Novel activator protein-2alpha splice-variants function as transactivators of the ovine placental lactogen gene

Ovine KRT81 Variants and Their Influence on Selected Wool Traits of Commercial Value

Keratins are the main structural protein components of wool fibres, and variation in them and their genes (KRTs) is thought to influence wool structure and characteristics. The PCR-single strand conformation polymorphism technique has been used previously to investigate genetic variation in selected coding and intron regions of the type II sheep keratin gene KRT81, but no variation was identified. In this study, we used the same technique to explore the 5' untranslated region of KRT81 and detected three sequence variants (A, B and C) that contain four single nucleotide polymorphisms. Among the 389 Merino × Southdown cross sheep investigated, variant B was linked to a reduction in clean fleece weight, while C was associated with an increase in both greasy fleece weight and clean fleece weight. No discernible effects on staple length or mean-fibre-diameter-related traits were observed. These findings suggest that variation in ovine KRT81 might influence wool growth by changing the density of wool follicles in the skin, the density of individual fibres, or the area of the skin producing fibre, as opposed to changing the rate of extrusion of fibres or their diameter.

Delivery of AP-2α siRNA into cultured bovine trophoblast cells by electroporation repressed key placenta-specific gene expression

Binucleate trophoblast giant cells (BNC) characteristically appear early in gestation in the bovine placenta. They secret pivotal hormones and cytokines for feto-maternal communication, for example, expression of placental lactogens (CSH1), prolactin-related protein 1 (PRP1) and pregnancy-associated glycoprotein 1 (PAG1) are necessary for pregnancy establishment in bovine. These genes transcription are regulated in a temporal and spatial manner, however, molecular mechanisms by which these gene transcriptions are regulated in this manner have not been firmly elucidated. In this study, a cell culture model for bovine trophoblast cells was initially established, small interfering RNA duplexes against Activator Protein-2α (TFAP2A) was transfected into the cells by electroporation, and transcripts of CSH1, PRP1 and PAG1 were measured by qPCR. The results showed that trophoblast giant cells were confluent for 90% after cultured for 10 days, and BNC constituted of a population of more than 45% of the total cells. Using a fluorescein-labeled non-silencing siRNA duplex, an electroporation protocol yielding routinely >93% positive cells could be established, and siRNA duplex transfection demonstrated an efficient knockdown of cellular AP-2α mRNA level by 72.30 ± 3.28% in electroporated cells. Finally, CSH1, PRP1 and PAG1 genes expression were effectively down-regulated by 65.45 ± 6.38% (P<0.01), 40.73±11.72% (P<0.01) and 11.59 ± 1.88% (P<0.05), respectively. It was therefore suggested that electroporating siRNA into bovine trophoblast cells could be an efficient method to manipulate BNC function and to study the regulation mechanism of specific gene transcription without the use of chemical transfection reagents. It was suggested that AP-2α could be at least involved in the regulation of expression CSH1 and PRP1 transcripts.

Alternative TFAP2A isoforms have distinct activities in breast cancer

Introduction

AP-2α is a transcription factor implicated in the regulation of differentiation and proliferation in certain tissues, including the mammary gland. In breast tumours, continued expression of AP-2α has been correlated with a better prognosis, but this is hard to reconcile with a reported role in the upregulation of the ERBB2 oncogene. The existence of TFAP2A isoforms, deriving from alternative first exons and differing in their N-terminal sequence, has been described in some mammals, but their relative abundance and activity has not been investigated in the human breast.

Methods

Expression levels of four TFAP2A isoforms were assayed at the level of RNA and protein (via the generation of isoform-specific antibodies) in a panel of breast tumour cell lines and in tissue from normal breast and primary tumour samples. Expression constructs for each isoform were used in reporter assays with synthetic and natural promoters (cyclin D3 and ERBB2) to compare the activation and repression activity of the isoforms.

Results

We demonstrate that the two isoforms AP-2α 1b and AP-2α 1c, in addition to the originally cloned, AP-2α 1a, are conserved throughout evolution in vertebrates. Moreover, we show that isoform 1c in particular is expressed at levels at least on a par with the 1a isoform in breast epithelial lines and tissues and may be more highly expressed in tamoxifen resistant tumours. The isoforms share a similar transactivation mechanism involving the recruitment of the adaptors CITED2 or 4 and the transactivators p300 or CBP. However, isoform 1b and 1c are stronger transactivators of the ERBB2 promoter than isoform 1a. In contrast, AP-2α 1a is the only isoform able to act as a repressor, an activity that requires an intact sumoylation motif present within the N-terminus of the protein, and which the other two isoforms lack.

Conclusions

Our findings suggest that TFAP2A isoforms may be differentially regulated during breast tumourigenesis and this, coupled with differences in their transcriptional activity, may impact on tumour responses to tamoxifen therapy. These data also have implications for the interpretation of tumour studies that seek to correlate outcomes with TFAP2A expression level.

Specificity protein-1 and -3 trans-activate the ovine placental lactogen gene promoter

The proximal promoter (-383/+16) of the ovine placental lactogen (oPL) gene provides trophoblast-specific expression in vitro. Footprint 6 (FP6; -319/-349) lies within this region, and transfection of two-base pair mutations across FP6 into BeWo cells identified potential binding sites for CCAAT-enhancer binding protein (CEBP) and specificity proteins (Sp). Transfection of CEBP dominant negative or over-expression constructs did not impact transactivation of the proximal promoter. However, Sp1 and Sp3 over-expression constructs increased (p<or=0.05) transactivation. Additionally, Sp1 and Sp3 short-hairpin RNA constructs reduced (p<or=0.01) transactivation of the proximal promoter. In EMSA supershift assays, Sp1 and Sp3 antibodies were able to inhibit migration of the complexes formed with nuclear extracts from BeWo cells and ovine chorionic binucleate cells (oBNC). Furthermore, Southwestern analysis of oBNC nuclear extracts identified a nuclear protein corresponding with Sp3, identified by Western analysis. In conclusion, these results indicate that Sp1 and Sp3 are capable of interacting with FP6 of the oPL gene proximal promoter and function to enhance its transactivation.

The characterization of DNA methylation-mediated regulation of bovine placental lactogen and bovine prolactin-related protein-1 genes

Background

Bovine trophoblast binucleate cells (BNC) express a plethora of molecules including bovine placental lactogen (bPL, gene name is bCSH1) and bovine prolactin-related protein-1 (bPRP1). BCSH1 and bPRP1 are members of the growth hormone (GH)/prolactin (PRL) gene family, which are expressed simultaneously in BNC and are central to placentation and the progression of pregnancy in cattle. However, there is a paucity of information on the transcriptional regulatory mechanisms of both the bCSH1 and bPRP1 genes. Recent studies, however, have demonstrated that the expression of a number of genes is controlled by the methylation status of their promoter region. In the present study, we examined the cell-type-specific epigenetic alterations of the 5'-flanking region of the bCSH1 and bPRP1 genes to gain an insight into their regulatory mechanisms.

Results

Analysis of 5-aza-2'-deoxycytidine treatment demonstrated that bCSH1 expression is moderately induced in fibroblast cultures but enhanced in BT-1 cells. Sodium bisulfite based sequencing revealed that bCSH1 is hypomethylated in the cotyledonary tissue but not in the fetal skin, and this pattern was not altered with the progression of pregnancy. On the other hand, the methylation status of bPRP1 was similar between the cotyledon and fetal skin. The bPRP1 gene was exclusively hypermethylated in a bovine trophoblast cell-derived BT-1 cell-line. While the activity of bCSH1 was similar in both BT-1 and bovine fibroblast cells, that of bPRP1 was specific to BT-1. Treatment with a demethylating agent and luciferase assays provided in vitro evidence of the positive regulation of bCSH1 but not bPRP1.

Conclusion

This is the first report to identify the differential regulatory mechanisms of the bCSH1 and bPRP1 genes and indicates that bCSH1 might potentially be the only transcript that is subject to DNA methyltransferase regulation. The data indicates the possibility of novel kinetics of induction of the synchronously expressed BNC-specific bCSH1 and bPRP1 transcripts, which may aid the understanding of the intricate regulation and specific role(s) of these important molecules in bovine placentogenesis and the progression of pregnancy.

Blastocyst elongation, trophoblastic differentiation, and embryonic pattern formation

The molecular basis of ungulate and non-rodent conceptus elongation and gastrulation remains poorly understood; however, use of state-of-the-art genomic technologies is beginning to elucidate the mechanisms regulating these complicated processes. For instance, transcriptome analysis of elongating porcine concepti indicates that protein synthesis and trafficking, cell growth and proliferation, and cellular morphology are major regulated processes. Furthermore, potential autocrine roles of estrogen and interleukin-1-β in regulating porcine conceptus growth and remodeling and metabolism have become evident. The importance of estrogen in pig is emphasized by the altered expression of essential steroidogenic and trophoblast factors in lagging ovoid concepti. In ruminants, the characteristic mononucleate trophoblast cells differentiate into a second lineage important for implantation, the binucleate trophoblast, and transcriptome profiling of bovine concepti has revealed a gene cluster associated with rapid trophoblast proliferation and differentiation. Gene cluster analysis has also provided evidence of correlated spatiotemporal expression and emphasized the significance of the bovine trophoblast cell lineage and the regulatory mechanism of trophoblast function. As a part of the gastrulation process in the mammalian conceptus, specification of the germ layers and hence definitive body axes occur in advance of primitive streak formation. Processing of the transforming growth factor-β-signaling molecules nodal and BMP4 by specific proteases is emerging as a decisive step in the initial patterning of the pre-gastrulation embryo. The topography of expression of these and other secreted molecules with reference to embryonic and extraembryonic tissues determines their local interaction potential. Their ensuing signaling leads to the specification of axial epiblast and hypoblast compartments through cellular migration and differentiation and, in particular, the specification of the early germ layer tissues in the epiblast via gene expression characteristic of endoderm and mesoderm precursor cells.

Increased insulin sensitivity and maintenance of glucose utilization rates in fetal sheep with placental insufficiency and intrauterine growth restriction

In this study we determined body weight-specific fetal (umbilical) glucose uptake (UGU), utilization (GUR), and production rates (GPR) and insulin action in intrauterine growth-restricted (IUGR) fetal sheep. During basal conditions, UGU from the placenta was 33% lower in IUGR fetuses, but GUR was not different between IUGR and control fetuses. The difference between glucose utilization and UGU rates in the IUGR fetuses demonstrated the presence and rate of fetal GPR (41% of GUR). The mRNA concentrations of the gluconeogenic enzymes glucose-6-phophatase and PEPCK were higher in the livers of IUGR fetuses, perhaps in response to CREB activation, as phosphorylated CREB/total CREB was increased 4.2-fold. A hyperglycemic clamp resulted in similar rates of glucose uptake and utilization in IUGR and control fetuses. The nearly identical GURs in IUGR and control fetuses at both basal and high glucose concentrations occurred at mean plasma insulin concentrations in the IUGR fetuses that were approximately 70% lower than controls, indicating increased insulin sensitivity. Furthermore, under basal conditions, hepatic glycogen content was similar, skeletal muscle glycogen was increased 2.2-fold, the fraction of fetal GUR that was oxidized was 32% lower, and GLUT1 and GLUT4 concentrations in liver and skeletal muscle were the same in IUGR fetuses compared with controls. These results indicate that insulin-responsive fetal tissues (liver and skeletal muscle) adapt to the hypoglycemic-hypoinsulinemic IUGR environment with mechanisms that promote glucose utilization, particularly for glucose storage, including increased insulin action, glucose production, shunting of glucose utilization to glycogen production, and maintenance of glucose transporter concentrations.

Global gene expression analysis and regulation of the principal genes expressed in bovine placenta in relation to the transcription factor AP-2 family

BACKGROUND

Cell-cell communication is an important factor in feto-maternal units during placentogenesis. The placenta produces pivotal hormones and cytokines for communication between cotyledonary villi and the maternal caruncle. Gene expression in bovine placenta throughout pregnancy was comprehensively screened by a cDNA microarray, and we searched for a common transcription factor in a gene cluster that showed increasing expression throughout gestation in cotyledonary villi and caruncle.

METHODS

Placentomal tissues (villi and caruncle) were collected from Day 25 to Day 250 of gestation for microarray analysis. Global gene expression profiles were analyzed using the k-means clustering method. A consensus sequence cis-element that may control up-regulated genes in a characteristic cluster was examined in silico. The quantitative expression and localization of a specific transcription factor were investigated in each tissue using quantitative real-time RT-PCR and in situ hybridization.

RESULTS

The microarray expression profiles were classified into ten clusters. The genes with most markedly increased expression became concentrated in cluster 2 as gestation proceeded. Cluster 2 included placental lactogen (CSH1), pregnancy-associated glycoprotein-1 (PAG1), and sulfotransferase family 1E estrogen-preferring member 1 (SULT1E1), which were mainly detected in giant trophoblast binucleate cells (BNC). Consensus sequence analysis identified transcription factor AP-2 binding sites in some genes in this cluster. Quantitative real-time RT-PCR analysis confirmed that high level expression of transcription factor AP-2 alpha (TFAP2A) was common to cluster 2 genes during gestation. In contrast, the expression level of another AP-2 family gene, transcription factor AP-2 beta (TFAP2B), was extremely low over the same period. Another gene of the family, transcription factor AP-2 gamma (TFAP2C), was expressed at medium level compared with TFAP2A and TFAP2B. In situ hybridization showed that TFAP2A, TFAP2B and TFAP2C mRNAs were localized in trophoblast cells but were expressed by different cells. TFAP2A was expressed in cotyledonary epithelial cells including BNC, TFAP2B was specifically expressed in BNC, and TFAP2C in mononucleate cells.

CONCLUSION

We detected gestational-stage-specific gene expression profiles in bovine placentomes using a combination of microarray and in silico analysis. In silico analysis indicated that the AP-2 family may be a consensus regulator for the gene cluster that characteristically appears in bovine placenta as gestation progresses. In particular, TFAP2A and TFAP2B may be involved in regulating binucleate cell-specific genes such as CSH1, some PAG or SULT1E1. These results suggest that the AP-2 family is a specific transcription factor for clusters of crucial placental genes. This is the first evidence that TFAP2A may regulate the differentiation and specific functions of BNC in bovine placenta.

Diminished beta-cell replication contributes to reduced beta-cell mass in fetal sheep with intrauterine growth restriction

Human fetuses with severe intrauterine growth restriction (IUGR) have less pancreatic endocrine tissue and exhibit beta-cell dysfunction, which may limit beta-cell function in later life and contribute to their increased incidence of noninsulin-dependent diabetes mellitus. Three factors, replication, apoptosis, and neoformation, contribute to fetal beta-cell mass. We studied an ovine model of IUGR to understand whether nutrient deficits lead to decreased rates of fetal pancreatic beta-cell replication, increased rates of apoptosis, or lower rates of differentiation. At 90% of term gestation, IUGR fetal and pancreatic weights were 58% and 59% less than pair-fed control, respectively. We identified a selective impairment of beta-cell mass compared with other pancreatic cell types in IUGR fetuses. Insulin and insulin mRNA contents were less than other pancreatic endocrine hormones in IUGR fetuses, as were pancreatic insulin positive area (42%) and beta-cell mass (76%). Pancreatic beta-cell apoptosis was not different between treatments. beta-cell capacity for cell cycling, determined by proliferating cell nuclear antigen (PCNA) immunostaining, was not different between treatment groups. However, the percentage of beta-cells actually undergoing mitosis was 72% lower in IUGR fetuses. These results indicate that in utero nutrient deficits decrease the population of pancreatic beta-cells by lengthening G1, S, and G2 stages of interphase and decreasing mitosis near term. Diminished beta-cell mass in IUGR infants at birth, if not adequately compensated for after birth, may contribute to insufficient insulin production in later life and, thus, a predisposition to noninsulin-dependent diabetes.

Characterization of glucose transporter 8 (GLUT8) in the ovine placenta of normal and growth restricted fetuses

Facilitated glucose transporters (GLUTs) in the chorionic epithelium are primary conduits for glucose delivery to placental and fetal tissues. The objective of this study was to characterize GLUT8 in the ovine placenta and determine if differences in mRNA and protein concentrations occur in an ovine model of intrauterine growth restriction (IUGR). A GLUT8 partial mRNA was generated, which shares 95 per cent identity with bovine GLUT8 nucleotide sequence. Northern hybridization identified a 2.1 kilobase transcript. GLUT8 mRNA concentrations normalized to beta-actin mRNA concentrations increased during late gestation. Western immunoblots with an affinity-purified anti-mouse GLUT8 antiserum detected GLUT8 in late gestation ovine placenta plasma membranes. GLUT8 was immunolocalized to the chorionic epithelial layer and uterine epithelial cells from mid to late gestation. GLUT8 mRNA and protein concentrations at 135 days gestational age were decreased by 34.8 per cent and 21.8 per cent, respectively (P<0.05), in an ovine placental insufficiency model of IUGR. Identification of GLUT8 in the ovine placenta indicates a potential role for GLUT8 in mediating glucose uptake within the placenta and transport to the fetus. Further studies are necessary to confirm this hypothesis and whether the observed decreases in GLUT8 in the PI-IUGR model might contribute, at least in part, to the placental glucose transport deficit that occurs in this model.

Transcription factor Ap-2α is necessary for development of embryonic melanophores, autonomic neurons and pharyngeal skeleton in zebrafish

The genes that control development of embryonic melanocytes are poorly defined. Although transcription factor Ap-2alpha is expressed in neural crest (NC) cells, its role in development of embryonic melanocytes and other neural crest derivatives is unclear because mouse Ap-2alpha mutants die before melanogenesis. We show that zebrafish embryos injected with morpholino antisense oligonucleotides complementary to ap-2alpha (ap-2alpha MO) complete early morphogenesis normally and have neural crest cells. Expression of c-kit, which encodes the receptor for the Steel ligand, is reduced in these embryos, and, similar to zebrafish c-kit mutant embryos, embryonic melanophores are reduced in number and migration. The effects of ap-2alpha MO injected into heterozygous and homozygous c-kit mutants support the notion that Ap-2alpha works through C-kit and additional target genes to mediate melanophore cell number and migration. In contrast to c-kit mutant embryos, in ap-2alpha MO-injected embryos, melanophores are small and under-pigmented, and unexpectedly, analysis of mosaic embryos suggests Ap-2alpha regulates melanophore differentiation through cell non-autonomous targets. In addition to melanophore phenotypes, we document reduction of other neural crest derivatives in ap-2alpha MO-injected embryos, including jaw cartilage, enteric neurons, and sympathetic neurons. These results reveal that Ap-2alpha regulates multiple steps of melanophore development, and is required for development of other neuronal and non-neuronal neural crest derivatives.

Puralpha, a single-stranded deoxyribonucleic acid binding protein, augments placental lactogen gene transcription

Placental lactogen (PL) is thought to alter maternal metabolism to increase the pool of nutrients available for the fetus and to stimulate fetal nutrient uptake. The ovine (o) PL gene is expressed in chorionic binucleate cells (oBNC) and cis-elements located within the proximal promoter (-124 to +16 bp) are capable of trophoblast-specific expression in human (BeWo) and rat (Rcho-1) choriocarcinoma cells. Protein-DNA interactions were identified with oBNC nuclear extracts, and mutational analysis of these regions revealed a previously undefined cis-element from -102/-123 bp that enhances promoter activity in BeWo cells but not Rcho-1 cells. Characterization of this region identified the nucleotide sequence CCAGCA (-105/-110; o110) as the responsible cis-acting element. Southwestern analysis with this element identified a binding protein with an apparent M(r) of approximately 41,000. Expression screening of an ovine placental cDNA library identified six homologous cDNAs, which shared identity with human (97%) and mouse (95%) Pur alpha, a single-stranded DNA binding protein. The Pur alpha-o110 interaction was confirmed by electrophoretic mobility-supershift assays with oBNC and BeWo extracts but was absent with Rcho-1 extracts. Furthermore, overexpression of ovine Pur alpha enhanced transactivation of the oPL gene proximal promoter in both choriocarcinoma cell lines through this novel cis-element. This study identified a previously undefined cis-element, which interacts with Pur alpha to augment PL gene transcription.

Transcription of cholesterol side-chain cleavage cytochrome P450 in the placenta: activating protein-2 assumes the role of steroidogenic factor-1 by binding to an overlapping promoter element

Progesterone is essential to the sustenance of pregnancy in humans and other mammals. From the second trimester on, the human placenta is the sole origin of de novo synthesized steroid hormones. In mice, placentation at midgestation is accompanied by a temporal rise of steroid hormone synthesis commencing in the giant cells of the mouse trophoblast. In doing so, the giant trophoblasts, as any other steroidogenic cell, express high levels of the key steroidogenic enzyme, cholesterol side-chain cleavage cytochrome P450 (P450scc). Because steroidogenic factor 1 (SF-1), the transcription factor required for expression of P450scc in the adrenals and the gonads, is not expressed in the placenta, we hypothesized that placenta-specific nuclear factor(s) (PNF) assumes the role of SF-1 by binding to the same promoter region that harbors the SF-1 recognition site in the P450scc gene. To address this possibility, we used SCC1, a well conserved proximal region in the P450scc genes (-60/-32 in the rat gene) to purify PNF from human term placenta. Sequencing of the purified PNF revealed that it is the alpha isoform of the human activating protein-2 (AP-2alpha). Specific antibodies tested in EMSA confirmed that AP-2alpha is the predominant isoform that binds SCC1 in the human placenta, whereas AP-2gamma is the only mouse placental protein that binds this oligonucleotide. Functional studies showed that coexpression of the rat P450scc promoter (-378/+8 CAT) and AP-2 isoforms (alpha or gamma) in human embryonic kidney 293 cells results in a marked activation of chloramphenicol acetyltransferase (CAT) transcription that is dependent on an intact AP-2 motif, GCCTTGAGC. This motif conforms with consensus sequences previously determined for binding of the AP-2 alpha and gamma isoforms. Mutations of the AP-2 element ablated binding of AP-2 to SCC1, as well as severely diminished the promoter activity in primary mouse giant trophoblasts and human choriocarcinoma JAR cells. Collectively, these studies suggest that expression of placental P450scc is governed by AP-2 factors that bind to a cis-element that largely overlaps the sequence required for recognition of SF-1 in other steroidogenic tissues.