Inhibition of LPS-induced nitric oxide and TNF-alpha production by alpha-lipoic acid in rat Kupffer cells and in RAW 264.7 murine macrophages

Preliminary study on the protective effect of remazolam against sepsis-induced acute respiratory distress syndrome (ARDS)

Background

Sepsis can disrupt immune regulation and lead to acute respiratory distress syndrome (ARDS) frequently. Remazolam, a fast-acting hypnotic drug with superior qualities compared to other drugs, was investigated for its potential protective effects against sepsis-induced ARDS.

Methods

Forty Sprague-Dawley rats were randomly divided into four groups, including the sepsis + saline group, sham operation + saline group, sham operation + remazolam group and the sepsis + remazolam group. Lung tissues of rats were extracted for HE staining to assess lung damage, and the wet weight to dry weight (W/D) ratio was calculated. The levels of proinflammatory factors, anti-inflammatory factors, CD4+ and CD8+ T cells in peripheral blood, MDA, MPO, and ATP in the lung tissue were measured by using ELISA. Western blotting was performed to determine the protein expression of HMGB1 in lung tissues.

Results

In comparison to the sham operation + saline and sham operation + remazolam groups, the sepsis + saline group exhibited significantly higher values for W/D ratio, lung damage score, IL-1β, IL-6, TNF-α, PCT, CRP, MDP and MPO, while exhibiting lower levels of CD4+ and CD8+ T lymphocytes, PaO2, PCO2, and ATP. The rats in the sepsis + saline group displayed ruptured alveolar walls and evident interstitial lung edema. However, the rats in the sepsis + remazolam group showed improved alveolar structure. Furthermore, the HMGB1 protein expression in the sepsis + remazolam group was lower than the sepsis + saline group.

Conclusion

Remazolam can alleviate the inflammatory response in infected rats, thereby alleviating lung injury and improving immune function, which may be attributed to the reduction in HMGB1 protein expression.

Orally fast dissolving α-lipoic acid electrospun nanofibers mitigates lipopolysaccharide induced inflammation in RAW 264.7 macrophages

α-Lipoic acid (LA), a dietary supplement known for its strong antioxidant and anti-inflammatory potential, faces challenges due to its poor aqueous solubility and thermal instability. To address these issues, herein methyl-beta-cyclodextrin (M-β-CD) was utilized to create inclusion complex (IC) of LA in 1:1 M stoichiometric ratio of M-β-CD to LA. The LA-M-β-CD-IC was further combined with pullulan (PUL), a non-toxic and water-soluble biopolymer, for the development of electrospun nanofibers (NF) by green and sustainable approach. The resulting PUL/LA/M-β-CD NF formed as a self-standing and flexible material with an average diameter of 569 ± 129 nm and encapsulation efficiency of ∼86.90 %. The developed NF demonstrated an accelerated release, quick dissolution, and disintegration when exposed to artificial saliva replicating the conditions of oral cavity. PUL/LA/M-β-CD NF attenuated the production of ROS and NO by downregulating pro-inflammatory enzymes (iNOS and COX-2) in lipopolysaccharide (LPS) stimulated RAW 264.7 cells. Moreover, PUL/LA/M-β-CD NF also significantly downregulated the expression of pro-inflammatory cytokines including TNF-α, IL-6, and IL-1β along with suppression of NF-ĸB nuclear translocation in comparison to LA (at 250 μM). In nutshell, PUL/LA/M-β-CD NF demonstrated great potential as a rapid disintegrating delivery system for oral anti-inflammatory treatment due to the enhanced physicochemical characteristics of LA.

Investigating anti-inflammatory and apoptotic actions of fucoidan concentrating on computational and therapeutic applications

Fucoidan is linked to a variety of biological processes. Differences in algae species, extraction, seasons, and locations generate structural variability in fucoidan, affecting its bioactivities. Nothing is known about fucoidan from the brown alga Dictyota bartayresiana, its anti-inflammatory properties, or its inherent mechanism. This study aimed to investigate the anti-inflammatory properties of fucoidan isolated from D. bartayresiana against LPS-induced RAW 264.7 macrophages and to explore potential molecular pathways associated with this anti-inflammatory effects. Fucoidan was first isolated and purified from D. bartayresiana, and then, MTT assay was used to determine the effect of fucoidan on cell viability. Its effects on reactive oxygen species (ROS) formation and apoptosis were also studied using the ROS assay and acridine orange/ethidium bromide fluorescence labelling, respectively. Molecular docking and molecular dynamics simulation studies were performed on target proteins NF-κB and TNF-α to identify the route implicated in these inflammatory events. It was observed that fucoidan reduced LPS-induced inflammation in RAW 264.7 cells. Fucoidan also decreased the LPS-stimulated ROS surge and was found to induce apoptosis in the cells. Molecular docking and molecular dynamics simulation studies revealed that fucoidan's potent anti-inflammatory action was achieved by obstructing the NF-κB signalling pathway. These findings were particularly noteworthy and novel because fucoidan isolated from D. bartayresiana had not previously been shown to have anti-inflammatory properties in RAW 264.7 cells or to exert its activity by obstructing the NF-κB signalling pathway. Conclusively, these findings proposed fucoidan as a potential pharmaceutical drug for inflammation-related diseases.

Does Oxidative Stress Along with Dysbiosis Participate in the Pathogenesis of Asthma in the Obese?

The most important environmental factor that can play a key role in the development of asthma in the obese is overproduction of reactive oxygen species (ROS). The aim of the study was to examine changes in the concentration of oxidative stress parameters in the lungs, bronchoalveolar lavage (BAL) fluid and blood of mice in models of asthma or/and obesity caused by high-fat diet (HFD). The concentrations of 4-HNE and isoprostanes in the lungs of the animals were measured. BAL fluid levels of hydrogen peroxide were marked. Additionally, thiobarbituric acid reactive substances (TBARS) and ferric reducing ability of plasma (FRAP) were used as biomarkers of oxidative stress in the blood. Administration of lipoic acid (LA), a probiotic with standard-fat diet (SFD, 10% fat) and low-fat diet (LFD, 5% fat) significantly decreased the concentration of 4-HNE as compared to the OVA (ovalbumin) + HFD group (p < 0.05). Treatment with low-fat diet or LFD in combination with apocynin insignificantly decreased H₂O₂ values as compared to the OVA + HFD group. Supplementation of probiotic with SFD and LFD significantly decreased the concentration of TBARS as compared to the OVA + SFD and saline + HDF groups (p < 0.05). Significantly lower concentrations of TBARS were also observed in the LA plus LFD group (p < 0.05) as compared to the OVA + HFD group. Low-fat diet with probiotic significantly increased the concentration of FRAP as compared to the obese mice (p = 0.017). Treatment with LFD in combination with LA significantly increased FRAP values as compared to the obese and obese asthmatic mice (p < 0.001).

Investigation of Chemical Compounds and Evaluation of Toxicity, Antibacterial, and Anti-Inflammatory Activities of Three Selected Essential Oils and Their Mixtures with Moroccan Thyme Honey

Throughout history, honey has been used to treat various diseases. The present work examined and assessed the in vivo anti-inflammatory potential of Moroccan thyme honey and its association with essential oils from three selected plants: Origanum vulgare L.; Mentha spicata L.; Eucalyptus globulus L. The chemical composition of the essential oils was studied, and preliminary toxicity, in vitro anti-inflammatory, and antibacterial tests were conducted. Then the anti-inflammatory effect was determined by applying carrageenan and an experimental trauma-induced paw edema test in rats. The essential oils were rich in phytochemicals and showed significant antibacterial activity against four selected ATCC bacterial strains. The results revealed the significant anti-inflammatory potential of honey and mixtures with essential oils and indicated higher efficiency of mixtures compared to honey alone. It can be concluded that the mixtures of honey and essential oils have advantageous anti-inflammatory effects and may be used for treating different types of inflammation in humans after certain clinical trials.

The beneficial effect of Alpha-lipoic acid supplementation as a potential adjunct treatment in episodic migraines

The current study was performed to evaluate the effects of alpha-lipoic acid (ALA) supplementation on lactate, nitric oxide (NO), vascular cell adhesion molecule-1 (VCAM-1) levels, and clinical symptoms in women with episodic migraines. Considering the inclusion and exclusion criteria, ninety-two women with episodic migraines participated in this randomized, double-blind, placebo-controlled, parallel-design trial. The participants were randomly assigned to receive either 300 mg/day ALA or placebo, twice per day for 12 weeks. The primary outcomes included headache severity, headache frequency per month, and duration of attacks and the secondary outcomes included lactate (a marker of mitochondrial function), NO, and VCAM-1 serum levels were measured at baseline and the end of the intervention. At the end of the study, there was a significant decrease in lactate serum levels (- 6.45 ± 0.82 mg/dl vs - 2.27 ± 1.17 mg/dl; P = 0.039) and VCAM-1 (- 2.02 ± 0.30 ng/ml vs - 1.21 ± 0.36 ng/ml; P = 0.025) in the ALA as compared to the placebo group. In addition, the severity (P < 0.001), frequency (P = 0.001), headache impact test (HIT-6) (P < 0.001), headache dairy results (HDR) (P = 0.003), and migraine headache index score (MHIS) (P < 0.001) had significantly decreased in the intervention as compared to the control group. No significant changes were observed for NO levels and duration of migraine pains. ALA supplementation can be considered a potential adjunct treatment in patients with migraine due to its improving mitochondrial and endothelial functions and clinical symptoms.

Statins and Bempedoic Acid: Different Actions of Cholesterol Inhibitors on Macrophage Activation

Statins represent the most prescribed class of drugs for the treatment of hypercholesterolemia. Effects that go beyond lipid-lowering actions have been suggested to contribute to their beneficial pharmacological properties. Whether and how statins act on macrophages has been a matter of debate. In the present study, we aimed at characterizing the impact of statins on macrophage polarization and comparing these to the effects of bempedoic acid, a recently registered drug for the treatment of hypercholesterolemia, which has been suggested to have a similar beneficial profile but fewer side effects. Treatment of primary murine macrophages with two different statins, i.e., simvastatin and cerivastatin, impaired phagocytotic activity and, concurrently, enhanced pro-inflammatory responses upon short-term lipopolysaccharide challenge, as characterized by an induction of tumor necrosis factor (TNF), interleukin (IL) 1β, and IL6. In contrast, no differences were observed under long-term inflammatory (M1) or anti-inflammatory (M2) conditions, and neither inducible NO synthase (iNOS) expression nor nitric oxide production was altered. Statin treatment led to extracellular-signal regulated kinase (ERK) activation, and the pro-inflammatory statin effects were abolished by ERK inhibition. Bempedoic acid only had a negligible impact on macrophage responses when compared with statins. Taken together, our data point toward an immunomodulatory effect of statins on macrophage polarization, which is absent upon bempedoic acid treatment.

Renoprotective Effects of Maslinic Acid on Experimental Renal Fibrosis in Unilateral Ureteral Obstruction Model via Targeting MyD88

Maslinic acid (MA), also named crategolic acid, is a pentacyclic triterpene extracted from fruits and vegetables. Although various beneficial pharmacological effects of MA have been revealed, its effect on renal fibrosis remains unclear. This study was designed to clarify whether MA could attenuate renal fibrosis and determine the putative underlying molecular mechanisms. We demonstrated that MA-treated mice with unilateral ureteral obstruction (UUO) developed a histological injury of low severity and exhibited downregulated expression of fibrotic markers, including α-smooth muscle actin (α-SMA), vimentin, and fibronectin by 38, 44 and 40%, and upregulated expression of E-cadherin by 70% as compared with untreated UUO mice. Moreover, MA treatment restored the expression levels of α-SMA, connective tissue growth factor, and vimentin to 10, 7.8 and 38% of those induced by transforming growth factor (TGF)-β in NRK49F cells. MA decreased expression of Smad2/3 phosphorylation and Smad4 in UUO kidneys and TGF-β treated NRK49F cells (p < 0.05, respectively). Notably, MA specifically interferes with MyD88, an adaptor protein, thereby mitigating Smad4 nuclear expression (p < 0.01 compared to TGF-β treated group) and ameliorating renal fibrotic changes (p < 0.01 for each fibrotic markers compared to TGF-β induced cells). In addition, in the UUO model and lipopolysaccharide-induced NRK49F cells, MA treatment decreased the expression of IL-1β, TGF-α and MCP-1, ICAM-1, associated with the suppression of NF-κB signaling. These findings suggest that MA is a potential agent that can reduce renal interstitial fibrosis, to some extent, via targeting TGF-β/Smad and MyD88 signaling.

Protective Effect of Alpha-Lipoic Acid against Liver Damage Induced by Cigarette Smoke: An in vivo Study

Background:

Long-term cigarette smoking damages the liver tissue. Alpha-lipoic acid (ALA) is used as a therapeutic agent in a number of conditions and is known to have ameliorative effects against oxidative stress in the liver.

Objective:

To investigate the ameliorative effects of ALA on cigarette smoke (CS)-induced oxidative liver damage by examining histopathological, immunohistopathological changes and biochemical parameters in an animal model.

Materials and Methods:

Twenty-eight female Sprague–Dawley rats were randomly divided into three groups. In the control group (n = 8), rats were exposed to fresh air twice a day and given 0.1 ml of saline by gavage once a day for 8 weeks. In the smoking group (n = 10), rats were exposed to CS for 1 h in the morning and afternoon and given 0.1 ml of saline by gavage once a day for 8 weeks. In the smoking + ALA group (n = 10), CS exposure was same as the smoking group in addition to 100 mg/kg of ALA per day for 8 weeks through gavage. Oxidative damage in the liver tissue was determined by evaluating malondialdehyde (MDA), catalase (CAT) and superoxide dismutase (SOD) levels. Aspartate aminotransferase (AST), alanine aminotransaminase (ALT), alkaline phosphatase (ALP), direct bilirubin and total bilirubin levels were measured in the blood. Histopathological and immunohistochemical examinations were performed.

Results:

MDA (P = 0.011), AST (P = 0.018) and total bilirubin levels (P < 0.001) were increased, while CAT activity (P = 0.009) and the efficiency of SOD (P = 0.010) were decreased in the smoking group compared with the control group. CAT activity was increased (P = 0.017) and AST (P = 0.018) and total bilirubin levels (P < 0.001) were decreased in ALA-treated group compared with the smoking group. We observed vascular dilatation and hemorrhagic areas in the smoking group. TNF-α expression was increased in the smoking group compared with the control group. However, TNF-α expression was high in some preparations in the ALA-treated group.

Conclusions:

ALA can enhance antioxidant activity, but studies with different doses of ALA are required to determine the extent of its hepatoprotective effect.

Anti-inflammatory activity of 3-cinnamoyltribuloside and its metabolomic analysis in LPS-activated RAW 264.7 cells

BACKGROUND

Inflammation is a response to tissue injuries, which is indispensable and important for human health, but excessive inflammation can potentially cause damage to the host organisms. Camellia nitidissima Chi, one traditional medicinal and edible plant in China, was reported to exhibit anti-inflammation capability. Hence, this study was conducted to isolate the bioactive compounds from the flowers of C. nitidissima Chi and evaluate their anti-inflammatory activity.

METHODS

The phytochemicals from the flowers of C. nitidissima Chi were isolated and purified by silica gel, Sephadex LH-20 gel, C18 reversed silica gel, semi-preparative HPLC, and identified by the spectrum technologies. The anti-inflammatory activity of isolated compounds was evaluated using cultured macrophage RAW 264.7 cells. Whereafter the potential metabolic mechanism of the anti-inflammatory activity of the bioactive compound was investigated by a 1H-NMR based metabolomics approach. The metabolites in 1H-NMR spectra were identified by querying the Human Metabolome Database and Madison Metabolomics Consortium Database online. And the multivariate statistical analysis was performed to evaluate the variability of metabolites among samples and between sample classes.

RESULTS

The compound isolated from the flowers of C. nitidissima Chi was identified as 3-cinnamoyltribuloside (3-CT). 3-CT could inhibit the NO production and the mRNA expression of iNOS involved in lipopolysaccharide (LPS)-activated RAW 264.7 cells. Moreover, 3-CT could inhibit the expression of a series of inflammatory cytokines, including TNF-α, IL-1β, and IL-6, both at the mRNA level and protein level. The 1H-NMR based metabolomics approach was applied to investigate the potential metabolic mechanism of the anti-inflammatory activity of 3-CT. Thirty-five metabolites were identified and assigned. Orthogonal signal correction partial least-squares discriminant analysis (OSC-PLS-DA) of the 1H-NMR data showed 3-CT could balance the significant changes in many endogenous metabolites (e.g., choline, glucose, phenylalanine) induced by LPS in RAW 264.7 cells, which related to cholinergic anti-inflammatory pathway, oxidative stress, energy metabolism, and amino acids metabolism.

CONCLUSION

3-CT, isolated from the flowers of C. nitidissima Chi, had potent anti-inflammatory activity in LPS-activated RAW 264.7 cells. Furthermore, our results indicated that 3-CT had effects on the cholinergic anti-inflammatory pathway, oxidative stress, energy metabolism, and amino acids metabolism in LPS-activated RAW 264.7 cells.

Topical Anti-Inflammatory Activity of Essential Oils of Alpinia calcarata Rosc., Its Main Constituents, and Possible Mechanism of Action

This study aimed at investigating the anti-inflammatory potential of essential oil from rhizome and leaf of Alpinia calcarata Rosc. (ACEO) with the focus of its topical anti-inflammatory activity along with its dominant compounds 1,8-cineole and α-terpineol using mouse ear edema model. ACEOs were analyzed by GC-MS. The anti-inflammatory activity was determined by studying the inhibition of overproduction of proinflammatory mediators-nitric oxide, reactive oxygen species, prostaglandins, cyclooxygenases, and cytokines induced by lipopolysaccharides in murine macrophages. Topical anti-inflammatory and antinociceptive activity was studied by 12-O-tetradecanoylphorbol-13-acetate (TPA) induced skin inflammation and formalin-induced pain model in mice, respectively. Rhizome oil has 1,8-cineole (31.08%), α-terpineol (10.31%), and fenchyl acetate (10.73%) as major compounds whereas the ACEO from leaves has 1,8-cineole (38.45%), a-terpineol (11.62%), and camphor (10%). ACEOs reduced the production of inflammatory mediators in vitro in a concentration-dependent manner. Further, ACEO and its major compounds reduced ear thickness, weight, myeloperoxidase, and cytokines significantly (p < 0.01) in mouse ear. Dose-dependent reduction in flinching and licking in both the phases of pain sensation concludes the topical analgesic effect. Our findings suggest the potency of topical use of ACEOs for inflammatory disease conditions.

Phytosterols Suppress Phagocytosis and Inhibit Inflammatory Mediators via ERK Pathway on LPS-Triggered Inflammatory Responses in RAW264.7 Macrophages and the Correlation with Their Structure

Phytosterols, found in many commonly consumed foods, exhibit a broad range of physiological activities including anti-inflammatory effects. In this study, the anti-inflammatory effects of ergosterol, β-sitosterol, stigmasterol, campesterol, and ergosterol acetate were investigated in lipopolysaccharide (LPS)-induced RAW264.7 macrophages. Results showed that all phytosterol compounds alleviated the inflammatory reaction in LPS-induced macrophage models; cell phagocytosis, nitric oxide (NO) production, release of tumor necrosis factor-α (TNF-α), and expression and activity of pro-inflammatory mediator cyclooxygenase-2 (COX-2), inducible nitric oxide synthase (iNOS), and phosphorylated extracellular signal-regulated protein kinase (p-ERK) were all inhibited. The anti-inflammatory activity of β-sitosterol was higher than stigmasterol and campesterol, which suggests that phytosterols without a double bond on C-22 and with ethyl on C-24 were more effective. However, inconsistent results were observed upon comparison of ergosterol and ergosterol acetate (hydroxy or ester group on C-3), which suggest that additional research is still needed to ascertain the contribution of structure to their anti-inflammatory effects.

The Immunomodulatory Effect of Alpha-Lipoic Acid in Autoimmune Diseases

Αlpha-lipoic acid is a naturally occurring antioxidant in human body and has been widely used as an antioxidant clinically. Accumulating evidences suggested that α-lipoic acid might have immunomodulatory effects on both adaptive and innate immune systems. This review focuses on the evidences and potential targets involved in the immunomodulatory effects of α-lipoic acid. It highlights the fact that α-lipoic acid may have beneficial effects in autoimmune diseases once the immunomodulatory effects can be confirmed by further investigation.

Beneficiary effect of a-lipoic acid supplementation on C-reactive protein level among adults

Purpose

Clinical evidence has suggested that alpha-lipoic acid (ALA), a potent antioxidant, seems to have some effects on inflammatory process. However, these results are equivocal. The purpose of this paper is to investigate the nature of association between ALA and serum C-reactive protein (CRP) level by pooling the results from clinical trial studies.

Design/methodology/approach

Relevant studies were identified by systematic literature search of PubMed/MEDLINE, Scopus, Web of Sciences and Cochrane library up to September 2016 for randomized controlled trials (RCTs) evaluating the impact of ALA supplementation on CRP. The pooled data were summarized as weighted mean difference (WMD) and 95 per cent confidence interval (CI). Effect sizes of eligible studies were pooled using random- or fixed-effects (the DerSimonian–Laird estimator) depending on the results of heterogeneity tests.

Findings

Of 212 papers, 15 were eligible RCTs according to inclusion criteria. The selected studies comprised 1,408 cases and 457 controls. The dose of ALA supplement ranged from 300 to 1,200 mg, and the duration of follow-up was from 1 to 48 weeks. ALA supplementation significantly reduced the levels of circulating CRP (WMD: −0.088, 95 per cent CI: −0.131, −0.045, p < 0.001) with significant heterogeneity (I2 = 73.4 per cent, p < 0.001). Populations with age younger than 50 years (PMD: −0.060 mg/dl), receiving doses less than 600 mg/day (PMD: −0.057 mg/dl), having cardiovascular disease (PMD: −0.105 mg/dl), hemodialysis (PMD: −0.209 mg/dl), diabetes (PMD: −0.021 mg/dl) and otherwise healthy subjects (PMD: −0.045 mg/dl) were sources of heterogeneity.

Originality/Value

This meta-analysis of RCTs suggests that ALA supplementation seems to significantly reduce circulating CRP level.

Anti-inflammatory and utero-relaxant effect of α-bisabolol on the pregnant human uterus

The aim of this study was to evaluate the in vitro anti-inflammatory and utero-relaxant effect of α-bisabolol on the pregnant human myometrium. Samples from the pregnant human myometrium were used in functional tests to evaluate the inhibitory effect of α-bisabolol (560, 860, 1,200 and 1,860 µM) on spontaneous myometrial contractions. The intracellular cyclic adenosine monophosphate (cAMP) levels generated in response to α-bisabolol in human myometrial homogenates were measured by ELISA. The anti-inflammatory effect of α-bisabolol was determined through the measurement of two pro-inflammatory cytokines, tumor necrosis factor-α (TNFα) and interleukin (IL)-1β, and the anti-inflammatory cytokine IL-10, in pregnant human myometrial explants stimulated with lipopolysaccharide (LPS). Forskolin was used as a positive control to evaluate the cAMP and cytokine levels. α-Bisabolol was found to induce a significant inhibition of spontaneous myometrial contractions at the highest concentration level (p<0.05). α-Bisabolol caused a concentration-dependent decrease in myometrial cAMP levels (p<0.05) and a concentration-dependent decrease in LPS-induced TNFα and IL-1β production, while IL-10 production did not increase significantly (p>0.05). The anti-inflammatory and utero-relaxant effects induced by α-bisabolol were not associated with an increase in cAMP levels in pregnant human myometrial samples. These properties place α-bisabolol as a potentially safe and effective adjuvant agent in cases of preterm birth, an area of pharmacological treatment that requires urgent improvement.

Simultaneous purification of dihydrotanshinone, tanshinone I, cryptotanshinone, and tanshinone IIA from Salvia miltiorrhiza and their anti-inflammatory activities investigation

Dihydrotanshinone, tanshinone I, cryptotanshinone, and tanshinone IIA are major lipid-soluble constituents isolated from Salvia miltiorrhiza Bunge (Danshen). In the present study, a systematic method was developed to simultaneously isolate and purify those compounds using macroporous adsorption resins and semi-preparative HPLC with a dynamic axial compress (DAC) system. The Danshen extract (95% alcohol) was divided into three fractions using different concentrations of alcohol (0%, 45%, and 90%) on D101 column. The content of total tanshinones of 90% alcohol eluent (TTS) was over 97%. Furthermore, the anti-inflammatory effects of those samples were investigated on LPS-stimulated RAW264.7 cells and three animal models. The results showed that the anti-inflammatory effect of TTS in vitro was superior to the one of any other sample including 0% and 45% eluent, and total tanshinones capsules. In addition, TTS exhibited a stronger anti-inflammatory effect than that of dihydrotanshinone, tanshinone IIA, cryptotanshinone, and tanshinone I, respectively. For animal models, TTS could significantly suppress xylene-induced ear oedema and rescue LPS-induced septic death and acute kidney injury in mice. In summary, the separation process developed in the study was high-efficiency, economic, and low-contamination, which was fit to industrial producing. TTS is a potential agent for the treatment of inflammatory diseases.

Simultaneous purification of dihydrotanshinone, tanshinone I, cryptotanshinone, and tanshinone IIA from Salvia miltiorrhiza and their anti-inflammatory activities investigation

Dihydrotanshinone, tanshinone I, cryptotanshinone, and tanshinone IIA are major lipid-soluble constituents isolated from Salvia miltiorrhiza Bunge (Danshen). In the present study, a systematic method was developed to simultaneously isolate and purify those compounds using macroporous adsorption resins and semi-preparative HPLC with a dynamic axial compress (DAC) system. The Danshen extract (95% alcohol) was divided into three fractions using different concentrations of alcohol (0%, 45%, and 90%) on D101 column. The content of total tanshinones of 90% alcohol eluent (TTS) was over 97%. Furthermore, the anti-inflammatory effects of those samples were investigated on LPS-stimulated RAW264.7 cells and three animal models. The results showed that the anti-inflammatory effect of TTS in vitro was superior to the one of any other sample including 0% and 45% eluent, and total tanshinones capsules. In addition, TTS exhibited a stronger anti-inflammatory effect than that of dihydrotanshinone, tanshinone IIA, cryptotanshinone, and tanshinone I, respectively. For animal models, TTS could significantly suppress xylene-induced ear oedema and rescue LPS-induced septic death and acute kidney injury in mice. In summary, the separation process developed in the study was high-efficiency, economic, and low-contamination, which was fit to industrial producing. TTS is a potential agent for the treatment of inflammatory diseases.

Tumor necrosis factor α-converting enzyme inhibitor attenuates lipopolysaccharide-induced reactive oxygen species and mitogen-activated protein kinase expression in human renal proximal tubule epithelial cells

Tumor necrosis factor-α (TNFα) and the angiotensin system are involved in inflammatory diseases and may contribute to acute kidney injury. We investigated the mechanisms by which TNFα-converting enzyme (TACE) contributes to lipopolysaccharide (LPS)-induced renal inflammation and the effect of TACE inhibitor treatment on LPS-induced cellular injury in human renal proximal tubule epithelial (HK-2) cells. Mice were treated with LPS (10 mg/kg, i.p.) and HK-2 cells were cultured with or without LPS (10 µg/ml) in the presence or absence of a type 1 TACE inhibitor (1 µM) or type 2 TACE inhibitor (10 µM). LPS treatment induced increased serum creatinine, TNFα, and urinary neutrophil gelatinase-associated lipocalin. Angiotensin II type 1 receptor, mitogen activated protein kinase (MAPK), and TACE increased, while angiotensin-converting enzyme-2 (ACE2) expression decreased in LPS-induced acute kidney injury and LPS-treated HK-2 cells. LPS induced reactive oxygen species and the down-regulation of ACE2, and these responses were prevented by TACE inhibitors in HK-2 cells. TACE inhibitors increased cell viability in LPS-treated HK-2 cells and attenuated oxidative stress and inflammatory cytokines. Our findings indicate that LPS activates renin angiotensin system components via the activation of TACE. Furthermore, inhibitors of TACE are potential therapeutic agents for kidney injury.

Role of Muramyl Dipeptide in Lipopolysaccharide-Mediated Biological Activity and Osteoclast Activity

Lipopolysaccharide (LPS) is an endotoxin and bacterial cell wall component that is capable of inducing inflammation and immunological activity. Muramyl dipeptide (MDP), the minimal essential structural unit responsible for the immunological activity of peptidoglycans, is another inflammation-inducing molecule that is ubiquitously expressed by bacteria. Several studies have shown that inflammation-related biological activities were synergistically induced by interactions between LPS and MDP. MDP synergistically enhances production of proinflammatory cytokines that are induced by LPS exposure. Injection of MDP induces lethal shock in mice challenged with LPS. LPS also induces osteoclast formation and pathological bone resorption; MDP enhances LPS induction of both processes. Furthermore, MDP enhances the LPS-induced receptor activator of NF-κB ligand (RANKL) expression and toll-like receptor 4 (TLR4) expression both in vivo and in vitro. Additionally, MDP enhances LPS-induced mitogen-activated protein kinase (MAPK) signaling in stromal cells. Taken together, these findings suggest that MDP plays an important role in LPS-induced biological activities. This review discusses the role of MDP in LPS-mediated biological activities, primarily in relation to osteoclastogenesis.

Immunomodulatory potential of recombinant filarial protein, rWbL2, and its therapeutic implication in experimental ulcerative colitis in mouse

OBJECTIVE

Immunomodulation by helminth proteins has potential therapeutic implications in inflammatory bowel disease. In the present study, we have explored the therapeutic effect of a RAL family protein of filarial parasite Wuchereria bancrofti i.e., rWbL2 protein against DSS induced colitis in a mouse model.

MATERIALS AND METHODS

Anti-inflammatory activity of rWbL2 on mice peritoneal exudate cells was analyzed under in vitro condition. The colitis mice were treated intraperitoneally (i.p.) with rWbL2 in increasing doses (10 µg, 25 µg, and 50 µg) on days 4, 5, and 6. Disease severity was assessed by disease activity index (DAI), macroscopic and histopathological scores, and enzyme myeloperoxidase activity (MPO) in the colon. The response of the cultured splenocytes from treated mice to Con-A stimulation, in terms of ELISA-based assessment of the protein followed by the assessment of mRNA expression of cytokines, was measured by real-time PCR analysis.

RESULT

rWbL2 protein showed anti-inflammatory activity in vitro. Treatment with rWbL2 (at 25 µg/dose) effectively attenuated disease severity by reducing weight loss, DAI, mucosal edema, colon damage, and MPO activity. This therapeutic effect was found to be associated with increased release of anti-inflammatory cytokine IL-10 and decreased release of pro-inflammatory cytokine IFN-γ and TNF-α by the splenocytes of treated mice followed by stimulation with Con-A.

CONCLUSIONS

These results provide evidence of the strong immunomodulatory potential of rWbL2 protein implicating its therapeutic application against ulcerative colitis.

Thio-barbiturate-derived compounds are novel antioxidants to prevent LPS-induced inflammation in the liver

Liver inflammation is closely associated with metabolic syndrome. Oxidative stress plays a synergistic role in inflammation by activating nuclear factor kappa B (NF-κB) signaling in the liver. Therefore, substantial efforts have been made to develop compounds that inhibit the generation of oxidative stress and activation of NF-κB. We synthesized twenty-six novel 5-(substituted benzyl)-2-oxo- and 5-(substituted benzyl)-2-thioxo-dihydropyrimidine-4,6(1H,5H)-dione derivatives for the development of potential antioxidants and examined their biological activities in vitro and in vivo. Thio-barbiturate-derived compounds 5-[4-hydroxy-3-methoxybenzy]-2-thioxodihydropyrimidine-4,6[1H,5H]-dione (2d) and 5-[4-hydroxy-3,5-methoxybenzy]-2-thioxodihydropyrimidine-4,6[1H,5H]-dione (2l) had the strongest inhibitory effect on reactive oxygen species and peroxynitrite generation in vitro. Furthermore, oral administration of compounds 2d and 2l in mice notably suppressed lipopolysaccharide (LPS)-induced oxidative stress and NF-κB activation in the liver. Because macrophages play an essential role in liver inflammation, we investigated the effects of these compounds on inflammatory signaling in LPS-induced RAW264.7 macrophages. LPS-induced NF-κB activation and protein expression of cyclooxygenase 2 and inducible nitric oxide synthase were inhibited by pretreatment of these compounds in macrophages. In parallel with this finding, the phosphatase and tensin homolog deleted on chromosome 10 (PTEN) and AKT signalings, which are upstream activators of p65, were decreased by these compounds in macrophages. Our study suggests that compounds 2d and 2l inhibit oxidative stress and NF-кB-mediated inflammation, at least partially, through suppressing PTEN/AKT signaling. Therefore, these compounds may be useful as therapeutic agents for the amelioration of inflammatory diseases.

Lipoic Acid Exerts Antioxidant and Anti-inflammatory Effects in Response to Heat Shock in C2C12 Myotubes

This study explored that lipoic acid treatment for 24 h significantly upregulated and promoted heat shock-induced catalase expression and downregulated GPx1 messenger RNA (mRNA) expression, indicating that lipoic acid exhibits antioxidant activity in the decomposition of hydrogen peroxide by upregulating catalase expression. Moreover, lipoic acid treatment for 3 h increased and promoted heat shock-induced interleukin (IL)-6 mRNA and protein levels and that for 24 h downregulated IL-6 mRNA expression, suggesting a dual effect of lipoic acid on IL-6 regulation. Lipoic acid alone failed to increase or reduce tumor necrosis factor (TNF)-α mRNA and protein levels, whereas heat shock alone downregulated TNF-α mRNA and protein expression. These data suggest that lipoic acid does not have a proinflammatory role and that heat shock acts as an anti-inflammatory agent by downregulating TNF-α expression in C2C12 myotubes. Moreover, lipoic acid or heat shock alone upregulated the IL-6 receptor (IL-6R-α) and glycoprotein 130 (gp130) mRNA expression followed by IL-6 expression; these data indicate that the regulation of lipoic acid or heat shock is mediated by IL-6R signaling, thus suggesting that C2C12 myotubes possesses a mechanism for regulating IL-6R and gp130 expression following lipoic acid treatment or heat shock.

New aspects on the hepatoprotective potential associated with the antioxidant, hypocholesterolemic and anti-inflammatory activities of Vernonia condensata Baker

ETHNOPHARMACOLOGICAL RELEVANCE

Vernonia condensata Baker (Asteraceae) is traditionally used in South American Countries as an anti-inflammatory, analgesic and hepatoprotective.

AIM OF THE STUDY

This study aimed to investigate the in vivo hepatoprotective and antioxidant, and the in vitro anti-inflammatory activities of the ethyl acetate partition (EAP) from the ethanolic extract of this medicinal plant leaves.

MATERIALS AND METHODS

For the in vivo hepatoprotective activity, rats were pretreated orally for seven days with vehicle, silymarin 100mg/kg or EAP 50, 100 and 200mg/kg. Then, acetaminophen 3g/kg was also orally administrated. Animals were euthanatized 24h after the damage inducement. The levels of the serum enzymes ALT, AST and ALP were determined, as well as the triglycerides, total cholesterol and fractions. The antioxidant activity was evaluated by TBARS assay and by the measurement of glutathione reductase, superoxide dismutase and catalase activities in the rats liver tissue. The in vitro anti-inflammatory assay using Raw 264.7 cell line induced by lipopolysaccharide was conducted to verify EAP ability to inhibit pro-inflammatory cytokines.

RESULTS

EAP was able to inhibit all the acute biochemical alterations caused by acetaminophen overdose. EAP inhibited malondialdehyde formation, maintained the catalase and increased the glutathione reductase activities. Also, EAP decreased NO, IL-6 and TNF-α levels at concentrations from 10 to 20µg/mL. 1,5-dicaffeoylquinic acid was isolated and identified as the major compound in EAP. Apigenin, luteolin, chlorogenic acid were also identified. EAP anti-inflammatory action may be due to its antioxidant activity or its capacity to inhibit the pro-inflammatory cytokines.

CONCLUSION

These results strongly suggested that V. condensata may be useful as a possible therapy against liver damage.

Anti-inflammatory activity of 3β-hydroxycholest-5-en-7-one isolated from Hippocampus trimaculatus leach via inhibiting iNOS, TNF-α, and 1L-1β of LPS induced RAW 264.7 macrophage cells

Hippocampus trimaculatus leach has been widely used in beverage and herbal medicine fabrication.

The potential protective effect of α-lipoic acid against nanocopper particle-induced hepatotoxicity in male rats

The present research task is aimed to evaluate the role of exogenous α-lipoic acid (ALA) (100 mg/kg body weight) as hepatoprotective and potent antioxidant in amelioration of copper nanoparticle (CNP)-induced hepatotoxicity. Forty male rats were randomly assigned into four equal groups: group I (control), group II received CNPs, group III received CNPs + ALA, and finally group IV received ALA for 2 months. At the end of the experimental period, the rats were decapitated, and blood and liver tissue samples were collected for measurement of liver function tests, antioxidant status, lipid peroxidation (LPO), copper content, expression of some apoptotic genes, and histopathological analysis. CNPs induced marked hepatic damages as evident by severe alteration in hepatic biomarkers. This was accompanied by a significant elevation in hepatic LPO and induced nitric oxide, copper content, and expression level of apoptotic genes (C-myc and C-jun). In contrast, marked depletion for antioxidant parameters was detected. These findings were confirmed with severe pathological alterations. Coadministration of ALA as a powerful antioxidant attenuates the hepatotoxic effects of CNPs through improvement of liver parameters, oxidative status, genetic changes, and preservation of liver integrity through histopathological analysis. These results suggest that consumed ALA could be used as an applicable hepatoprotective agent against oxidative damage mediated by nanoparticles intoxication.

Therapeutic potential of the immunomodulatory proteins Wuchereria bancrofti L2 and Brugia malayi abundant larval transcript 2 against streptozotocin-induced type 1 diabetes in mice

Epidemiological and experimental evidence has supported the concept of using helminths as alternative bio-therapeutic agents in the treatment of type 1 diabetes (T1D). In the current study, two filarial proteins, recombinant Wuchereria bancrofti L2 (rWbL2) and Brugia malayi abundant larval transcript 2 (rBmALT-2) have been investigated, individually and in combination, for their therapeutic potential in streptozotocin (STZ)-induced T1D. The rWbL2 and rBmALT-2 proteins, when administered individually or in combination, have resulted in lowering of the blood glucose levels and reducing the incidence of T1D in mice. In addition, these proteins have led to reduced lymphocytic infiltration and decreased islet damage and inflammation. The curative effect was found to be associated with the suppression of release of tumour necrosis factor-α (TNF-α) and interferon-γ (IFN-γ), and increased production of interleukin (IL)-4, IL-5 and IL-10 cytokines by the splenocytes of the diabetic mice. Insulin-specific IgG1 and antigen-specific IgE antibodies were found to be elevated in the sera of mice treated with rWbL2 and rBmALT-2 proteins. From the findings in this study, it can be envisaged that both of these filarial immunomodulatory proteins have the potential to ameliorate T1D by altering the regulatory immune responses.

Induction of Glucocorticoid-induced Leucine Zipper (GILZ) Contributes to Anti-inflammatory Effects of the Natural Product Curcumin in Macrophages

GILZ (glucocorticoid-induced leucine zipper) is inducible by glucocorticoids and plays a key role in their mode of action. GILZ attenuates inflammation mainly by inhibition of NF-κB and mitogen-activated protein kinase activation but does not seem to be involved in the severe side effects observed after glucocorticoid treatment. Therefore, GILZ might be a promising target for new therapeutic approaches. The present work focuses on the natural product curcumin, which has previously been reported to inhibit NF-κB. GILZ was inducible by curcumin in macrophage cell lines, primary human monocyte-derived macrophages, and murine bone marrow-derived macrophages. The up-regulation of GILZ was neither associated with glucocorticoid receptor activation nor with transcriptional induction or mRNA or protein stabilization but was a result of enhanced translation. Because the GILZ 3'-UTR contains AU-rich elements (AREs), we analyzed the role of the mRNA-binding protein HuR, which has been shown to promote the translation of ARE-containing mRNAs. Our results suggest that curcumin treatment induces HuR expression. An RNA immunoprecipitation assay confirmed that HuR can bind GILZ mRNA. In accordance, HuR overexpression led to increased GILZ protein levels but had no effect on GILZ mRNA expression. Our data employing siRNA in LPS-activated RAW264.7 macrophages show that curcumin facilitates its anti-inflammatory action by induction of GILZ in macrophages. Experiments with LPS-activated bone marrow-derived macrophages from wild-type and GILZ knock-out mice demonstrated that curcumin inhibits the activity of inflammatory regulators, such as NF-κB or ERK, and subsequent TNF-α production via GILZ. In summary, our data indicate that HuR-dependent GILZ induction contributes to the anti-inflammatory properties of curcumin.

Nanocapsules with Polyelectrolyte Shell as a Platform for 1,25-dihydroxyvitamin D3 Neuroprotection: Study in Organotypic Hippocampal Slices

Calcitriol (1,25-dihydroxyvitamin D3), an active metabolite of vitamin D3, besides the role in calcium and phosphorus metabolism, plays a role in maintaining the functions of the brain. Active forms of vitamin D3 stimulate neurotrophic factors’ expression, regulate brain immune processes, and prevent neuronal damage. Therefore, a potential utility of vitamin D3 in a therapy of neurodegenerative disorders should be taken into account. On the other hand, systemic vitamin D3 treatment carries the risk of undesirable effects, e.g., hypercalcemia. Thus, 1,25-dihydroxyvitamin D3 targeting delivery by nanoparticles would be a tremendous advancement in treatment of brain disorders. Calcitriol was enclosed in emulsion-templated nanocapsules with different polymeric shells: PLL (Poly(l-lysine hydrobromide)), PLL/PGA (/Poly(l-glutamic acid)), and PLL/PGA-g-PEG (Poly(l-glutamic acid) grafted with polyethylene glycol). The average size of all synthesized nanocapsules ranged from −80 to −100 nm. Biocompatibilities of synthesized nanocarriers were examined in hippocampal organotypic cultures in basal conditions and after treatment with lipopolysaccharide (LPS) using various biochemical tests. We demonstrated that nanocapsules coated with PLL were toxic, while PLL/PGA- and PLL/PGA-g-PEG-covered ones were nontoxic and used for further experiments. Our study demonstrated that in LPS-treated hippocampal slices, both types of loaded nanoparticles have protective ability. Our findings underlined that the neuroprotective action of vitamin D3 in both free and nanoparticle forms seems to be related to the suppression of LPS-induced nitric oxide release.

Alpha-lipoic acid prevents endotoxic shock and multiple organ dysfunction syndrome induced by endotoxemia in rats

Alpha-lipoic acid (ALA), a naturally occurring disulfide derivative of octanoic acid, serves as a strong antioxidant and has been reported to possess anti-inflammatory effects. The aim of the present study is to investigate the preventive and therapeutic effects of ALA on multiple organ dysfunction syndrome (MODS) caused by endotoxemia in rats. Male Wistar rats were intravenously infused with lipopolysaccharide (LPS) (10 mg/kg) to induce endotoxemia. Alpha-lipoic acid 10, 20, or 40 mg/kg was administered intravenously 60 min before (pretreatment) LPS challenge, and ALA 40 mg/kg was administered intravenously 30 min after (posttreatment) LPS challenge. Pretreatment and posttreatment with ALA significantly improved the deleterious hemodynamic changes 8 h after LPS challenge, including hypotension and bradycardia. Alpha-lipoic acid reduced the plasma levels of glutamic pyruvic transaminase, blood urea nitrogen, lactate dehydrogenase, tumor necrosis factor-α, nitric oxide metabolites, and thrombin-antithrombin complex, which increased markedly after LPS challenge. The induction of inducible nitric oxide synthase both in the liver and the lung and vascular superoxide anion production were also significantly suppressed by ALA. Moreover, ALA significantly attenuated LPS-induced caspase-3 activation in cardiomyocytes and improved survival rate. In conclusion, ALA effectively attenuated LPS-induced acute inflammatory response and improved MODS. The antioxidant and anti-inflammatory effects of ALA may contribute to these beneficial effects. Alpha-lipoic acid might be considered as a novel therapeutic strategy in the prevention of sepsis-induced MODS and inflammatory vascular diseases.

Lipoic acid protects dopaminergic neurons in LPS-induced Parkinson's disease model

Parkinson's disease (PD) is a chronic neurodegenerative disease of the central nervous system (CNS), characterized by a loss of dopaminergic neurons, which is thought to be caused by both genetic and environmental factors. Recent findings suggest that neuroinflammation may be a pathogenic factor in the onset and progression of sporadic PD. Here we explore the potential therapeutic effect of lipoic acid (LA) on a lipolysaccharide (LPS)-induced inflammatory PD model. Our results for the first time showed that LA administration improved motor dysfunction, protected dopaminergic neurons loss, and decreased α-synuclein accumulation in the substantia nigra (SN) area of brain. Further, LA inhibited the activation of nuclear factor-κB (NF-κB) and expression of pro-inflammatory molecules in M1 microglia. Taken together, these results suggest that LA may exert a profound neuroprotective effect and is thus a promising anti-neuroinflammatory and anti-oxidative agent for halting the progression of PD. Interventions aimed at either blocking microglia-derived inflammatory mediators or modulating the polarization of microglia may be potentially useful therapies that are worth further investigation.

Functional analysis of 3'UTR polymorphisms in the caprine SLC11A1 gene and its association with the Mycobacterium avium subsp. paratuberculosis infection

The study aimed to investigate whether the genetic polymorphisms in the 3'UTR of the caprine SLC11A1 gene are functional, and to assess the role of MAP as a regulatory parameter in gene expression. To this goal we constructed plasmids expressing the Luciferase reporter gene in transient transfections of a mouse (Balb/c) macrophage cell line (RAW264.7), incorporating those polymorphisms that our previous work indicated as more prominent in terms of SLC11A1 expression and responsiveness to MAP infection. Gene expression variation was recorded on the average of the respective measurements after exposure to Mycobacterium avium subsp. paratuberculosis (MAP) combined with microbial antigens and cytokines. In silico analysis of the region under study allowed identification of one cis-acting RNA element, five putative transcriptional regulatory elements and 85 3'end microRNA binding sites. The two polymorphic regions (regions A and B) of the 3'UTR of the caprine SLC11A1 gene were recognized as regulators of its activity, at transcriptional and post-transcriptional level. The GT16 polymorphism at region A, combined with the GT8 polymorphism at region B, results in up-regulation of the SLC11A1 gene. The specific genotype was also found to be more responsive to MAP exposure at a statistically significant level.

Identification of anti-inflammatory fractions of Geranium wilfordii using tumor necrosis factor-alpha as a drug target on Herbochip® - an array-based high throughput screening platform

Background

Geranium wilfordii is one of the major species used as Herba Geranii (lao-guan-cao) in China, it is commonly used solely or in polyherbal formulations for treatment of joint pain resulted from rheumatoid arthritis (RA) and gout. This herb is used to validate a target-based drug screening platform called Herbochip® and evaluate anti-inflammatory effects of Geranium wilfordii ethanolic extract (GWE) using tumor necrosis factor-alpha (TNF-α) as a drug target together with subsequent in vitro and in vivo assays.

Methods

A microarray-based drug screening platform was constructed by arraying HPLC fractions of herbal extracts onto a surface-activated polystyrene slide (Herbochip®). Using TNF-α as a molecular probe, fractions of 82 selected herbal extracts, including GWE, were then screened to identify plant extracts containing TNF-α-binding agents. Cytotoxicity of GWE and modulatory effects of GWE on TNF-α expression were evaluated by cell-based assays using TNF-α sensitive murine fibrosarcoma L929 cells as an in vitro model.

Results

The in vivo anti-inflammatory effects of GWE were further assessed by animal models including carrageenan-induced hind paw edema in rats and xylene-induced ear edema in mice, in comparison with aspirin. The hybridization data obtained by Herbochip® analysis showed unambiguous signals which confirmed TNF-α binding activity in 46 herbal extracts including GWE. In L929 cells GWE showed significant inhibitory effect on TNF-α expression with negligible cytotoxicity. GWE also significantly inhibited formation of carrageenan-induced hind paw edema and xylene-induced ear edema in animal models, indicating that it indeed possessed anti-inflammatory activity.

Conclusion

We have thus validated effectiveness of the Herbochip® drug screening platform using TNF-α as a molecular target. Subsequent experiments on GWE lead us to conclude that the anti-RA activity of GWE can be attributed to inhibitory effect of GWE on the key inflammatory factor, TNF-α. Our results contribute towards validation of the traditional use of GWE in the treatment of RA and other inflammatory joint disorders.

Effect of alpha lipoic acid co-administration on structural and immunohistochemical changes in subcutaneous tissue of anterior abdominal wall of adult male albino rat in response to polypropylene mesh implantation

Polypropylene mesh is commonly used in the treatment of abdominal hernia. Different approaches were addressed to improve their tissue integration and consequently reduce long-term complications. This study aimed to investigate the effect of alpha-lipoic acid (ALA) co-administration on structural and immunohistochemical (IHC) changes in the subcutaneous tissues of the anterior abdominal wall of the adult rat in response to polypropylene mesh implantation. Forty adult male albino rats were divided into: group I (control), group II (receiving ALA), group III (polypropylene mesh implantation) and group IV (mesh implantation + ALA co-administration). After 4 weeks, subcutaneous tissue samples were prepared for light microscopy and IHC study of CD34 as a marker for angiogenesis. In groups I and II rats, positive CD34 expression was demonstrated by IHC reaction, localized to endothelial cells lining small blood vessels. Group III showed an excess inflammatory reaction, deposition of both regular and irregularly arranged collagen fibres around mesh pores and few elastic fibres. CD34-positive was detected not only in cells lining small blood vessels but also in other cells scattered in the connective tissue indicating angiogenesis. In group IV, ALA co-administration resulted in less inflammatory reaction, regular collagen deposition, enhanced elastic fibres synthesis and a significant increase in CD34-positive cells and small blood vessels reflecting improved angiogenesis. ALA co-administration with polypropylene mesh implantation controlled the inflammatory reaction, helped regular collagen deposition, enhanced elastic fibres synthesis and improved angiogenesis in the subcutaneous tissue of anterior abdominal wall of adult albino rats, suggesting a possible role of ALA in optimizing mesh integration in subcutaneous tissue.

Inhibitory effects of teuclatriol, a sesquiterpene from salvia mirzayanii, on nuclear factor-κB activation and expression of inflammatory mediators

ETHNOPHARMACOLOGICAL RELEVANCE

Salvia mirzayanii Rech. f. & Esfand. is an endemic plant, which is only distributed in the south of Iran. In traditional Iranian medicine, the aerial parts of Salvia mirzayanii have been used for infections, inflammatory diseases, and as a tonic. From this plant, the sesquiterpene teuclatriol was isolated by bioactivity-guided fractionation due to its anti-proliferative actions on human lymphocytes. The guaiane sesquiterpene is lacking the methylene-γ-lactone function that is typically involved in the inhibiting properties of sesquiterpenes on NF-κB, a pivotal transcription factor in inflammatory processes. We here investigated anti-inflammatory effects of teuclatriol on human macrophage-like and endothelial cells.

MATERIALS AND METHODS

Non-toxic doses of teuclatriol were determined for both cell types by MTT (3-(4,5-dimethylthiazol-2-yl)-2,5-diphenyltetrazolium bromide)-assay. The effect of teuclatriol on the activity of NF-κB in LPS-stimulated human monocytic THP-1 cells was studied using infrared electrophoretic mobility shift assay (IR-EMSA) using curcumin as positive control (32µM). THP-1 were differentiated into macrophage-like cells and evaluated for TNF-α secretion by L929 bioassay following stimulation with LPS and treatment with teuclatriol. Inflammatory gene expression in human umbilical vein endothelial cells (HUVEC), modeling target cells for TNF-α-induced inflammatory gene activation, was investigated by real-time RT-PCR.

RESULTS

The LPS-induced DNA binding activity of NF-κB in THP-1 was significantly decreased by non-toxic doses of teuclatriol (312 and 390µM). Teuclatriol reduced the production of TNF-α in a dose-dependent manner. mRNA levels of both monocyte chemoattractant protein (MCP)-1 and toll-like receptor (TLR)2 were decreased in TNF-α-activated HUVEC.

CONCLUSION

These data show an inhibitory effect of teuclatriol on NF-κB signaling at doses of 312µM and higher, validating the traditional use of Salvia mirzayanii in the treatment of inflammatory diseases. Future work on the mode of action of teuclatriol may provide new lead structures with NF-κB inhibiting properties, lacking possible side effects mediated via alkylating centers of sesquiterpene lactones.

Superparamagnetic iron oxide nanoparticles impair endothelial integrity and inhibit nitric oxide production

Superparamagnetic iron oxide nanoparticles (SPION) are widely used both clinically and experimentally for diverse in vivo applications, such as contrast enhancement in magnetic resonance imaging, hyperthermia and drug delivery. Biomedical applications require particles to have defined physical and chemical properties, and to be stable in biological media. Despite a suggested low cytotoxic action, adverse reactions of SPION in concentrations relevant for biomedical use have not yet been studied in sufficient detail. In the present work we employed Endorem®, dextran-stabilized SPION approved as an intravenous contrast agent, and compared its action to a set of other nanoparticles with potential for magnetic resonance imaging applications. SPION in concentrations relevant for in vivo applications were rapidly taken up by endothelial cells and exhibited no direct cytotoxicity. Electric cell impedance sensing measurements demonstrated that SPION, but not BaSO4/Gd nanoparticles, impaired endothelial integrity, as was confirmed by increased intercellular gap formation in endothelial monolayers. These structural changes induced the subcellular translocation and inhibition of the cytoprotective and anti-atherosclerotic enzyme endothelial NO-synthase and reduced NO production. Lipopolysaccharide-induced inflammatory NO production of macrophages was not affected by SPION. In conclusion, our data suggest that SPION might substantially alter endothelial integrity and function at therapeutically relevant doses, which are not cytotoxic.

Effects of aspirin & simvastatin and aspirin, simvastatin, & lipoic acid on heme oxygenase-1 in healthy human subjects

BACKGROUND

Heme oxygenase 1 (HO-1) degrades heme and protects against oxidative stress. In vitro and animal models suggest that HO-1 is beneficial in several diseases (e.g., postoperative ileus, gastroparesis, acute pancreatitis, and colitis). However, the only drugs (i.e., hemin and heme arginate) which pharmacologically upregulate HO-1 in humans are expensive and can only be administered intravenously. Our aims were to compare the effects of placebo, aspirin, and simvastatin alone, and with α-lipoic acid, on HO-1 protein concentration and activity in humans.

METHODS

This randomized, double-blind, placebo-controlled study compared the effects of three oral regimens administered for 7 days, i.e., placebo; aspirin (325 mg twice daily) and simvastatin (40 mg twice daily); aspirin, simvastatin, and the sodium salt of R- α-lipoic acid (NaRLA, 600 mg three times daily) on markers of HO-1 activation (i.e., plasma HO-1 protein concentration and venous monocyte HO-1 protein activity) in 18 healthy subjects (14 females). Markers of HO-1 activation were evaluated at baseline, days 2, and 7.

KEY RESULTS

Baseline HO-1 protein concentrations and activity were similar among the three groups. Compared to placebo, aspirin and simvastatin combined, or together with NaRLA did not affect HO-1 protein concentration or activity at 2 or 7 days. HO-1 protein concentrations and activity were correlated on day 7 (r = 0.75, p = 0.0004) but not at baseline and on day 2.

CONCLUSIONS & INFERENCES

At therapeutic doses, aspirin, simvastatin, and α-lipoic acid do not increase plasma HO-1 protein concentration or venous monocyte HO-1 activity in healthy humans.

Alpha-lipoic acid attenuates lipopolysaccharide-induced kidney injury

BACKGROUND

Kidney is one of the major target organs in sepsis, while effective prevention of septic acute kidney injury has not yet been established. α-Lipoic acid (LA) has been known to exert beneficial effects against lipopolysaccharide (LPS)-induced damages in various organs such as heart, lung, and liver. We investigated the protective effect of LA on LPS-induced kidney injury.

METHODS

Two groups of rats were treated with LPS (20 mg/kg, i.p.), one of which being co-treated with LA (50 mg/kg), while the control group was treated with vehicle alone. Human renal proximal tubular epithelial cells (HK-2 cells) were cultured with or without LPS (10 μg/ml) in the presence or absence of LA (100 μg/ml) for 3 h prior to LPS treatment.

RESULTS

Serum creatinine level was increased in LPS-treated rats, which was attenuated by LA co-treatment. LPS treatment induced cleaved caspase-3 expression in the kidney, which was counteracted by LA. Terminal deoxynucleotidyl transferase dUTP nick-end labeling-positive cells increased in the kidneys of LPS-treated rats compared with controls, which was counteracted by LA treatment. Protein expression of inducible nitric oxide synthase and cyclooxygenase-2 detected by immunoblotting and/or immunohistochemical staining, along with mRNA levels of pro-inflammatory cytokines detected by real-time polymerase chain reaction, was increased in the kidney with LPS administration, which was ameliorated with LA treatment. LA also protected LPS-induced tubular dysfunction, preserving type 3 Na(+)/H(+) exchanger and aquaporin 2 expressions in the kidney. Suppression of LPS-induced expression of cleaved caspase-3 by LA was also observed in HK-2 cells. Increased protein expression of phospho-extracellular signal-regulated kinases 1/2 and c-Jun N-terminal kinases by LPS treatment was attenuated by LA pretreatment, while p38 was not affected by either LPS or LA treatment. MitoTracker Red demonstrated LA prevented LPS-induced increment of mitochondrial oxidative stress, where concurrent 4',6-diamidino-2-phenylindole staining also revealed marked fragmentation and condensation of nuclei in HK-2 cells treated with LPS, which was prevented by LA.

CONCLUSION

LA treatment attenuates LPS-induced kidney injury, such as renal tubular dysfunction, by suppression of apoptosis, and inflammation.

Redox evaluation in sepsis model mice by the in vivo ESR technique using acyl-protected hydroxylamine

In vivo electron spin resonance (ESR) spectroscopy is a noninvasive technique that measures the oxidative stress in living experimental animals. The rate of decay of the ESR signal right after an injection of nitroxyl radical has been measured to evaluate the oxidative stress in animals, although the probe's disposition could also affect this rate. Because the amount of probes forming the redox pair of hydroxyl amine and its corresponding nitroxyl radical was shown to be nearly constant in most organs or tissues 10min after the injection of 1-acetoxy-3-carbamoyl-2,2,5,5-tetramethylpyrrolidine (ACP) in mice, we evaluated the oxidative stress in sepsis model mice induced by lipopolysaccharide (LPS) by intravenously injecting ACP as a precursor of redox probes. The in vivo ESR signal increased up to 7-8min after the ACP injection and then decreased. Decay of the in vivo signal in LPS-treated mice was significantly slower than that in healthy mice, whereas no significant difference was observed in the rate of change in the total amount of redox probes in the blood and liver between these groups. ESR imaging showed that the in vivo signals observed at the chest and upper abdomen decayed slowly in LPS-treated mice. Suppression of the decay in LPS-treated mice was canceled by the administration of a combination of pegylated superoxide dismutase and catalase, or an inhibitor of nitric oxide synthase, or gadolinium chloride. These results indicate that the LPS-treated mouse is under oxidative stress and that reactive oxygen species, such as superoxide and peroxynitrite, related to macrophages are mainly involved in the oxidative stress.

Does lipoic acid consumption affect the cytokine profile in multiple sclerosis patients: a double-blind, placebo-controlled, randomized clinical trial

BACKGROUND

A limited amount of data exists regarding the effect of lipoic acid (LA), an oral antioxidant supplement, on cytokine profiles among multiple sclerosis (MS) patients.

OBJECTIVE

We aimed to assess the effect of daily consumption of LA on the cytokine profiles in MS patients.

METHODS

In this double-blind, placebo-controlled, randomized clinical trial, 52 relapsing-remitting MS patients with an age range of 18-50 years were recruited into 2 groups: LA consumption (1,200 mg/day) or placebo. Patients followed their prescribed supplements for 12 weeks. Fasting blood samples for cytokine profile measurement were collected at baseline and after the intervention. Anthropometric parameters were measured based on the standard guidelines.

RESULTS

INF-γ, ICAM-1, TGF-β and IL-4 were significantly reduced in the LA group compared to the placebo group [(INF-γ: 0.82 ± 0.2 vs. 0.2 ± 0.2 pg/ml, p < 0.0001), (ICAM-1: 20.2 ± 9.4 vs. 8 ± 10 ng/ml, p = 0.0001), (TGF-β: 103.1 ± 20.2 vs. 54.9 ± 26 ng/ml, p < 0.0001) and (IL-4: 0.1 ± 0.1 vs. 1.02 ± 1.7 ng/ml, p = 0.0112)]. No significant changes in TNF-α, IL-6, EDSS and MMP-9 were found between the LA and placebo groups (p = 0.6, p = 0.8, p = 0.09 and p = 0.8, respectively).

CONCLUSION

The results suggested that consumption of 1,200 mg LA per day beneficially affects several inflammatory cytokines including INF-γ, ICAM-1 TGF-β and IL-4. Further investigations are needed to verify the beneficial role of LA on other cytokine profiles among MS patients.

Lysimachia clethroides Duby extract attenuates inflammatory response in Raw 264.7 macrophages stimulated with lipopolysaccharide and in acute lung injury mouse model

ETHNOPHARMACOLOGICAL RELEVANCE

Lysimachia clethroides Duby (LC) is a traditional medicinal herb used to treat edema, hepatitis and inflammatory diseases in China and other Asian countries. In this study, the anti-inflammatory effects of LC extract and the mechanisms underlying were explored in both in vitro cell lines and acute lung injury (ALI) animal model of inflammation in vivo.

MATERIALS AND METHODS

Lipopolysaccharide (LPS)-stimulated Raw 264.7 murine macrophages were used to study the regulatory effects of LC extract on inflammatory mediators such as nitric oxide (NO) and proinflammatory cytokine expression. Western blotting or ELISA techniques were employed to estimate protein levels. RT-PCR was used for analyzing the interferon (IFN)-β production. LPS-induced ALI mouse model in vivo was employed to study the effect of LC extract. Further high-performance liquid chromatography (HPLC) fingerprinting technique was used to evaluate the active constituents present in LC extract, compared with reference standards.

RESULTS

Pre-treatment with LC extract inhibited the LPS-stimulated NO release, interleukin (IL)-1β and IL-6 production in Raw 264.7 cells dose dependently. LC extract inhibited the LPS-stimulated IRF3 and STAT1 phosphorylation. Further, in vivo experiments revealed that LC extract suppressed the infiltration of immune cells into the lung and proinflammatory cytokine production in broncho-alveolar lavage fluid (BALF) in the LPS-induced ALI mouse model.

CONCLUSIONS

Our results indicate that LC extract attenuates LPS-stimulated inflammatory responses in macrophages via regulating the key inflammatory mechanisms, providing a scientific support for its traditional use in treating various inflammatory diseases.

Anti-inflammatory Activity of Dichloromethane Extract of Auricularia auricula-judae in RAW264.7 Cells

The present study investigated the anti-inflammatory effects of dichloromethane extract of Auricularia auricula-judae. Dichloromethane extract of Auricularia auricula-judae inhibited Lipopolysaccharide (LPS) -induced nitric oxide (NO) production significantly in a dose-dependent manner in the concentration ≥10 μg/ml (p < 0.05) . Furthermore, RT-PCR results of this study indicated that the extract markedly reduced the expressions of inflammatory cytokines (IL-6, TNF-α and IL-1β) mRNA in LPS-treated murine RAW 264.7 macrophages, which could possibly ameliorate the inflammation. Nevertheless, dichloromethane extract of Auricularia auricula-judae did not show complete inhibition of IL-6 mRNA expression. The inhibition of IL-1β cytokine at protein level was also observed in a dose dependent manner. In conclusion,the current study revealed the previously unknown effect of dichloromethane ethyl extract of Auricularia auricula-judae inhibitions of the production of NO, IL-6, TNF-α and IL-1β in LPS-stimulated macrophages.

Lipid peroxidation and its toxicological implications

Lipid peroxidation is a free radical oxidation of polyunsaturated fatty acids such as linoleic acid or arachidonic acid. This process has been related with various pathologies and disease status mainly because of the oxidation products formed during the process. The oxidation products include reactive aldehydes such as malondialdehyde and 4-hydroxynonenal. These reactive aldehydes can form adducts with DNAs and proteins, leading to the alterations in their functions to cause various diseases. This review will provide a short summary on the implication of lipid peroxidation on cancer, atherosclerosis, and neurodegeneration as well as chemical and biochemical mechanisms by which these adducts affect the pathological conditions. In addition, select examples will be presented where antioxidants were used to counteract oxidative damage caused by lipid peroxidation. At the end, isoprostanes are discussed as a gold standard for the assessment of oxidative damages.

A role for interleukin-17A in modulating intracellular survival of Mycobacterium bovis bacillus Calmette-Guérin in murine macrophages

Interleukin 17A IL-17A is a crucial immunomodulator in various chronic immunological diseases including rheumatoid arthritis and inflammatory bowel disease. The cytokine has also been demonstrated to control the pathogenesis of the Mycobacterium tuberculosis by dysregulating production of cytokines and chemokines and promoting granuloma formation. Whether IL-17A regulates innate defence mechanisms of macrophages in response to mycobacterial infection remains to be elucidated. In the current report, we investigated the effects of IL-17A on modulating the intracellular survival of Mycobacterium bovis bacillus Calmette-Guérin (BCG) in RAW264.7 murine macrophages. We observed that IL-17A pre-treatment for 24 hr was able to synergistically enhance BCG-induced nitric oxide (NO) production and inducible nitric oxide synthase expression in dose- and time-dependent manners. We further delineated the mechanisms involved in this synergistic reaction. IL-17A was found to specifically enhanced BCG-induced phosphorylation of Jun N-terminal kinase (JNK), but not of extracellular signal-regulated kinase 1/2 and p38 mitogen-activated protein kinase. By using a specific JNK inhibitor (SP600125), we found that the production of NO in BCG-infected macrophages was significantly suppressed. Taken together, we confirmed the involvement of the JNK pathway in IL-17A-enhanced NO production in BCG-infected macrophages. We further demonstrated that IL-17A significantly enhanced the clearance of intracellular BCG by macrophages through an NO-dependent killing mechanism. In conclusion, our study revealed an anti-mycobacterial role of IL-17A through priming the macrophages to produce NO in response to mycobacterial infection.

The protective effect of alpha-lipoic Acid in lipopolysaccharide-induced acute lung injury is mediated by heme oxygenase-1

Alpha-lipoic acid (ALA), occurring naturally in human food, is known to possess antioxidative and anti-inflammatory activities. Induction of heme oxygenase-1 (HO-1) has been reported to exhibit a therapeutic effect in several inflammatory diseases. The aim of study was to test the hypothesis that the protection of ALA against lipopolysaccharide-(LPS-) induced acute lung injury (ALI) is mediated by HO-1. Pre- or posttreatment with ALA significantly inhibited LPS-induced histological alterations of ALI, lung tissue edema, and production of proinflammatory cytokine, cytokine inducible neutrophil chemoattractant-3, and nitrite/nitrate in bronchoalveolar lavage fluid. In addition, the inflammatory responses including elevation of superoxide formation, myeloperoxidase activity, polymorphonuclear neutrophils infiltration, nitrotyrosine, inducible nitric oxide synthase expression and nuclear factor-kappa B (NF-κB) activation in lung tissues of LPS-instilled rats were also markedly reduced by ALA. Interestingly, treatment with ALA significantly increased nuclear factor-erythroid 2-related factor 2 (Nrf2) activation and HO-1 expression in lungs of ALI. However, blocking HO-1 activity by tin protoporphyrin IX (SnPP), an HO-1 inhibitor, markedly abolished these beneficial effects of ALA in LPS-induced ALI. These results suggest that the protection mechanism of ALA may be through HO-1 induction and in turn suppressing NF-κB-mediated inflammatory responses.

Activation of Rac1 GTPase by nanoparticulate structures in human macrophages

Inflammatory activation of alveolar macrophages by ambient particles can be facilitated via Toll-like receptors (TLR). The action of TLR agonists and antagonists has been reported to depend on the formation of nanoparticulate structures. Aim of the present study was to identify the signaling pathways induced by nanoparticulate structures in human macrophages, which might be critical for inflammatory cell activation.

METHODS

Studies were performed in primary human alveolar macrophages or in differentiated THP-1 macrophages. Silica nanoparticles were prepared by Stöber synthesis and characterized by dynamic light scattering and scanning electron microscopy. Mycobacterial DNA was isolated from Mycobacterium bovis BCG, and nanoparticle formation was assessed by atomic force microscopy and dynamic light scattering. Actin polymerization was measured by phalloidin-TRITC staining, and cell activation was determined by reverse transcription quantitative PCR analysis, L929 cytotoxicity assay (cytokine induction), and pull-down assays (Rho GTPases).

RESULTS

In contrast to immune stimulatory sequence ISS 1018, BCG DNA spontaneously formed nanoparticulate structures and induced actin polymerization as did synthetic silica nanoparticles. Co-incubation with silica nanoparticles amplified the responsiveness of macrophages toward the TLR9 ligand ISS 1018. The activation of Rac1 was induced by silica nanoparticles as well as BCG DNA and is suggested as the critical signaling event inducing both cytoskeleton changes as well as inflammatory cell activation.

CONCLUSION

Nanoparticles can induce signaling pathways, which amplify an inflammatory response in macrophages.