation and cell death. The levels of mitochondrial ferrochelatase and rotenone-sensitive NADH dehydrogenase in the NOS2-induced cells decreased. These results indicated that the generation of NO augments the ALA-induced accumulation of protoporphyrin IX and subsequent photo-damage in cancerous cells by decreasing the levels of mitochondrial iron-containing enzymes. Based on the fact that the production of NO in cancerous cells is elevated, NO in the cells is responsible for susceptibility with ALA-induced PDT.
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Affiliation(s)
- Fuki Yamamoto
- Department of Biotechnology, Kyoto Institute of Technology, Kyoto 606-8585, Japan
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Mingone CJ, Gupte SA, Chow JL, Ahmad M, Abraham NG, Wolin MS. Protoporphyrin IX generation from δ-aminolevulinic acid elicits pulmonary artery relaxation and soluble guanylate cyclase activation. Am J Physiol Lung Cell Mol Physiol 2006; 291:L337-44. [PMID: 16899710 DOI: 10.1152/ajplung.00482.2005] [Citation(s) in RCA: 33] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/22/2022] Open
Abstract
Protoporphyrin IX is an activator of soluble guanylate cyclase (sGC), but its role as an endogenous regulator of vascular function through cGMP has not been previously reported. In this study we examined whether the heme precursor δ-aminolevulinic acid (ALA) could regulate vascular force through promoting protoporphyrin IX-elicited activation of sGC. Exposure of endothelium-denuded bovine pulmonary arteries (BPA) in organoid culture to increasing concentrations of the heme precursor ALA caused a concentration-dependent increase in BPA epifluorescence, consistent with increased tissue protoporphyrin IX levels, associated with decreased force generation to increasing concentrations of serotonin. The force-depressing actions of 0.1 mM ALA were associated with increased cGMP-associated vasodilator-stimulated phosphoprotein (VASP) phosphorylation and increased sGC activity in homogenates of BPA cultured with ALA. Increasing iron availability with 0.1 mM FeSO4inhibited the decrease in contraction to serotonin and increase in sGC activity caused by ALA, associated with decreased protoporphyrin IX and increased heme. Chelating endogenous iron with 0.1 mM deferoxamine increased the detection of protoporphyrin IX and force depressing activity of 10 μM ALA. The inhibition of sGC activation with the heme oxidant 10 μM 1H-[1,2,4]oxadiazolo[4,3-a]quinoxalin-1-one (ODQ) attenuated the force depressing actions of an NO donor without altering the actions of ALA. Thus control of endogenous formation of protoporphyrin IX from ALA by the availability of iron is potentially a novel physiological mechanism of controlling vascular function through regulating the activity of sGC.
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Ajioka RS, Phillips JD, Kushner JP. Biosynthesis of heme in mammals. BIOCHIMICA ET BIOPHYSICA ACTA-MOLECULAR CELL RESEARCH 2006; 1763:723-36. [PMID: 16839620 DOI: 10.1016/j.bbamcr.2006.05.005] [Citation(s) in RCA: 341] [Impact Index Per Article: 18.9] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 03/10/2006] [Revised: 05/10/2006] [Accepted: 05/11/2006] [Indexed: 11/30/2022]
Abstract
Most iron in mammalian systems is routed to mitochondria to serve as a substrate for ferrochelatase. Ferrochelatase inserts iron into protoporphyrin IX to form heme which is incorporated into hemoglobin and cytochromes, the dominant hemoproteins in mammals. Tissue-specific regulatory features characterize the heme biosynthetic pathway. In erythroid cells, regulation is mediated by erythroid-specific transcription factors and the availability of iron as Fe/S clusters. In non-erythroid cells the pathway is regulated by heme-mediated feedback inhibition. All of the enzymes in the heme biosynthetic pathway have been crystallized and the crystal structures have permitted detailed analyses of enzyme mechanisms. All of the genes encoding the heme biosynthetic enzymes have been cloned and mutations of these genes are responsible for a group of human disorders designated the porphyrias and for X-linked sideroblastic anemia. The biochemistry, structural biology and the mechanisms of tissue-specific regulation are presented in this review along with the key features of the porphyric disorders.
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Affiliation(s)
- Richard S Ajioka
- Department of Internal Medicine, Division of Hematology, University of Utah School of Medicine, Salt Lake City, UT 84132, USA
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29
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Ohgari Y, Nakayasu Y, Kitajima S, Sawamoto M, Mori H, Shimokawa O, Matsui H, Taketani S. Mechanisms involved in δ-aminolevulinic acid (ALA)-induced photosensitivity of tumor cells: Relation of ferrochelatase and uptake of ALA to the accumulation of protoporphyrin. Biochem Pharmacol 2005; 71:42-9. [PMID: 16288996 DOI: 10.1016/j.bcp.2005.10.019] [Citation(s) in RCA: 110] [Impact Index Per Article: 5.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 08/31/2005] [Revised: 10/01/2005] [Accepted: 10/07/2005] [Indexed: 11/20/2022]
Abstract
Photodynamic therapy (PDT) using delta-aminolevulinic acid (ALA)-induced accumulation of protoporphyrin IX is a useful approach to the early detection and treatment of cancers. To investigate the role of ferrochelatase in the accumulation of protoporphyrin, we first made mouse fibroblast Balb/3T3 cells highly expressing ferrochelatase and examined the ALA-induced photo-damage as well as the accumulation of porphyrin in the cells. When the ferrochelatase-transfected cells were treated with ALA and then exposed to visible light, they became resistant to the light without accumulating porphyrins, with a concomitant increase in the formation of heme. The accumulation of protoporphyrin was also abolished in human erythroleukemia K562 cells stably expressing mouse ferrochelatase. When mouse fibrosarcoma MethA cells, mouse fibroblast L929 cells and Balb/3T3 cells were treated with ALA, the greatest accumulation of protoporphyrin and the greatest level of cell death in response to the light were observed in MethA cells. The expression level of ferrochelatase was the lowest in MethA cells, while that of porphobilinogen deaminase was similar among all three cell lines. Moreover, an iron-chelator, desferrioxamine, which sequesters iron preventing the ferrochelatase reaction, enhanced the photo-damage as well as the accumulation of protoporphyrin in ALA-treated L929 cells. Thus, the light-induced cell death was tightly coupled with the accumulation of protoporphyrin caused by a decrease in ferrochelatase. Finally, we examined the uptake of ALA by MethA, L929 and Balb/3T3 cells. The extent of the uptake by MethA and L929 cells was greater, indicating a greater accumulation of protoporphyrin than in the Balb/3T3 cells. Taken together, not only the low level of ferrochelatase but also the augmented uptake of ALA contributes to the ALA-induced accumulation of protoporphyrin IX and subsequent photo-damage in cancer cells.
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Affiliation(s)
- Yoshiko Ohgari
- Department of Biotechnology, Kyoto Institute of Technology, Kyoto 606-8585, Japan
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Ames BN, Atamna H, Killilea DW. Mineral and vitamin deficiencies can accelerate the mitochondrial decay of aging. Mol Aspects Med 2005; 26:363-78. [PMID: 16102804 DOI: 10.1016/j.mam.2005.07.007] [Citation(s) in RCA: 73] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/15/2022]
Abstract
Mitochondrial oxidative decay, which is a major contributor to aging, is accelerated by many common micronutrient deficiencies. One major mechanism is inhibition of the pathway of heme biosynthesis in mitochondria, which causes a deficit of heme-a. Heme-a, only found in Complex IV, is selectively diminished, resulting in oxidant leakage and accelerated mitochondrial decay, which leads to DNA damage, neural decay, and aging. We emphasize those deficiencies, which appear to cause damage through this mechanism, particularly minerals such as iron (25% of menstruating women ingest <50% of the RDA) or zinc (10% of the population ingest <50% of the RDA). Several vitamin deficiencies, such as biotin or pantothenic acid, also increase mitochondrial oxidants through this mechanism. Additionally, other minerals such as magnesium and manganese that play a role in mitochondrial metabolism, but do not affect heme directly, are discussed. An optimum intake of micronutrients could tune up metabolism and give a marked increase in health, particularly for the poor, elderly, and obese, at little cost.
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Affiliation(s)
- Bruce N Ames
- Nutrition, Metabolisms and Genomics Center, Children's Hospital Oakland Research Institute, Oakland, CA 94609, U States.
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31
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Cooperman SS, Meyron-Holtz EG, Olivierre-Wilson H, Ghosh MC, McConnell JP, Rouault TA. Microcytic anemia, erythropoietic protoporphyria, and neurodegeneration in mice with targeted deletion of iron-regulatory protein 2. Blood 2005; 106:1084-91. [PMID: 15831703 PMCID: PMC1895161 DOI: 10.1182/blood-2004-12-4703] [Citation(s) in RCA: 170] [Impact Index Per Article: 8.9] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 01/15/2023] Open
Abstract
Iron-regulatory proteins (IRPs) 1 and 2 posttranscriptionally regulate expression of transferrin receptor (TfR), ferritin, and other iron metabolism proteins. Mice with targeted deletion of IRP2 overexpress ferritin and express abnormally low TfR levels in multiple tissues. Despite this misregulation, there are no apparent pathologic consequences in tissues such as the liver and kidney. However, in the central nervous system, evidence of abnormal iron metabolism in IRP2-/- mice precedes the development of adult-onset progressive neurodegeneration, characterized by widespread axonal degeneration and neuronal loss. Here, we report that ablation of IRP2 results in iron-limited erythropoiesis. TfR expression in erythroid precursors of IRP2-/- mice is reduced, and bone marrow iron stores are absent, even though transferrin saturation levels are normal. Marked overexpression of 5-aminolevulinic acid synthase 2 (Alas2) results from loss of IRP-dependent translational repression, and markedly increased levels of free protoporphyrin IX and zinc protoporphyrin are generated in IRP2-/- erythroid cells. IRP2-/- mice represent a new paradigm of genetic microcytic anemia. We postulate that IRP2 mutations or deletions may be a cause of refractory microcytic anemia and bone marrow iron depletion in patients with normal transferrin saturations, elevated serum ferritins, elevated red cell protoporphyrin IX levels, and adult-onset neurodegeneration.
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Affiliation(s)
- Sharon S Cooperman
- National Institute of Child Health and Human Development, Bethesda, MD 20892, USA
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Ida M, Suzuki H, Mori N, Taketani S, Araki M. Neuro-p24 plays an essential role in neurite extension: antisense oligonucleotide inhibition of neurite extension in cultured DRG neurons and neuroblastoma cells. Neurosci Res 2004; 50:199-208. [PMID: 15380327 DOI: 10.1016/j.neures.2004.06.018] [Citation(s) in RCA: 7] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 12/27/2003] [Accepted: 06/28/2004] [Indexed: 10/26/2022]
Abstract
Neuro-p24 is a novel neuronal membrane protein that is specifically localized in neural processes, particularly in growing neurites. To explore the roles of Neuro-p24, we examined the immunocytochemical localization of this protein in cultured neurons during neural induction, and performed an antisense oligonucleotide transfection using two culture models, the mouse dorsal root ganglia (DRG) and the neuro2a neuroblastoma cell line. Intense Neuro-p24 immunoreactivity was observed in the soma and small vesicles in neurites at the early stage of culture, but it gradually disappeared as cultures proceeded. Intense immunoreactivity was often observed at the growing distal end of the neurites. Morphological changes in neurites after Neuro-p24 antisense oligonucleotide transfection were examined in DRG neurons by the continual observation of a group of identical neurons. Affected cells retracted neurites transiently, followed by the re-elongation and branching of newly formed neurites. The control oligonucleotide-treated neurons appeared unaffected. When neuro2a cells were similarly treated with antisense oligonucleotides, the results were similar to those obtained in the DRG neurons. The binding of Neuro-p24 to tubulin was confirmed by both in vivo and in vitro pull-down assays. The present results support our idea that Neuro-p24 plays an essential role in neurite extension through a vesicle transport system via microtubules.
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Affiliation(s)
- Mizuho Ida
- Developmental Neurobiology Laboratory, Department of Biological Sciences, Nara Women's University, Nara 630-8506, Japan
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33
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Ohgari Y, Sawamoto M, Yamamoto M, Kohno H, Taketani S. Ferrochelatase consisting of wild-type and mutated subunits from patients with a dominant-inherited disease, erythropoietic protoporphyria, is an active but unstable dimer. Hum Mol Genet 2004; 14:327-34. [PMID: 15574461 DOI: 10.1093/hmg/ddi029] [Citation(s) in RCA: 18] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.9] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/14/2022] Open
Abstract
Erythropoietic protoporphyria (EPP) is an autosomal inherited disease of heme biosynthesis caused by a partial deficiency of the enzyme ferrochelatase. Patients with EPP show only 20-30% normal activity because of mutations in one of the alleles of the ferrochelatase gene. To clarify the molecular mechanisms of this low level of activity, we co-expressed human ferrochelatase carrying His- and HA-tags in a tandem fashion in Escherichia coli. Purification of the His-tag-containing enzyme revealed that the His-enzyme forms an oligomer in association with the HA-enzyme, and analysis by gel-filtration confirmed that the enzyme is a dimer (approximately 80 kDa). Then we expressed homo- and heterodimers composed of the wild-type and engineered mutants of the enzyme (C395Delta, H157A, H263A, H388A) or mutants from EPP patients (I186T, M267I). The levels of homodimeric enzymes produced were low, and the activities of the purified homodimeric mutants were abolished. On the other hand, the heterodimers with wild-type and mutated subunits exhibited potential, but weak, activities without a marked change of Km values for substrates. These results showed that heterodimers containing normal and mutated subunits retain the enzymic activity, which is inconsistent with the hypothesis that ferrochelatase is only active when the dimer contains two normal subunits. Pretreatment at 42 degrees C led to a rapid inactivation of the heterodimeric mutants, indicating instability. Thus, we provide evidence that the instability of the heterodimer containing normal and mutated ferrochelatase as well as the low production levels due to the structural defect of the mutant protein, not the abolishment of the enzymic activity of the heterodimer, causes the weak activity in EPP patients.
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Affiliation(s)
- Yoshiko Ohgari
- Department of Biotechnology, Kyoto Institute of Technology, Kyoto, Japan
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Liu YL, Ang SO, Weigent DA, Prchal JT, Bloomer JR. Regulation of ferrochelatase gene expression by hypoxia. Life Sci 2004; 75:2035-43. [PMID: 15312748 DOI: 10.1016/j.lfs.2004.03.027] [Citation(s) in RCA: 44] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 12/16/2003] [Accepted: 03/02/2004] [Indexed: 10/26/2022]
Abstract
Ferrochelatase (FECH), the last enzyme of the heme biosynthetic pathway, catalyzes the insertion of iron into protoporphyrin to form heme. This pathway provides heme for hemoglobin and other essential hemoproteins. The regulatory role of oxygen in the pathway has not been clearly established. In this study, we examined whether FECH gene expression is upregulated during hypoxia by a mechanism which involves the hypoxia-inducible factor 1 (HIF-1). Two HIF-1 binding motifs were identified within the -150 bp FECH minimal promoter sequence. Exposure of HEL, K562, and Hep-G2 cells to hypoxia for 18 hours resulted in a significant increase in FECH mRNA expression (p < 0.05). Hypoxia also transactivated the minimal promoter for the FECH gene in the cells. Transient co-expression of wild-type HIF-1alpha or a dominant negative HIF-1alpha with the FECH minimal promoter luciferase construct stimulated or blocked FECH promoter activity, respectively. Expression of the von Hippel-Lindau (VHL) tumor suppressor factor blocked the expression of both FECH mRNA and HIF-1alpha protein during normoxic culture of renal carcinoma cell line (RCC4). The results suggest that the FECH gene is a target for HIF-1 during hypoxia.
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Affiliation(s)
- Yunying L Liu
- Department of Medicine, Liver Center, University of Alabama at Birmingham, 35294-0005, USA
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35
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Atamna H. Heme, iron, and the mitochondrial decay of ageing. Ageing Res Rev 2004; 3:303-18. [PMID: 15231238 DOI: 10.1016/j.arr.2004.02.002] [Citation(s) in RCA: 119] [Impact Index Per Article: 6.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 01/27/2004] [Accepted: 02/04/2004] [Indexed: 01/04/2023]
Abstract
Heme, the major functional form of iron, is synthesized in the mitochondria. Although disturbed heme metabolism causes mitochondrial decay, oxidative stress, and iron accumulation, all of which are hallmarks of ageing, heme has been little studied in nutritional deficiency, in ageing, or age-related disorders such as Alzheimer's disease (AD). Biosynthesis of heme requires Vitamin B(6), riboflavin, biotin, pantothenic acid, and lipoic acid and the minerals zinc, iron, and copper, micronutrients are essential for the production of succinyl-CoA, the precursor for porphyrins, by the TCA (Krebs) cycle. Only a small fraction of the porphyrins synthesized from succinyl-CoA are converted to heme, the rest are excreted out of the body together with the degradation products of heme (e.g. bilirubin). Therefore, the heme biosynthetic pathway causes a net loss of succinyl-CoA from the TCA cycle. The mitochondrial pool of succinyl-CoA may limit heme biosynthesis in deficiencies for micronutrients (e.g. iron or biotin deficiency). Ageing and AD are also associated with hypometabolism, increase in heme oxygenase-1, loss of complex IV, and iron accumulation. Heme is a common denominator for all these changes, suggesting that heme metabolism maybe altered in age-related disorders. Heme can also be a prooxidant: it converts less reactive oxidants to highly reactive free radicals. Free heme has high affinity for different cell structures (protein, membranes, and DNA), triggering site-directed oxidative damage. This review discusses heme metabolism as related to metabolic changes seen in ageing and age-related disorders and highlights the possible role in iron deficiency.
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Affiliation(s)
- Hani Atamna
- Children's Hospital Oakland Research Institute, 5700 Martin Luther King Jr. Way, Oakland, CA 94609-1673, USA.
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Lange H, Mühlenhoff U, Denzel M, Kispal G, Lill R. The heme synthesis defect of mutants impaired in mitochondrial iron-sulfur protein biogenesis is caused by reversible inhibition of ferrochelatase. J Biol Chem 2004; 279:29101-8. [PMID: 15128732 DOI: 10.1074/jbc.m403721200] [Citation(s) in RCA: 48] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/06/2022] Open
Abstract
Mitochondria are responsible for the synthesis of both iron-sulfur clusters and heme, but the potential connection between the two major iron-consuming pathways is unknown. Here, we have shown that mutants in the yeast mitochondrial iron-sulfur cluster (ISC) assembly machinery displayed reduced cytochrome levels and diminished activity of the heme-containing cytochrome c oxidase, in addition to iron-sulfur protein defects. In contrast, mutants in components of the mitochondrial ISC export machinery, which are specifically required for maturation of cytosolic iron-sulfur proteins, were not decreased in heme synthesis or cytochrome levels. Heme synthesis does not involve the function of mitochondrial ISC components, because immunological depletion of various ISC proteins from mitochondrial extracts did not affect the formation and amounts of heme. The heme synthesis defects of ISC mutants were found in vivo in isolated mitochondria and in mitochondrial detergent extracts and were confined to an inhibition of ferrochelatase, the enzyme catalyzing the insertion of iron into protoporphyrin IX. In support of these findings, immunopurification of ferrochelatase from ISC mutants restored its activity to wild-type levels. We conclude that the reversible inhibition of ferrochelatase is the molecular reason for the heme deficiency in ISC assembly mutants. This inhibitory mechanism may be used for regulation of iron distribution between the two iron-consuming processes.
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Affiliation(s)
- Heike Lange
- Institut für Zytobiologie und Zytopathologie der Philipps-Universität Marburg, Robert-Koch-Strasse 6, 35033 Marburg, Germany
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Taketani S, Furukawa T, Furuyama K. Expression of coproporphyrinogen oxidase and synthesis of hemoglobin in human erythroleukemia K562 cells. ACTA ACUST UNITED AC 2003. [DOI: 10.1046/j.1432-1327.2001.02045.x] [Citation(s) in RCA: 20] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/20/2022]
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Killilea DW, Atamna H, Liao C, Ames BN. Iron accumulation during cellular senescence in human fibroblasts in vitro. Antioxid Redox Signal 2003; 5:507-16. [PMID: 14580305 PMCID: PMC4503765 DOI: 10.1089/152308603770310158] [Citation(s) in RCA: 59] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Submit a Manuscript] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 01/20/2023]
Abstract
Iron accumulates as a function of age in several tissues in vivo and is associated with the pathology of numerous age-related diseases. The molecular basis of this change may be due to a loss of iron homeostasis at the cellular level. Therefore, changes in iron content in primary human fibroblast cells (IMR-90) were studied in vitro as a model of cellular senescence. Total iron content increased exponentially during cellular senescence, resulting in 10-fold higher levels of iron compared with young cells. Low-dose hydrogen peroxide (H2O2) induced early senescence in IMR-90s and concomitantly accelerated iron accumulation. Furthermore, senescence-related and H2O2-stimulated iron accumulation was attenuated by N-tert-butylhydroxylamine (NtBHA), a mitochondrial antioxidant that delays senescence in vitro. However, SV40-transformed, immortalized IMR-90s showed no time-dependent changes in metal content in culture or when treated with H2O2 and/or NtBHA. These data indicate that iron accumulation occurs during normal cellular senescence in vitro. This accumulation of iron may contribute to the increased oxidative stress and cellular dysfunction seen in senescent cells.
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Affiliation(s)
- David W Killilea
- Children's Hospital Oakland Research Institute, Oakland, CA 94609, USA
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Taketani S, Kakimoto K, Ueta H, Masaki R, Furukawa T. Involvement of ABC7 in the biosynthesis of heme in erythroid cells: interaction of ABC7 with ferrochelatase. Blood 2003; 101:3274-80. [PMID: 12480705 DOI: 10.1182/blood-2002-04-1212] [Citation(s) in RCA: 65] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.1] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/20/2022] Open
Abstract
A mitochondrial half-type ATP-binding cassette (ABC) protein, ABC7, plays a role in iron homeostasis in mitochondria, and defects in human ABC7 were shown to be responsible for the inherited disease X-linked sideroblastic anemia/ataxia. We examined the role of ABC7 in the biosynthesis of heme in erythroid cells where hemoglobin is a major product of iron-containing compounds. RNA blots showed that the amount of ABC7 mRNA in dimethylsulfoxide (Me(2)SO)-treated mouse erythroleukemia (MEL) cells increased markedly in parallel with the induction of the mRNA expression of ferrochelatase, the last enzyme in the pathway to synthesize heme. The transfection of the antisense oligonucleotide to mouse ABC7 mRNA into Me(2)SO-treated MEL cells led to a decrease of heme production, as compared with sense oligonucleotide-transfected cells. ABC7 protein was shown to be colocalized with ferrochelatase in mitochondria, as assessed by immunostaining. Furthermore, in vitro and in vivo pull-down assays revealed that ABC7 protein is interacted with the carboxy-terminal region containing the iron-sulfur cluster of ferrochelatase. The transient expression of ABC7 in mouse embryo liver BNL-CL2 cells resulted in an increase in the activity and level of ferrochelatase and thioredoxin, a cytosolic protein containing iron-sulfur. These increases were also observed in MEL cells stably expressing ABC7. When ABC7 transfectants were treated with Me(2)SO, an increase in cellular heme concomitant with a marked induction of the expression of ferrochelatase was observed. The extent of these increases was 3-fold greater than in control cells. The results indicated that ABC7 positively regulates not only the expression of extramitochondrial thioredoxin but also that of an intramitochondrial iron-sulfur-containing protein, ferrochelatase. Then, the expression of ABC7 contributes to the production of heme during the differentiation of erythroid cells.
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Affiliation(s)
- Shigeru Taketani
- Department of Biotechnology, Kyoto Institute of Technology, Japan.
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40
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Araki M, Nagata K, Satoh Y, Kadota Y, Hisha H, Adachi Y, Taketani S. Developmentally regulated expression of Neuro-p24 and its possible function in neurite extension. Neurosci Res 2002; 44:379-89. [PMID: 12445626 DOI: 10.1016/s0168-0102(02)00156-6] [Citation(s) in RCA: 11] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 10/27/2022]
Abstract
Process extension is a most marked and characteristic neuronal feature that is observed during the development, regeneration and plasticity of nervous system tissues. Neuro-p24, a novel membranous protein with a molecular weight of 24 kDa, is specifically localized in neurons, particularly in the neurites. Based on its molecular structure and distribution pattern in the brain we proposed that Neuro-p24 plays a role in neurite extension. In the present study we have made several findings that support this hypothesis; first, Neuro-p24 was abundant in motor axonal fibers, neurites of dorsal root ganglia neurons and apical dendrites of cerebral cortex neurons when their extension or arborization was proceeding very actively. Secondly, when COS-7 epithelial cells were transfected with either wild-type or deletion-mutated Neuro-p24 cDNAs, ectopic expression of wild-type cDNA caused morphological alterations resulting in a neuron-like appearance. These observations firmly support our proposal and indicate that Neuro-p24 plays an important role in the nervous tissue.
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Affiliation(s)
- Masasuke Araki
- Developmental Neurobiology Laboratory, Department of Biological Sciences, Nara Women's University, Nara 630-8506, Japan.
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Atamna H, Killilea DW, Killilea AN, Ames BN. Heme deficiency may be a factor in the mitochondrial and neuronal decay of aging. Proc Natl Acad Sci U S A 2002; 99:14807-12. [PMID: 12417755 PMCID: PMC137500 DOI: 10.1073/pnas.192585799] [Citation(s) in RCA: 164] [Impact Index Per Article: 7.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 01/20/2023] Open
Abstract
Heme, a major functional form of iron in the cell, is synthesized in the mitochondria by ferrochelatase inserting ferrous iron into protoporphyrin IX. Heme deficiency was induced with N-methylprotoporphyrin IX, a selective inhibitor of ferrochelatase, in two human brain cell lines, SHSY5Y (neuroblastoma) and U373 (astrocytoma), as well as in rat primary hippocampal neurons. Heme deficiency in brain cells decreases mitochondrial complex IV, activates nitric oxide synthase, alters amyloid precursor protein, and corrupts iron and zinc homeostasis. The metabolic consequences resulting from heme deficiency seem similar to dysfunctional neurons in patients with Alzheimer's disease. Heme-deficient SHSY5Y or U373 cells die when induced to differentiate or to proliferate, respectively. The role of heme in these observations could result from its interaction with heme regulatory motifs in specific proteins or secondary to the compromised mitochondria. Common causes of heme deficiency include aging, deficiency of iron and vitamin B6, and exposure to toxic metals such as aluminum. Iron and B6 deficiencies are especially important because they are widespread, but they are also preventable with supplementation. Thus, heme deficiency or dysregulation may be an important and preventable component of the neurodegenerative process.
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Affiliation(s)
- Hani Atamna
- Children's Hospital Oakland Research Institute, Oakland, CA 94609, USA.
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Atamna H, Walter PB, Ames BN. The role of heme and iron-sulfur clusters in mitochondrial biogenesis, maintenance, and decay with age. Arch Biochem Biophys 2002; 397:345-53. [PMID: 11795893 DOI: 10.1006/abbi.2001.2671] [Citation(s) in RCA: 84] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/20/2022]
Abstract
Mitochondria decay with age from oxidative damage and loss of protective mechanisms. Resistance, repair, and replacement mechanisms are essential for mitochondrial preservation and maintenance. Iron plays an essential role in the maintenance of mitochondria, through its two major functional forms: heme and iron-sulfur clusters. Both iron-based cofactors are formed and utilized in the mitochondria and then distributed throughout the cell. This is an important function of mitochondria that is not directly related to the production of ATP. Heme and iron-sulfur clusters are important for the normal assembly and for the optimal activity of the electron transfer complexes. Loss of mitochondrial cytochrome c oxidase (complex IV), integrity of mtDNA, and function can result from abnormal homeostasis of iron. We review the physiological role of iron-sulfur clusters and heme in the integrity of the mitochondria and the generation of oxidants.
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Affiliation(s)
- Hani Atamna
- Department of Molecular and Cell Biology, University of California, Berkeley/CHORI, 5700 Martin Luther King Jr. Way, Oakland, California 94609, USA
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Atamna H, Liu J, Ames BN. Heme deficiency selectively interrupts assembly of mitochondrial complex IV in human fibroblasts: revelance to aging. J Biol Chem 2001; 276:48410-6. [PMID: 11598132 DOI: 10.1074/jbc.m108362200] [Citation(s) in RCA: 124] [Impact Index Per Article: 5.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 01/28/2023] Open
Abstract
Heme deficiency was studied in young and old normal human fibroblasts (IMR90). Regardless of age, heme deficiency increased the steady-state level of oxidants and lipid peroxidation and sensitized the cells to fluctuations in intracellular Ca(2+). Heme deficiency selectively decreased the activity and protein content of mitochondrial complex IV (cytochrome c oxidase) by 95%, indicating a decrease in successful assembly. Complexes I-III and catalase remained intact under conditions of heme deficiency, whereas ferrochelatase was up-regulated. Complex IV is the only hemeprotein in the cell that contains heme a, which may account for its susceptibility. The rate of removal and assembly of complex IV declines with age. These findings are relevant to worldwide iron deficiency in women and children and to an age-related decline in complex IV in Alzheimer's disease patients.
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Affiliation(s)
- H Atamna
- Department of Molecular and Cell Biology, University of California, Berkeley, California 94609, USA
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Abstract
Iron is vital for almost all living organisms by participating in a wide variety of metabolic processes, including oxygen transport, DNA synthesis, and electron transport. However, iron concentrations in body tissues must be tightly regulated because excessive iron leads to tissue damage, as a result of formation of free radicals. Disorders of iron metabolism are among the most common diseases of humans and encompass a broad spectrum of diseases with diverse clinical manifestations, ranging from anemia to iron overload and, possibly, to neurodegenerative diseases. The molecular understanding of iron regulation in the body is critical in identifying the underlying causes for each disease and in providing proper diagnosis and treatments. Recent advances in genetics, molecular biology and biochemistry of iron metabolism have assisted in elucidating the molecular mechanisms of iron homeostasis. The coordinate control of iron uptake and storage is tightly regulated by the feedback system of iron responsive element-containing gene products and iron regulatory proteins that modulate the expression levels of the genes involved in iron metabolism. Recent identification and characterization of the hemochromatosis protein HFE, the iron importer Nramp2, the iron exporter ferroportin1, and the second transferrin-binding and -transport protein transferrin receptor 2, have demonstrated their important roles in maintaining body's iron homeostasis. Functional studies of these gene products have expanded our knowledge at the molecular level about the pathways of iron metabolism and have provided valuable insight into the defects of iron metabolism disorders. In addition, a variety of animal models have implemented the identification of many genetic defects that lead to abnormal iron homeostasis and have provided crucial clinical information about the pathophysiology of iron disorders. In this review, we discuss the latest progress in studies of iron metabolism and our current understanding of the molecular mechanisms of iron absorption, transport, utilization, and storage. Finally, we will discuss the clinical presentations of iron metabolism disorders, including secondary iron disorders that are either associated with or the result of abnormal iron accumulation.
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Affiliation(s)
- P T Lieu
- The R.W. Johnson Pharmaceutical Research Institute, 3210 Merryfield Row, San Diego, CA 92121, USA
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