Skin manifestations of Cushing disease in children and adolescents before and after the resolution of hypercortisolemia

Non-traumatic ecchymoses: A literature review from a medico-legal perspective

Ecchymosis, as a general term, refers to discoloration of the skin due to the presence of extravasated blood into the dermis and/or subcutaneous tissue. However, it can occasionally be observed without any trauma, as a symptom of disease, a clinical condition, or even during the course of treating a disease. It is extremely important that these non-traumatic lesions are known and recognized and can be distinguished from traumatic ecchymoses by both clinicians and forensic scientists. This review of the literature includes detailed descriptions of non-traumatic periorbital ecchymosis, Slapped Cheek Syndrome, Cullen's Sign, Grey Turner's Sign, Stabler's Sign, Ransohoff Sign, Bryant's Sign, postsacral ecchymosis, perianal ecchymosis, Fox's Sign, other lower leg ecchymosis, and ecchymosis on various body regions. In this article, it is emphasized that failure to correctly identify these findings may subject practitioners to malpractice lawsuits, and failure to correctly identify findings by forensic experts may result in unjust legal judgments against people or loss of rights. It is also this review encourages accurate diagnosis of non-traumatic ecchymoses.

Bedtime Salivary Cortisol as a Screening Test for Cushing Syndrome in Children

Background

Diagnosing Cushing syndrome (CS) can be challenging. The 24-hour urine free cortisol (UFC) measurement is considered gold standard. This is a laborious test, dependent on correct urine collection. Late-night salivary cortisol is easier and is used as a screening test for CS in adults, but has not been validated for use in children.

Objective

To define liquid chromatography tandem mass spectrometry (LC-MS/MS)-based cutoff values for bedtime and morning salivary cortisol and cortisone in children, and validate the results in children with and without CS.

Methods

Bedtime and morning salivary samples were collected from 320 healthy children aged 4 to 16 years. Fifty-four patients from the children’s outpatient obesity clinic and 3 children with pituitary CS were used for validation. Steroid hormones were assayed by LC-MS/MS. Cutoff levels for bedtime salivary cortisol and cortisone were defined by the 97.5% percentile in healthy subjects.

Results

Bedtime cutoff levels for cortisol and cortisone were 2.4 and 12.0 nmol/L, respectively. Applying these cutoff levels on the verification cohort, 1 child from the obesity clinic had bedtime salivary cortisol exceeding the defined cutoff level, but normal salivary cortisone. All 3 children with pituitary CS had salivary cortisol and cortisone far above the defined bedtime cutoff levels. Healthy subjects showed a significant decrease in salivary cortisol from early morning to bedtime.

Conclusions

We propose that bedtime salivary cortisol measured by LC-MS/MS with a diagnostic threshold above 2.4 nmol/L can be applied as a screening test for CS in children. Age- and gender-specific cutoff levels are not needed.

Neuroendocrinology and neurobiology of sebaceous glands

The nervous system communicates with peripheral tissues through nerve fibres and the systemic release of hypothalamic and pituitary neurohormones. Communication between the nervous system and the largest human organ, skin, has traditionally received little attention. In particular, the neuro-regulation of sebaceous glands (SGs), a major skin appendage, is rarely considered. Yet, it is clear that the SG is under stringent pituitary control, and forms a fascinating, clinically relevant peripheral target organ in which to study the neuroendocrine and neural regulation of epithelia. Sebum, the major secretory product of the SG, is composed of a complex mixture of lipids resulting from the holocrine secretion of specialised epithelial cells (sebocytes). It is indicative of a role of the neuroendocrine system in SG function that excess circulating levels of growth hormone, thyroxine or prolactin result in increased sebum production (seborrhoea). Conversely, growth hormone deficiency, hypothyroidism, and adrenal insufficiency result in reduced sebum production and dry skin. Furthermore, the androgen sensitivity of SGs appears to be under neuroendocrine control, as hypophysectomy (removal of the pituitary) renders SGs largely insensitive to stimulation by testosterone, which is crucial for maintaining SG homeostasis. However, several neurohormones, such as adrenocorticotropic hormone and α-melanocyte-stimulating hormone, can stimulate sebum production independently of either the testes or the adrenal glands, further underscoring the importance of neuroendocrine control in SG biology. Moreover, sebocytes synthesise several neurohormones and express their receptors, suggestive of the presence of neuro-autocrine mechanisms of sebocyte modulation. Aside from the neuroendocrine system, it is conceivable that secretion of neuropeptides and neurotransmitters from cutaneous nerve endings may also act on sebocytes or their progenitors, given that the skin is richly innervated. However, to date, the neural controls of SG development and function remain poorly investigated and incompletely understood. Botulinum toxin-mediated or facial paresis-associated reduction of human sebum secretion suggests that cutaneous nerve-derived substances modulate lipid and inflammatory cytokine synthesis by sebocytes, possibly implicating the nervous system in acne pathogenesis. Additionally, evidence suggests that cutaneous denervation in mice alters the expression of key regulators of SG homeostasis. In this review, we examine the current evidence regarding neuroendocrine and neurobiological regulation of human SG function in physiology and pathology. We further call attention to this line of research as an instructive model for probing and therapeutically manipulating the mechanistic links between the nervous system and mammalian skin.

The color of skin: brown diseases of the skin, nails, and mucosa

Brown diseases comprise disorders leading to hyperpigmentation in skin and nails. Melasma is an acquired skin disorder that is characterized by brownish macules that typically occur on the face. Schamberg disease, also known as progressive pigmented purpura, is characterized by brown pigmentation with pepper spots on their edges. We summarize the epidemiology, pathogenesis, histologic features, and treatment choices for additional brown diseases, including melasma, pigmented purpuric dermatoses, postinflammatory hyperpigmentation, drug-induced hyperpigmentation, and pigmentations due to systemic or physiologic conditions.

Differences in skin lesions of endogenous and exogenous Cushing's patients

INTRODUCTION

Cushing's syndrome is a rare condition characterized by increased glucocorticoid levels. Dermatologically, it causes a variety of skin conditions such as atrophy, striae, acne, plethora, hypertrichosis, hirsutism, acanthosis nigricans, hyperpigmentation, alopecia, purpura and fragile skin. Although skin lesions of Cushing's syndrome have been described, exogenous and endogenous types have not been studied in detail.

AIM

To determine differences in possible skin lesions depending on the cause of Cushing's syndrome.

MATERIAL AND METHODS

A total of 35 patients - 16 iatrogenic Cushing's syndrome patients and 19 endogenous Cushing's syndrome patients - who were diagnosed in Erciyes University and 15 healthy individuals were included in this study.

RESULTS

There was at least one skin finding in 34 (97.1%) of the patients with Cushing's syndrome and 9 (60%) in the control group (p = 0.001). Comparison regarding skin findings in patient and control groups revealed that hypertrichosis, hyperpigmentation, and fungal infections were significantly more frequent in the patient group than the control group. Hirsutism was found more frequently in the endogenous group whereas stria, hypertrichosis and fungal infections were more frequent in the exogenous group.

CONCLUSIONS

Since Cushing's syndrome is a rare disease and it is often diagnosed later in life, data on the frequency of skin findings are limited and sparse in the literature. In the comparison of endogenous Cushing's and exogenous Cushing's groups, acne, hypertrichosis, and fungal infections were found more frequently in the exogenous Cushing's group and hirsutism more frequently in the endogenous Cushing's group.

Neonatal Cushing Syndrome: A Rare but Potentially Devastating Disease

Neonatal Cushing syndrome (CS) is most commonly caused by exogenous administration of glucocorticoids and rarely by endogenous hypercortisolemia. CS owing to adrenal lesions is the most common cause of endogenous CS in neonates and infants, and adrenocortical tumors (ACTs) represent most cases. Many ACTs develop in the context of a TP53 gene mutation, which causes Li-Fraumeni syndrome. More rarely, neonatal CS presents as part of other syndromes such as McCune-Albright syndrome or Beckwith-Wiedemann syndrome. Management usually includes resection of the primary tumor with or without additional medical treatment, but manifestations may persist after resolution of hypercortisolemia.

Decreased lymphocytes and increased risk for infection are common in endogenous pediatric Cushing syndrome

BackgroundHypercortisolemia results in changes of the immune system and elevated infection risk, but data on the WBC changes in pediatric Cushing syndrome (CS) are not known. We describe the changes of the WBC lineages in pediatric endogenous hypercortisolemia, their associations with the markers of disease severity, and the presence of infections.MethodsWe identified 197 children with endogenous CS. Clinical and biochemical data were recorded. Sixty-six children with similar age and gender, and normocortisolemia served as controls.ResultsThe absolute lymphocyte count of CS patients was significantly lower than that of controls, while the total WBC and the absolute neutrophil counts were significantly higher. These changes correlated with several markers of CS severity and improved after resolution of hypercortisolemia. Infections were identified in 35 patients (17.8%), and their presence correlated to elevated serum morning cortisol, midnight cortisol, and urinary free cortisol levels, as well as with the decrease in absolute lymphocyte count.ConclusionsChildren with endogenous CS have abnormal WBC counts, which correlate with the severity of CS, and normalize after cure. Infections are common in this population; clinicians should be aware of this complication of CS and have low threshold in diagnosis and treating infections in CS.

Somatic USP8 Gene Mutations Are a Common Cause of Pediatric Cushing Disease

CONTEXT

Somatic mutations in the ubiquitin-specific protease 8 (USP8) gene have been recently identified as the most common genetic alteration in patients with Cushing disease (CD). However, the frequency of these mutations in the pediatric population has not been extensively assessed.

OBJECTIVE

We investigated the status of the USP8 gene at the somatic level in a cohort of pediatric patients with corticotroph adenomas.

DESIGN AND METHODS

The USP8 gene was fully sequenced in both germline and tumor DNA samples from 42 pediatric patients with CD. Clinical, biochemical, and imaging data were compared between patients with and without somatic USP8 mutations.

RESULTS

Five different USP8 mutations (three missense, one frameshift, and one in-frame deletion) were identified in 13 patients (31%), all of them located in exon 14 at the previously described mutational hotspot, affecting the 14-3-3 binding motif of the protein. Patients with somatic mutations were older at disease presentation [mean 5.1 ± 2.1 standard deviation (SD) vs 13.1 ± 3.6 years, P = 0.03]. Levels of urinary free cortisol, midnight serum cortisol, and adrenocorticotropic hormone, as well as tumor size and frequency of invasion of the cavernous sinus, were not significantly different between the two groups. However, patients harboring somatic USP8 mutations had a higher likelihood of recurrence compared with patients without mutations (46.2% vs 10.3%, P = 0.009).

CONCLUSION

Somatic USP8 gene mutations are a common cause of pediatric CD. Patients harboring a somatic mutation had a higher likelihood of tumor recurrence, highlighting the potential importance of this molecular defect for the disease prognosis and the development of targeted therapeutic options.

Skin manifestations of Cushing's syndrome

Among the most common diagnostic manifestations of Cushing's syndrome (CS) are those involving the skin; they include violaceous striae, facial acne, hirsutism, acanthosis nigricans (AN), fungal infections, hyperpigmentation (Hp) and easy bruisability. Fortunately, most resolve within a year or two after cure of CS, although light-colored striae can persist for years depending on the age of the patients. AN, Hp, and bruisability usually resolve within months after cure in almost all ages. Facial plethora (along with acne and other facial skin changes) is a typical sign of CS that is due to increased perfusion. It resolves immediately after curative therapy of CS. Typically, the severity of the manifestations does not correlate with the biochemical indices of the disease, pointing to age, gender, genetic and skin-type differences that determine the cutaneous manifestations of CS.

Flushing in (neuro)endocrinology

Cutaneous flushing is a common presenting complaint in endocrine disorders. The pathophysiology of flushing involves changes in cutaneous blood flow triggered by multiple intrinsic factors that are either related to physiology or disease. Flushing can be divided into episodic or persistent causes. Episodic flushing is mediated by the release of endogenous vasoactive mediators or medications, while persistent flushing results in a fixed facial erythema with telangiectasia and cyanosis due to slow-flowing deoxygenated blood in large cutaneous blood vessels. The differential diagnosis of cutaneous flushing in neuroendocrine disorders is limited, yet encompasses a broad spectrum of benign and malignant entities, including carcinoid syndrome, pheochromocytoma, Cushing syndrome, medullary thyroid cancer, and pancreatic neuroendocrine tumors. In this review, we provide a concise and up-to-date discussion on the differential diagnosis and approach of flushing in neuroendocrinology.

Complications of Cushing's syndrome: state of the art

Cushing's syndrome is a serious endocrine disease caused by chronic, autonomous, and excessive secretion of cortisol. The syndrome is associated with increased mortality and impaired quality of life because of the occurrence of comorbidities. These clinical complications include metabolic syndrome, consisting of systemic arterial hypertension, visceral obesity, impairment of glucose metabolism, and dyslipidaemia; musculoskeletal disorders, such as myopathy, osteoporosis, and skeletal fractures; neuropsychiatric disorders, such as impairment of cognitive function, depression, or mania; impairment of reproductive and sexual function; and dermatological manifestations, mainly represented by acne, hirsutism, and alopecia. Hypertension in patients with Cushing's syndrome has a multifactorial pathogenesis and contributes to the increased risk for myocardial infarction, cardiac failure, or stroke, which are the most common causes of death; risks of these outcomes are exacerbated by a prothrombotic diathesis and hypokalaemia. Neuropsychiatric disorders can be responsible for suicide. Immune disorders are common; immunosuppression during active disease causes susceptibility to infections, possibly complicated by sepsis, an important cause of death, whereas immune rebound after disease remission can exacerbate underlying autoimmune diseases. Prompt treatment of cortisol excess and specific treatments of comorbidities are crucial to prevent serious clinical complications and reduce the mortality associated with Cushing's syndrome.

Diagnosis and Clinical Genetics of Cushing Syndrome in Pediatrics

Endogenous Cushing syndrome (CS) in pediatrics is rare; it may be caused by tumors that produce corticotropin in the pituitary gland or elsewhere, tumors that produce corticotropin-releasing hormone anywhere, and adrenocortical masses that produce cortisol. Adrenocortical cancer is a rare cause of CS in children but should be excluded first. CS in children is often caused by germline or somatic mutations with implications for patient prognosis and for their families. CS should be recognized early in children; otherwise, it can lead to significant morbidity and mortality. Patients with suspected CS should be referred to specialized clinical centers for workup.

Fibroblast heterogeneity and its implications for engineering organotypic skin models in vitro

Advances in cell culture methods, multidisciplinary research, clinical need to replace lost skin tissues and regulatory need to replace animal models with alternative test methods has led to development of three dimensional models of human skin. In general, these in vitro models of skin consist of keratinocytes cultured over fibroblast-populated dermal matrices. Accumulating evidences indicate that mesenchyme-derived signals are essential for epidermal morphogenesis, homeostasis and differentiation. Various studies show that fibroblasts isolated from different tissues in the body are dynamic in nature and are morphologically and functionally heterogeneous subpopulations. Further, these differences seem to be dictated by the local biological and physical microenvironment the fibroblasts reside resulting in "positional identity or memory". Furthermore, the heterogeneity among the fibroblasts play a critical role in scarless wound healing and complete restoration of native tissue architecture in fetus and oral mucosa; and excessive scar formation in diseased states like keloids and hypertrophic scars. In this review, we summarize current concepts about the heterogeneity among fibroblasts and their role in various wound healing environments. Further, we contemplate how the insights on fibroblast heterogeneity could be applied for the development of next generation organotypic skin models.

[Lipodystrophies]

Human lipodystrophies represent a group of diseases characterized by altered body fat amount and/or repartition. Most forms of lipodystrophies are associated with metabolic alterations such as insulin resistance, diabetes and dyslipemia, leading to diabetic complications, increased cardiovascular risk or liver steatosis. Lipodystrophies can be classified as genetic or acquired, generalized or partial. Genetic forms such as Berardinelli-Seip syndrome or partial familial lipodystrophies are uncommon and acquired forms are much more frequent. Beside the rare Lawrence or Barraquer-Simons syndromes, the main forms of acquired lipodystrophies are those observed in HIV-infected people treated with antiretroviral therapies or in people exposed to an endogenous or an exogenous hypercortisolism. The treatment of lipodystrophies is difficult. Lifestyle modifications (e.g., specific diet, physical training) may be helpful but are usually insufficient. Associated metabolic disorders should be treated as soon as possible with insulin sensitizers, insulin and lipid lowering drugs. New therapies such as leptin have been proven to be helpful in some genetic or acquired forms of lipodystrophy.

Skin signs of systemic diseases

The skin should not be considered as an isolated organ but rather as a definite functioning system that communicates with the internal environment. Skin signs of systemic diseases occur frequently and sometimes feature the first symptoms of an internal disease; furthermore, these manifestations may be the sole expressions of otherwise asymptomatic systemic disorders. A number of dermatologic signs, symptoms, and disorders can be invaluable as markers of systemic disease. Although a plethora of specialized modern diagnostic tests are available, the skin still remains the only organ of the body that is immediately and completely accessible to direct clinical examination. This contribution reviews the skin signs of systemic diseases. The description of the clinical features of skin lesions observed in several internal diseases will be useful to general physicians, internists, and dermatologists in the diagnosis of a systemic disease.

The pituitary-adrenal axis and body composition

The activity of the pituitary-adrenal axis can profoundly impact on body composition. This is dramatically seen in Cushing's syndrome (CS) but changes in body composition are also implicated in depression and alcoholic pseudocushing's. The pathophysiological mechanisms underlying these changes remain poorly understood. Changes to body composition in CS include increased fat mass, decreased bone mass, thinning of the skin and reduced lean mass. Why these tissues are affected so dramatically is unclear. Additionally, the change in body composition between individuals varies considerably for reasons which are only now becoming evident. This paper reviews the phenotypic changes with altered pituitary-adrenal axis activity and discusses the mechanisms involved. The primary focus is on adipose, bone, muscle and skin since the most dramatic changes are seen in these tissues.

Diabetes mellitus

Dermatologic problems are common in diabetes, with approximately 30% of patients experiencing some cutaneous involvement during the course of their illness. Skin manifestations generally appear during the course of the disease in patients known to have diabetes, but they may also be the first presenting sign of diabetes or even precede the diagnosis by many years. The skin involvement can be autoimmune in nature, such as acanthosis nigricans, necrobiosis lipoidica, diabetic dermopathy, scleredema, and granuloma annulare, or infectious in the form of erythrasma, necrotizing fasciitis, and mucormycosis. Pharmacologic management of diabetes, in addition, can also result in skin changes, such as lipoatrophy and lipohypertrophy, at the site of injection of insulin, and oral antidiabetic agents can cause multiple skin reactions as adverse effects. The management of these cutaneous manifestations is tailored according to the underlying pathophysiology, but a tight control of blood glucose is a prerequisite in all management strategies.

Pituitary adenomas in childhood: development and diagnosis

Pituitary adenomas account for approximately 2.7% of all supratentorial tumors in the pediatric age range, and children are more likely than adults to develop a functioning adenoma. X chromosome inactivation studies indicate that pituitary adenomas arise from the clonal expression of a single mutated cell, and various intracellular mechanisms contribute to tumoral transformation. Functional pituitary tumors in childhood result in physical and biochemical effects of excess production of the oversecreted hormone, such as ACTH, prolactin, human growth hormone, TSH, LH, or FSH. In the clinical approach to pituitary adenomas, it is important to establish the presence of hormonal excess prior to undertaking imaging studies.

Cushing's syndrome

Cushing's syndrome results from prolonged exposure to excess glucocorticoids. Patients with Cushing's syndrome may develop multiple metabolic problems including obesity, hyperglycemia, hypertension, depression, low bone mass, muscle atrophy, and hypogonadism. Cutaneous manifestations of hypercortisolism include skin atrophy, excessive bruising, purple striations, poor wound healing, facial plethora, vellous hypertrichosis and hirsutism. Diagnostic tests used to screen for Cushing's syndrome include 24-hour urine cortisol, the 1 mg dexamethasone suppresion test, and late night salivary cortisol. A normal screening test excludes the diagnosis of Cushing's. Patients with an abnormal screening test should be referred to an endocrinologist for complete evaluation of the pituitary-adrenal axis.

Human skin: an independent peripheral endocrine organ

The historical picture of the endocrine system as a set of discrete hormone-producing organs has been substituted by organs regarded as organized communities in which the cells emit, receive and coordinate molecular signals from established endocrine organs, other distant sources, their neighbors, and themselves. In this wide sense, the human skin and its tissues are targets as well as producers of hormones. Although the role of hormones in the development of human skin and its capacity to produce and release hormones are well established, little attention has been drawn to the ability of human skin to fulfil the requirements of a classic endocrine organ. Indeed, human skin cells produce insulin-like growth factors and -binding proteins, propiomelanocortin derivatives, catecholamines, steroid hormones and vitamin D from cholesterol, retinoids from diet carotenoids, and eicosanoids from fatty acids. Hormones exert their biological effects on the skin through interaction with high-affinity receptors, such as receptors for peptide hormones, neurotransmitters, steroid hormones and thyroid hormones. In addition, the human skin is able to metabolize hormones and to activate and inactivate them. These steps are overtaken in most cases by different skin cell populations in a coordinated way indicating the endocrine autonomy of the skin. Characteristic examples are the metabolic pathways of the corticotropin-releasing hormone/propiomelanocortin axis, steroidogenesis, vitamin D, and retinoids. Hormones exhibit a wide range of biological activities on the skin, with major effects caused by growth hormone/insulin-like growth factor-1, neuropeptides, sex steroids, glucocorticoids, retinoids, vitamin D, peroxisome proliferator-activated receptor ligands, and eicosanoids. At last, human skin produces hormones which are released in the circulation and are important for functions of the entire organism, such as sex hormones, especially in aged individuals, and insulin-like growth factor-binding proteins. Therefore, the human skin fulfils all requirements for being the largest, independent peripheral endocrine organ.

Side effects of corticosteroid therapy

BACKGROUND

Corticosteroids have been used for the treatment of inflammatory bowel disease since the late 1940s. Upwards of 80% of patients may respond acutely to treatment with these medications, although 20% or more may be refractory and others become dependent on corticosteroid use to suppress disease activity. Side effects in the acute situation are relatively minor, although significant side effects (e.g., psychosis) have been encountered; the long-term use of corticosteroids is more problematic. This creates a milieu for the potential for serious and irreversible problems. These side effects are discussed in detail. The side effects from corticosteroids emulate from exogenous hypercortisolism, which is similar to the clinical syndrome of Cushing's disease.

STUDY

PubMed search for years 1966-2000, author's personal manuscript/abstract files, and citations of known references.

CONCLUSION

Short-term corticosteroid use is associated with generally mild side effects, including cutaneous effects, electrolyte abnormalities, hypertension, hyperglycemia, pancreatitis, hematologic, immunologic, and neuropsychologic effects, although occasionally, clinically significant side effects may occur. Long-term corticosteroid use may be associated with more serious sequel, including osteoporosis, aseptic joint necrosis, adrenal insufficiency, gastrointestinal, hepatic, and ophthalmologic effects, hyperlipidemia, growth suppression, and possible congenital malformations.

Role of hormones in pilosebaceous unit development

Androgens are required for sexual hair and sebaceous gland development. However, pilosebaceous unit (PSU) growth and differentiation require the interaction of androgen with numerous other biological factors. The pattern of PSU responsiveness to androgen is determined in the embryo. Hair follicle growth involves close reciprocal epithelial-stromal interactions that recapitulate ontogeny; these interactions are necessary for optimal hair growth in culture. Peroxisome proliferator-activated receptors (PPARs) and retinoids have recently been found to specifically affect sebaceous cell growth and differentiation. Many other hormones such as GH, insulin-like growth factors, insulin, glucocorticoids, estrogen, and thyroid hormone play important roles in PSU growth and development. The biological and endocrinological basis of PSU development and the hormonal treatment of the PSU disorders hirsutism, acne vulgaris, and pattern alopecia are reviewed. Improved understanding of the multiplicity of factors involved in normal PSU growth and differentiation will be necessary to provide optimal treatment approaches for these disorders.