Linkage to peroxisome proliferator-activated receptor-gamma in SAMP1/YitFc mice and in human Crohn's disease

Exploring Microbial Metabolite Receptors in Inflammatory Bowel Disease: An In Silico Analysis of Their Potential Role in Inflammation and Fibrosis

Metabolites produced by dysbiotic intestinal microbiota can influence disease pathophysiology by participating in ligand-receptor interactions. Our aim was to investigate the differential expression of metabolite receptor (MR) genes between inflammatory bowel disease (IBD), healthy individuals (HIs), and disease controls in order to identify possible interactions with inflammatory and fibrotic pathways in the intestine. RNA-sequencing datasets containing 643 Crohn's disease (CD) patients, 467 ulcerative colitis (UC) patients and 295 HIs, and 4 Campylobacter jejuni-infected individuals were retrieved from the Sequence Read Archive, and differential expression was performed using the RaNA-seq online platform. The identified differentially expressed MR genes were used for correlation analysis with up- and downregulated genes in IBD, as well as functional enrichment analysis using a R based pipeline. Overall, 15 MR genes exhibited dysregulated expression in IBD. In inflamed CD, the hydroxycarboxylic acid receptors 2 and 3 (HCAR2, HCAR3) were upregulated and were associated with the recruitment of innate immune cells, while, in the non-inflamed CD ileum, the cannabinoid receptor 1 (CNR1) and the sphingosine-1-phospate receptor 4 (S1PR4) were downregulated and were involved in the regulation of B-cell activation. In inflamed UC, the upregulated receptors HCAR2 and HCAR3 were more closely associated with the process of TH-17 cell differentiation, while the pregnane X receptor (NR1I2) and the transient receptor potential vanilloid 1 (TRPV1) were downregulated and were involved in epithelial barrier maintenance. Our results elucidate the landscape of metabolite receptor expression in IBD, highlighting associations with disease-related functions that could guide the development of new targeted therapies.

Miniaturized implantable temperature sensors for the long-term monitoring of chronic intestinal inflammation

Diagnosing and monitoring inflammatory bowel diseases, such as Crohn's disease, involves the use of endoscopic imaging, biopsies and serology. These infrequent tests cannot, however, identify sudden onsets and severe flare-ups to facilitate early intervention. Hence, about 70% of patients with Crohn's disease require surgical intestinal resections in their lifetime. Here we report wireless, miniaturized and implantable temperature sensors for the real-time chronic monitoring of disease progression, which we tested for nearly 4 months in a mouse model of Crohn's-disease-like ileitis. Local measurements of intestinal temperature via intraperitoneally implanted sensors held in place against abdominal muscular tissue via two sutures showed the development of ultradian rhythms at approximately 5 weeks before the visual emergence of inflammatory skip lesions. The ultradian rhythms showed correlations with variations in the concentrations of stress hormones and inflammatory cytokines in blood. Decreasing average temperatures over the span of approximately 23 weeks were accompanied by an increasing percentage of inflammatory species in ileal lesions. These miniaturized temperature sensors may aid the early treatment of inflammatory bowel diseases upon the detection of episodic flare-ups.

Gut taste receptor type 1 member 3 is an intrinsic regulator of Western diet-induced intestinal inflammation

BACKGROUND

Long-term intake of a Western diet (WD), characterized by a high-fat content and sugary drinks, is hypothesized to contribute to the development of inflammatory bowel disease (IBD). Despite the identified clinical association, the molecular mechanisms by which dietary changes contribute to IBD development remain unknown. Therefore, we examined the influence of long-term intake of a WD on intestinal inflammation and the mechanisms by which WD intake affects IBD development.

METHODS

Mice fed normal diet or WD for 10 weeks, and bowel inflammation was evaluated through pathohistological and infiltrated inflammatory cell assessments. To understand the role of intestinal taste receptor type 1 member 3 (TAS1R3) in WD-induced intestinal inflammation, cultured enteroendocrine cells harboring TAS1R3, subjected to RNA interference or antagonist treatment, and Tas1r3-deficient mice were used. RNA-sequencing, flow cytometry, 16S metagenomic sequencing, and bioinformatics analyses were performed to examine the involved mechanisms. To demonstrate their clinical relevance, intestinal biopsies from patients with IBD and mice with dextran sulfate sodium-induced colitis were analyzed.

RESULTS

Our study revealed for the first time that intestinal TAS1R3 is a critical mediator of WD-induced intestinal inflammation. WD-fed mice showed marked TAS1R3 overexpression with hallmarks of serious bowel inflammation. Conversely, mice lacking TAS1R3 failed to exhibit inflammatory responses to WD. Mechanistically, intestinal transcriptome analysis revealed that Tas1r3 deficiency suppressed mTOR signaling, significantly increasing the expression of PPARγ (a major mucosal defense enhancer) and upregulating the expression of PPARγ target-gene (tight junction protein and antimicrobial peptide). The gut microbiota of Tas1r3-deficient mice showed expansion of butyrate-producing Clostridia. Moreover, an increased expression of host PPARγ-signaling pathway proteins was positively correlated with butyrate-producing microbes, suggesting that intestinal TAS1R3 regulates the relationship between host metabolism and gut microflora in response to dietary factors. In cultured intestinal cells, regulation of the TAS1R3-mTOR-PPARγ axis was critical for triggering an inflammatory response via proinflammatory cytokine production and secretion. Abnormal regulation of the axis was observed in patients with IBD.

CONCLUSIONS

Our findings suggest that the TAS1R3-mTOR-PPARγ axis in the gut links Western diet consumption with intestinal inflammation and is a potential therapeutic target for IBD.

Evidence Linking PPARG Genetic Variants with Periodontitis and Type 2 Diabetes Mellitus in a Brazilian Population

The peroxisome proliferator-activated receptor gamma (PPARG) gene encodes a transcription factor involved in the regulation of complex metabolic and inflammatory diseases. We investigated whether single nucleotide polymorphisms (SNPs) and haplotypes of the PPARG gene could contribute with susceptibility to develop periodontitis alone or together with type 2 diabetes mellitus (T2DM). Moreover, we evaluated the gene-phenotype association by assessing the subjects' biochemical and periodontal parameters, and the expression of PPARG and other immune response-related genes. We examined 345 subjects with a healthy periodontium and without T2DM, 349 subjects with moderate or severe periodontitis but without T2DM, and 202 subjects with moderate or severe periodontitis and T2DM. PPARG SNPs rs12495364, rs1801282, rs1373640, and rs1151999 were investigated. Multiple logistic regressions adjusted for age, sex, and smoking status showed that individuals carrying rs1151999-GG had a 64% lower chance of developing periodontitis together with T2DM. The CCGT haplotype increased the risk of developing periodontitis together with T2DM. The rs1151999-GG and rs12495364-TC were associated with reduced risk of obesity, periodontitis, elevated triglycerides, and elevated glycated hemoglobin, but there was no association with gene expression. Polymorphisms of the PPARG gene were associated with developing periodontitis together with T2DM, and with obesity, lipid, glycemic, and periodontal characteristics.

Pygopus2 ameliorates mesenteric adipocyte poor differentiation to alleviate Crohn's disease -like colitis via the Axin2/GSK3β pathway

Objectives

Crohn's disease (CD) mesenteric adipose tissue (MAT) inflammation affects enteritis through the interaction between the mesentery and intestine, and we previously found that poorly differentiated mesenteric adipocytes were related to its inflammatory features. Pygopus2 (Pygo2) is a key negative regulator of adipocyte differentiation. We aimed to determine whether Pygo2 participates in CD mesenteric lesions and whether Pygo2 knockdown would be beneficial in a CD model (Il‐10^−/− mice).

Methods

Pygo2 expression in MAT from control and CD patients and Il‐10^−/− mice was measured by immunohistochemistry. Lentiviral transfection was used to regulate Pygo2 expression in Il‐10^−/− mice, and the effects on mesenteric adipocyte differentiation, inflammation, and dysfunction during spontaneous colitis, as well as the possible mechanism, were investigated.

Results

Pygo2 expression was increased in MAT from CD patients and Il‐10^−/− mice, and its expression correlated with poor adipocyte differentiation and inflammation. Pygo2 knockdown significantly ameliorated colitis in Il‐10^−/− mice. Moreover, the downregulation of Pygo2 gene expression could promote adipocyte differentiation and inhibit adipocyte inflammation in vivo and in vitro, and the effects were at least partly mediated by the Axis inhibition protein 2 (Axin2)/glycogen synthase kinase 3 beta (GSK3β) pathway.

Conclusions

The increase in Pygo2 may be related to mesenteric adipocyte poor differentiation and inflammatory features of CD, and Pygo2 inhibition could alleviate CD‐like colitis by improving mesenteric lesions by regulating the Axin2/GSK3β pathway.

The Role of PPAR-γ in Allergic Disease

Purpose of Review

The incidence of allergic diseases such as asthma, rhinitis and atopic dermatitis has risen at an alarming rate over the last century. Thus, there is a clear need to understand the critical factors that drive such pathologic immune responses. Peroxisome proliferator-activated receptor-γ (PPAR-γ) is a nuclear receptor that has emerged as an important regulator of multiple cell types involved in the inflammatory response to allergens; from airway epithelial cells to T Helper (TH) cells.

Recent Findings

Initial studies suggested that agonists of PPAR-γ could be employed to temper allergic inflammation, suppressing pro-inflammatory gene expression programs in epithelial cells. Several lines of work now suggest that PPAR-γ plays an essential in promoting ‘type 2’ immune responses that are typically associated with allergic disease. PPAR-γ has been found to promote the functions of TH2 cells, type 2 innate lymphoid cells, M2 macrophages and dendritic cells, regulating lipid metabolism and directly inducing effector gene expression. Moreover, preclinical models of allergy in gene-targeted mice have increasingly implicated PPAR-γ in driving allergic inflammation.

Summary

Herein, we highlight the contrasting roles of PPAR-γ in allergic inflammation and hypothesize that the availability of environmental ligands for PPAR-γ may be at the heart of the rise in allergic diseases worldwide.

Regulation of Intestinal Inflammation by Dietary Fats

With the epidemic of human obesity, dietary fats have increasingly become a focal point of biomedical research. Epidemiological studies indicate that high-fat diets (HFDs), especially those rich in long-chain saturated fatty acids (e.g., Western Diet, National Health Examination survey; NHANES 'What We Eat in America' report) have multi-organ pro-inflammatory effects. Experimental studies have confirmed some of these disease associations, and have begun to elaborate mechanisms of disease induction. However, many of the observed effects from epidemiological studies appear to be an over-simplification of the mechanistic complexity that depends on dynamic interactions between the host, the particular fatty acid, and the rather personalized genetics and variability of the gut microbiota. Of interest, experimental studies have shown that certain saturated fats (e.g., lauric and myristic fatty acid-rich coconut oil) could exert the opposite effect; that is, desirable anti-inflammatory and protective mechanisms promoting gut health by unanticipated pathways. Owing to the experimental advantages of laboratory animals for the study of mechanisms under well-controlled dietary settings, we focus this review on the current understanding of how dietary fatty acids impact intestinal biology. We center this discussion on studies from mice and rats, with validation in cell culture systems or human studies. We provide a scoping overview of the most studied diseases mechanisms associated with the induction or prevention of Inflammatory Bowel Disease in rodent models relevant to Crohn's Disease and Ulcerative Colitis after feeding either high-fat diet (HFD) or feed containing specific fatty acid or other target dietary molecule. Finally, we provide a general outlook on areas that have been largely or scarcely studied, and assess the effects of HFDs on acute and chronic forms of intestinal inflammation.

Pioglitazone-Mediated Attenuation of Experimental Colitis Relies on Cleaving of Annexin A1 Released by Macrophages

Ulcerative colitis and Crohn's disease are chronic inflammatory bowel diseases (IBDs) which burden health systems worldwide; available pharmacological therapies are limited and cost-intensive. Use of peroxisome proliferator activated-receptor γ (PPARγ) ligands for IBD treatment, while promising, lacks solid evidences to ensure its efficacy. Annexin A1 (AnxA1), a glucocorticoid-modulated anti-inflammatory protein, plays a key role on IBD control and is a potential biomarker of IBD progression. We here investigated whether effects of pioglitazone, a PPARγ ligand, rely on AnxA1 actions to modulate IBD inflammation. Experimental colitis was evoked by 2% dextran sodium sulfate (DSS) in AnxA1 knockout (AnxA1^-/-) or wild type (WT) C57BL/6 mice. Clinical and histological parameters were more severe for AnxA^-/- than WT mice, and 10 mg/kg pioglitazone treatment attenuated disease parameters in WT mice only. AnxA1 expression was increased in tissue sections of diseased WT mice, correlating positively with presence of CD68⁺ macrophages. Metalloproteinase-9 (MMP-9) and inactive 33 kDa AnxA1 levels were increased in the colon of diseased WT mice, which were reduced by pioglitazone treatment. Cytokine secretion, reactive oxygen species generation and MMP-9 expression caused by lipopolysaccharide (LPS) treatment in AnxA1-expressing RAW 264.7 macrophages were reduced by pioglitazone treatment, effects not detected in AnxA1 knockdown macrophages. LPS-mediated increase of AnxA1 cleaving in RAW 264.7 macrophages was also attenuated by pioglitazone treatment. Finally, pioglitazone treatment increased extracellular signal-regulated kinase (ERK) phosphorylation in AnxA1-expressing RAW 264.7 macrophages, but not in AnxA1-knockdown macrophages. Thus, our data highlight AnxA1 as a crucial factor for the therapeutic actions of pioglitazone on IBDs.

Inflammatory Bowel Disease: New Insights into the Interplay between Environmental Factors and PPARγ

The pathophysiological processes of inflammatory bowel diseases (IBDs), i.e., Crohn's disease (CD) and ulcerative colitis (UC), are still not completely understood. The exact etiology remains unknown, but it is well established that the pathogenesis of the inflammatory lesions is due to a dysregulation of the gut immune system resulting in over-production of pro-inflammatory cytokines. Increasing evidence underlines the involvement of both environmental and genetic factors. Regarding the environment, the microbiota seems to play a crucial role. Peroxisome proliferator-activated receptors (PPARs) are nuclear receptors that exert pleiotropic effects on glucose homeostasis, lipid metabolism, inflammatory/immune processes, cell proliferation, and fibrosis. Furthermore, PPARs modulate interactions with several environmental factors, including microbiota. A significantly impaired PPARγ expression was observed in UC patients' colonic epithelial cells, suggesting that the disruption of PPARγ signaling may represent a critical step of the IBD pathogenesis. This paper will focus on the role of PPARγ in the interaction between environmental factors and IBD, and it will analyze the most suitable in vitro and in vivo models available to better study these relationships.

Bioactive lipids in inflammatory bowel diseases - From pathophysiological alterations to therapeutic opportunities

Inflammatory bowel diseases (IBDs), such as Crohn's disease and ulcerative colitis, are lifelong diseases that remain challenging to treat. IBDs are characterized by alterations in intestinal barrier function and dysregulation of the innate and adaptive immunity. An increasing number of lipids are found to be important regulators of inflammation and immunity as well as gut physiology. Therefore, the study of lipid mediators in IBDs is expected to improve our understanding of disease pathogenesis and lead to novel therapeutic opportunities. Here, through selected examples - such as fatty acids, specialized proresolving mediators, lysophospholipids, endocannabinoids, and oxysterols - we discuss how lipid signaling is involved in IBD physiopathology and how modulating lipid signaling pathways could affect IBDs.

Peroxisome Proliferator-Activated Receptors: Experimental Targeting for the Treatment of Inflammatory Bowel Diseases

The peroxisome proliferator-activated receptors (PPARs) are a group of nuclear receptor proteins that promote ligand-dependent transcription of target genes that regulate energy production, lipid metabolism, and inflammation. The PPAR superfamily comprises three subtypes, PPARα, PPARγ, and PPARβ/δ, with differential tissue distributions. In addition to their different roles in the regulation of energy balance and carbohydrate and lipid metabolism, an emerging function of PPARs includes normal homeostasis of intestinal tissue. PPARα activation represses NF-κB signaling, which decreases the inflammatory cytokine production by different cell types, while PPARγ ligands can inhibit activation of macrophages and the production of inflammatory cytokines, such as tumor necrosis factor-alpha (TNF-α), interleukin (IL)-6, and Il-1β. In this regard, the anti-inflammatory responses induced by PPAR activation might restore physiopathological imbalances associated with inflammatory bowel diseases (IBD). Thus, PPARs and their ligands have important therapeutic potential. This review briefly discusses the roles of PPARs in the physiopathology and therapies of the most important IBDs, ulcerative colitis (UC), and Crohn's disease (CD), as well some new experimental compounds with PPAR activity as promising drugs for IBD treatment.

PRDM16 Maintains Homeostasis of the Intestinal Epithelium by Controlling Region-Specific Metabolism

Metabolic pathways dynamically regulate tissue development and maintenance. However, the mechanisms that govern the metabolic adaptation of stem or progenitor cells to their local niche are poorly understood. Here, we define the transcription factor PRDM16 as a region-specific regulator of intestinal metabolism and epithelial renewal. PRDM16 is selectively expressed in the upper intestine, with enrichment in crypt-resident progenitor cells. Acute Prdm16 deletion in mice triggered progenitor apoptosis, leading to diminished epithelial differentiation and severe intestinal atrophy. Genomic and metabolic analyses showed that PRDM16 transcriptionally controls fatty acid oxidation (FAO) in crypts. Expression of this PRDM16-driven FAO program was highest in the upper small intestine and declined distally. Accordingly, deletion of Prdm16 or inhibition of FAO selectively impaired the development and maintenance of upper intestinal enteroids, and these effects were rescued by acetate treatment. Collectively, these data reveal that regionally specified metabolic programs regulate intestinal maintenance.

Streptococcus thermophilus NCIMB 41856 ameliorates signs of colitis in an animal model of inflammatory bowel disease

Treatment of inflammatory bowel disease (IBD) is mainly based on suppression of symptoms, often with numerous side effects. Trials of probiotics in IBD have frequently produced disappointing results. The majority of probiotics are unusual, since they do not require iron for growth, unlike many bacteria resident in the intestine. The IBD intestine is iron-rich due to bleeding and use of oral iron supplements; conventional probiotics would be rapidly outcompeted. We have evaluated an iron-responsive Streptococcus thermophilus strain for its potential to reduce signs of colitis. Efficacy of S. thermophilus was evaluated in the dextran sodium sulphate mouse model of colitis. Treated animals were given 1×108 cfu S. thermophilus per day and clinical observations were taken daily. At termination, gross and histopathological signs of disease, cellular infiltration, location of bacteria, and cytokine expression in the intestine were determined. S. thermophilus delayed onset of colitis and reduced clinical signs of disease, including bodyweight loss and gastrointestinal bleeding. It reduced bacterial translocation into the colonic tissue. Increased numbers of CD8+ intraepithelial lymphocytes were seen in control animals treated with S. thermophilus. S. thermophilus had no effect on gross pathology, histopathology or cytokine production in either colitic or control animals. We propose that S. thermophilus promotes maintenance of mucosal barrier function which reduces bacterial translocation, thereby reducing immune stimulation and associated inflammation. This allows mucosal healing, reducing gastrointestinal bleeding and weight loss. This could be studied as a locally-acting adjunct or alternative to current IBD treatments.

Uncovering Pathogenic Mechanisms of Inflammatory Bowel Disease Using Mouse Models of Crohn's Disease-Like Ileitis: What is the Right Model?

Crohn's disease and ulcerative colitis, together known as inflammatory bowel disease, are debilitating chronic disorders of unknown cause and cure. Our evolving understanding of these pathologies is enhanced greatly by the use of animal models of intestinal inflammation that allow in vivo mechanistic studies, preclinical evaluation of new therapies, and investigation into the causative factors that underlie disease pathogenesis. Several animal models, most commonly generated in mice, exist for the study of colitis. The appropriateness of their use often can be determined by their mode of generation (ie, chemical induction, T-cell transfer, targeted genetic manipulation, spontaneously occurring, and so forth), the type of investigation (mechanistic studies, pathogenic experiments, preclinical evaluations, and so forth), and the type of inflammation that occurs in the model (acute vs chronic colitis, tissue injury/repair, and so forth). Although most murine models of inflammatory bowel disease develop inflammation in the colon, Crohn's disease most commonly occurs in the terminal ileum, where a very limited number of mouse models manifest disease. This review discusses appropriate experimental applications for different mouse models of colitis, and highlights the particular utility of 2 highly relevant models of Crohn's-like ileitis-the spontaneous SAMP1/YitFc inbred mouse strain and the genetically engineered Tnf^{ΔAU-rich element/+} mouse model of tumor necrosis factor overexpression, both of which bear strong resemblance to the human condition. Similar to patients with Crohn's disease, SAMP1/YitFc ileitis develops spontaneously, without chemical, genetic, or immunologic manipulation, making this model particularly relevant for studies aimed at identifying the primary defect underlying the occurrence of Crohn's ileitis, as well as preclinical testing of novel treatment modalities.

Functional Analyses of the Crohn's Disease Risk Gene LACC1

BACKGROUND

Genetic variation in the Laccase (multicopper oxidoreductase) domain-containing 1 (LACC1) gene has been shown to affect the risk of Crohn's disease, leprosy and, more recently, ulcerative colitis and juvenile idiopathic arthritis. LACC1 function appears to promote fatty-acid oxidation, with concomitant inflammasome activation, reactive oxygen species production, and anti-bacterial responses in macrophages. We sought to contribute to elucidating LACC1 biological function by extensive characterization of its expression in human tissues and cells, and through preliminary analyses of the regulatory mechanisms driving such expression.

METHODS

We implemented Western blot, quantitative real-time PCR, immunofluorescence microscopy, and flow cytometry analyses to investigate fatty acid metabolism-immune nexus (FAMIN; the LACC1 encoded protein) expression in subcellular compartments, cell lines and relevant human tissues. Gene-set enrichment analyses were performed to initially investigate modulatory mechanisms of LACC1 expression. A small-interference RNA knockdown in vitro model system was used to study the effect of FAMIN depletion on peroxisome function.

RESULTS

FAMIN expression was detected in macrophage-differentiated THP-1 cells and several human tissues, being highest in neutrophils, monocytes/macrophages, myeloid and plasmacytoid dendritic cells among peripheral blood cells. Subcellular co-localization was exclusively confined to peroxisomes, with some additional positivity for organelle endomembrane structures. LACC1 co-expression signatures were enriched for genes involved in peroxisome proliferator-activated receptors (PPAR) signaling pathways, and PPAR ligands downregulated FAMIN expression in in vitro model systems.

CONCLUSION

FAMIN is a peroxisome-associated protein with primary role(s) in macrophages and other immune cells, where its metabolic functions may be modulated by PPAR signaling events. However, the precise molecular mechanisms through which FAMIN exerts its biological effects in immune cells remain to be elucidated.

PROBIOTIC APPROACHES FOR TARGETING INFLAMMATORY BOWEL DISEASE: AN UPDATE ON ADVANCES AND OPPORTUNITIES IN MANAGING THE DISEASE

Various commensal enteric and pathogenic bacteria may be involved in the pathogenesis of inflammatory bowel diseases (IBDs), a chronic condition with a pathogenic background that involves both immunogenetic and environmental factors. IBDs comprising of Crohn's disease, and ulcerative colitis, and pauchitis are chronic inflammatory conditions, and known for causing disturbed homeostatic balance among the intestinal immune compartment, gut epithelium and microbiome. An increasing trend of IBDs in incidence, prevalence, and severity has been reported during recent years. Probiotic strains have been reported to manage the IBDs and related pathologies, and hence are current hot topics of research for their potential to manage metabolic diseases as well as various immunopathologies. However, the probiotics industry will need to undergo a transformation, with increased focus on stringent manufacturing guidelines and high-quality clinical trials. This article reviews the present state of art of role of probiotic bacteria in reducing inflammation and strengthening the host immune system with reference to the management of IBDs. We infer that t healthcare will move beyond its prevailing focus on human physiology, and embrace the superorganism as a paradigm to understand and ameliorate IBDs.

Stereomicroscopic 3D-pattern profiling of murine and human intestinal inflammation reveals unique structural phenotypes

Histology is fundamental to assess two-dimensional intestinal inflammation; however, inflammatory bowel diseases (IBDs) are often indistinguishable microscopically on the basis of mucosal biopsies. Here, we use stereomicroscopy (SM) to rapidly profile the entire intestinal topography and assess inflammation. We examine the mucosal surface of >700 mice (encompassing >16 strains and various IBD-models), create a profiling catalogue of 3D-stereomicroscopic abnormalities and demonstrate that mice with comparable histological scores display unique sub-clusters of 3D-structure-patterns of IBD pathology, which we call 3D-stereoenterotypes, and which are otherwise indiscernible histologically. We show that two ileal IBD-stereoenterotypes ('cobblestones' versus 'villous mini-aggregation') cluster separately within two distinct mouse lines of spontaneous ileitis, suggesting that host genetics drive unique and divergent inflammatory 3D-structural patterns in the gut. In humans, stereomicroscopy reveals 'liquefaction' lesions and hierarchical fistulous complexes, enriched with clostridia/segmented filamentous bacteria, running under healthy mucosa in Crohn's disease. We suggest that stereomicroscopic (3D-SMAPgut) profiling can be easily implemented and enable the comprehensive study of inflammatory 3D structures, genetics and flora in IBD.

Immunology of inflammatory bowel disease and molecular targets for biologics

Inflammatory bowel disease (IBD) is an immune-mediated disease and involves a complex interplay of host genetics and environmental influences. Recent advances in the field, including data from genome-wide association studies and microbiome analysis, have started to unravel the complex interaction between host genetics and environmental influences in the pathogenesis of IBD. A drawback of current clinical trials is inadequate or lack of immune phenotyping of patients. However, recent advances in high-throughput technologies provide an opportunity to monitor the dynamic and complex immune system, which may to lead to a more personalized treatment approach in IBD.

Animal models of inflammatory bowel disease: a review

Inflammatory bowel disease (IBD) represents a group of idiopathic chronic inflammatory intestinal conditions associated with various areas of the GI tract, including two types of inflammatory conditions, i.e., ulcerative colitis (UC) and Crohn's disease (CD). Both UC and CD are chronic inflammatory disorders of the intestine; in UC, inflammation starts in the rectum and generally extends proximally in a continuous manner through the entire colon. Bloody diarrhea, presence of blood and mucus mixed with stool, accompanied by lower abdominal cramping, are the characteristic symptoms of the disease. While in CD, inflammatory condition may affect any part of the GI tract from mouth to anus. It mainly causes abdominal pain, diarrhea, vomiting and weight loss. Although the basic etiology of IBD is unknown, there are several factors that may contribute to the pathogenesis of this disease, such as dysregulation of immune system or commensal bacteria, oxidative stress and inflammatory mediators. In order to understand these different etiological factors, a number of experimental models are available in the scientific research, including chemical-induced, spontaneous, genetically engineered and transgenic models. These models represent a major source of information about biological systems and are clinically relevant to the human IBD. Since there is less collective data available in one single article discussing about all these models, in this review an effort is made to study the outline of pathophysiology and various types of animal models used in the research study of IBD and other disease-related complications.

The value of experimental models of colitis in predicting efficacy of biological therapies for inflammatory bowel diseases

During the last decade, biological therapies have an increasing share in the modern therapeutics of various diseases including inflammatory bowel diseases (IBD). Animal models of IBD have often been used to identify the targets of biological therapies, to test their relevance to disease pathogenesis, to assess their therapeutic efficacy in vivo, and to check for drug toxicity. In the field of inflammatory diseases the majority of biologics under development have failed to reach the clinic. This review examines the ability of preclinical data from animal models of IBD to predict success or failure of biologics in human IBD. Specifically, it describes the murine models of IBD, the mechanism of disease induction, the phenotype of the disease, its relevance to human IBD, and the specific immunological features of disease pathogenesis in each model and mainly compares the results of the phase II and III trials of biologics in IBD with preclinical data obtained from studies in animal models. Finally, it examines the possible reasons for low success in translation from bench to bedside and offers some suggestions to improve translation rates.

Polyunsaturated fatty acids in inflammatory bowel diseases: a reappraisal of effects and therapeutic approaches

Recent epidemiological studies highlight the key role of the type of consumed unsaturated fatty acid and the development of ulcerative colitis (UC). We aimed to review the potential mechanisms behind the antiinflammatory effects of unsaturated fatty acids on intestinal inflammation, to discuss their potential limitations, and to propose a new reappraisal of polyunsaturated fatty acids (PUFAs) in the pathophysiology of inflammatory bowel disease (IBD). A literature search using PubMed was carried out to identify relevant studies (basic science, epidemiological studies, or clinical trials) with unsaturated fatty acids and IBD. Only articles published in English were included. IBD patients exhibit an altered lipid metabolism. While in vitro and in vivo studies have demonstrated the antiinflammatory properties of n-3 polyunsaturated fatty acids in experimental models IBD, results of clinical trials have been disappointing. In addition, the impact of fatty acid on innate immunity as an alternative therapeutic approach is explored. This may offer insight into therapeutic avenues for designing n-3 PUFA diet therapy for IBD.

Tregs are dysfunctional in vivo in a spontaneous murine model of Crohn's disease

Although regulatory T cells (Tregs) have been implicated in inflammatory bowel disease, Tregs from Crohn's disease (CD) patients are increased in number and function normally in vitro. To clarify this disparity, we studied Treg function in vivo using a spontaneous model of CD-like ileitis. We first administered anti-CD25-depleting antibodies to SAMP1/YitFc (SAMP) mice to assess ileitis; mesenteric lymph node cells were then transferred into SCID (severe combined immunodeficient) recipients to induce colitis. CD25 depletion increased the severity of both spontaneous ileitis and adoptively transferred colitis. Interestingly, a second transfer of CD4(+)CD25(+) cells from untreated AKR control mice was able to ameliorate the induced colitis, whereas CD4(+)CD25(+) cells from untreated SAMP mice were not, suggesting a functional abnormality in SAMP Tregs. Anti-CD25 treatment in SAMP mice also induced proliferation of CD25(-)Foxp3(+) Tregs, which had a proinflammatory intestinal T helper type 1/ T helper type 2 (Th1/Th2) effector phenotype. These studies demonstrate Treg dysfunction in a spontaneous model of CD-like ileitis.

Effect of recombinant Lactobacillus casei expressing interleukin-10 in dextran sulfate sodium-induced colitis mice

OBJECTIVE

To study the effect of recombinant Lactobacillus casei (L.casei) expressing interleukin (IL)-10 combined with 5-aminosalicylic acid (5-ASA) in dextran sulfate sodium (DSS)-induced colitis mice.

METHODS

Recombinant L. casei CECT 5276, which can secrete IL-10, was constructed. The length of colon tissue, disease activity index (DAI) and histological score (HS) of the mice were determined to evaluate the modeling and the effectiveness of L. casei. Real-time polymerase chain reaction (PCR), Western blot and ELISA were used to determine the levels of nuclear factor kappa-light-chain-enhancer of activated B cells (NF-κB), peroxisome proliferator-activated receptor (PPAR)-γ, interferon (IFN)-γ, transforming growth factor (TGF)-β and IL-10.

RESULTS

Recombinant L. casei expressing IL-10 combined with 5-ASA was more effective than L. casei with 5-ASA. Among the three different concentrations of the recombinant L. casei, the highest concentration group (2 × 10(9) colony-forming units/mL) had the best effectiveness.

CONCLUSIONS

Recombinant L. casei combined with 5-ASA is effective in the treatment of DSS-induced colitis. The possible mechanism might be the blocking of the excessive activation of NF-κB pathway, thus suppressing the release of inflammation-related factors.

Relevance of TNBS-colitis in rats: a methodological study with endoscopic, histologic and Transcriptomic [corrected] characterization and correlation to IBD

Background

Rectal instillation of trinitrobenzene sulphonic acid (TNBS) in ethanol is an established model for inflammatory bowel disease (IBD). We aimed to 1) set up a TNBS-colitis protocol resulting in an endoscopic and histologic picture resembling IBD, 2) study the correlation between endoscopic, histologic and gene expression alterations at different time points after colitis induction, and 3) compare rat and human IBD mucosal transcriptomic data to evaluate whether TNBS-colitis is an appropriate model of IBD.

Methodology/Principal Findings

Five female Sprague Daley rats received TNBS diluted in 50% ethanol (18 mg/0.6 ml) rectally. The rats underwent colonoscopy with biopsy at different time points. RNA was extracted from rat biopsies and microarray was performed. PCR and in situ hybridization (ISH) were done for validation of microarray results. Rat microarray profiles were compared to human IBD expression profiles (25 ulcerative colitis Endoscopic score demonstrated mild to moderate colitis after three and seven days, but declined after twelve days. Histologic changes corresponded with the endoscopic appearance. Over-represented Gene Ontology Biological Processes included: Cell Adhesion, Immune Response, Lipid Metabolic Process, and Tissue Regeneration. IL-1α, IL-1β, TLR2, TLR4, PRNP were all significantly up-regulated, while PPARγ was significantly down-regulated. Among genes with highest fold change (FC) were SPINK4, LBP, ADA, RETNLB and IL-1α. The highest concordance in differential expression between TNBS and IBD transcriptomes was three days after colitis induction. ISH and PCR results corresponded with the microarray data. The most concordantly expressed biologically relevant pathways included TNF signaling, Cell junction organization, and Interleukin-1 processing.

Conclusions/Significance

Endoscopy with biopsies in TNBS-colitis is useful to follow temporal changes of inflammation visually and histologically, and to acquire tissue for gene expression analyses. TNBS-colitis is an appropriate model to study specific biological processes in IBD.

PPARγ in Inflammatory Bowel Disease

Peroxisome proliferator-activated receptor gamma (PPARγ) is member of a family of nuclear receptors that interacts with nuclear proteins acting as coactivators and corepressors. The colon is a major tissue which expresses PPARγ in epithelial cells and, to a lesser degree, in macrophages and lymphocytes and plays a role in the regulation of intestinal inflammation. Indeed, both natural and synthetic PPARγ ligands have beneficial effects in different models of experimental colitis, with possible implication in the therapy of inflammatory bowel disease (IBD). This paper will specifically focus on potential role of PPARγ in the predisposition and physiopathology of IBD and will analyze its possible role in medical therapy.

Association of genetic variation in the NR1H4 gene, encoding the nuclear bile acid receptor FXR, with inflammatory bowel disease

Background

Pathogenesis of inflammatory bowel diseases (IBD), ulcerative colitis (UC) and Crohn’s disease (CD), involves interaction between environmental factors and inappropriate immune responses in the intestine of genetically predisposed individuals. Bile acids and their nuclear receptor, FXR, regulate inflammatory responses and barrier function in the intestinal tract.

Methods

We studied the association of five variants (rs3863377, rs7138843, rs56163822, rs35724, rs10860603) of the NR1H4 gene encoding FXR with IBD. 1138 individuals (591 non-IBD, 203 UC, 344 CD) were genotyped for five NR1H4 genetic variants with TaqMan SNP Genotyping Assays.

Results

We observed that the NR1H4 SNP rs3863377 is significantly less frequent in IBD cases than in non-IBD controls (allele frequencies: P = 0.004; wild-type vs. SNP carrier genotype frequencies: P = 0.008), whereas the variant rs56163822 is less prevalent in non-IBD controls (allele frequencies: P = 0.027; wild-type vs. SNP carrier genotype frequencies: P = 0.035). The global haplotype distribution between IBD and control patients was significantly different (P = 0.003). This also held true for the comparison between non-IBD and UC groups (P = 0.004), but not for the comparison between non-IBD and CD groups (P = 0.079).

Conclusions

We show that genetic variation in FXR is associated with IBD, further emphasizing the link between bile acid signaling and intestinal inflammation.

Dietary modification of metabolic pathways via nuclear hormone receptors

Nuclear hormone receptors (NHRs), as ligand-dependent transcription factors, have emerged as important mediators in the control of whole body metabolism. Because of the promiscuous nature of several members of this superfamily that have been found to bind ligand with lower affinity than the classical steroid NHRs, they consequently display a broader ligand selectivity. This promiscuous nature has facilitated various bioactive dietary components being able to act as agonist ligands for certain members of the NHR superfamily. By binding to these NHRs, bioactive dietary components are able to mediate changes in various metabolic pathways, including, glucose, cholesterol and triglyceride homeostasis among others. This review will provide a general overview of the nuclear hormone receptors that have been shown to be activated by dietary components. The physiological consequences of such receptor activation by these dietary components will then be discussed in more detail.

Association of peroxisome proliferator-activated receptor gamma polymorphisms with inflammatory bowel disease in a Hungarian cohort

BACKGROUND

Inflammatory bowel disease (IBD) shows increasing incidence in the last few years in Eastern Europe, including Hungary. Since genetic susceptibility of patients plays an important role in the development and pathogenesis of IBD, it is important to identify new susceptibility genes. Peroxisome proliferator-activated receptor gamma (PPARγ) is expressed in the colon and has protective effects against inflammatory processes. Our aim was to examine the association of four polymorphisms of PPARγ in a well-characterized Hungarian IBD cohort.

METHODS

In all, 575 Crohn's disease (CD), 103 ulcerative colitis (UC) patients, and 486 sex- and age-matched controls were examined. Four polymorphisms of PPARγ (rs10865710 [C-681G], rs2067819, rs3892175, and rs1801282 [Pro12Ala]) were genotyped by TaqMan genotyping assays.

RESULTS

The Pro12Ala polymorphism showed significant association with CD when the frequencies of the homozygous variants (Pro/Pro vs. Ala/Ala) were compared. The minor Ala/Ala genotype was significantly less frequent in CD patients compared to the controls (odds ratio [OR] = 0.33; 95% confidence interval [CI] = 012-0.94; P = 0.03), suggesting a potential protective effect of the Ala allele. The GAGG haplotype of PPARγ confers a protective effect in CD; however, it is not significant, but in UC it has a protective effect with a significant level (OR = 0.14; 95% CI: 0.05-0.42; P = 3.78 × 10(-5) ), while GAGC increases the risk of UC (OR = 6.70; 95% CI: 3.41-13.17; P = 3.85 × 10(-10) ).

CONCLUSIONS

In the present study we demonstrated a significant association between PPARγ polymorphisms and the development of CD and UC at single loci level and also in haplotype combinations.

Dietary α-linolenic acid-rich formula reduces adhesion molecules in rats with experimental colitis

OBJECTIVE

The ω-3 polyunsaturated fatty acid therapy in inflammatory bowel disease is focused on the effects on fish oil-derived polyunsaturated fatty acids. We speculated that a vegetal oil rich in α-linolenic acid (ALA) might also inhibit colitis. Therefore, we evaluated whether dietary ALA would decrease the expression of adhesion molecules by inducing the protective enzyme heme oxygenase-1 (HO-1) in a rat colitis model.

METHODS

Colitis was induced at day 0 by an intrarectal injection of 2-4-6-trinitrobenzen sulfonic acid (TNBS), whereas control rats received the vehicle. Rats were fed an ALA-rich formula 450 mg · kg⁻¹ · d⁻¹, whereas the other colitic group (TNBS) and the control group were fed an isocaloric corn oil formula for 14 d (from day -7 to day 7). The colonic expressions of intercellular adhesion molecule-1 (ICAM-1), vascular cell adhesion molecule-1 (VCAM-1), vascular endothelial growth factor A receptor-2 (VEGFR2), and HO-1 were studied by immunohistochemistry.

RESULTS

The ALA-rich diet significantly decreased the expression of ICAM-1, VCAM-1, and VEGFR-2 compared the TNBS group, but it did not affect the expression of HO-1.

CONCLUSION

A vegetal ALA-rich formula decreases the expression of ICAM-1, VCAM-1, and VEGFR-2 and independently of HO-1 in rats with TNBS-induced colitis. Further studies are required to evaluate its therapeutic potential in inflammatory bowel disease as an alternative to fish oil.

Spontaneous autoimmune gastritis and hypochlorhydria are manifest in the ileitis-prone SAMP1/YitFcs mice

SAMP1/YitFcs mice serve as a model of Crohn's disease, and we have used them to assess gastritis. Gastritis was compared in SAMP1/YitFcs, AKR, and C57BL/6 mice by histology, immunohistochemistry, and flow cytometry. Gastric acid secretion was measured in ligated stomachs, while anti-parietal cell antibodies were assayed by immunofluorescence and enzyme-linked immunosorbent spot assay. SAMP1/YitFcs mice display a corpus-dominant, chronic gastritis with multifocal aggregates of mononuclear cells consisting of T and B lymphocytes. Relatively few aggregates were observed elsewhere in the stomach. The infiltrates in the oxyntic mucosa were associated with the loss of parietal cell mass. AKR mice, the founder strain of the SAMP1/YitFcs, also have gastritis, although they do not develop ileitis. Genetic studies using SAMP1/YitFcs-C57BL/6 congenic mice showed that the genetic regions regulating ileitis had comparable effects on gastritis. The majority of the cells in the aggregates expressed the T cell marker CD3 or the B cell marker B220. Adoptive transfer of SAMP1/YitFcs CD4(+) T helper cells, with or without B cells, into immunodeficient recipients induced a pangastritis and duodenitis. SAMP1/YitFcs and AKR mice manifest hypochlorhydria and anti-parietal cell antibodies. These data suggest that common genetic factors controlling gastroenteric disease in SAMP1/YitFcs mice regulate distinct pathogenic mechanisms causing inflammation in separate sites within the digestive tract.

SAMP1/YitFc mouse strain: a spontaneous model of Crohn's disease-like ileitis

The SAMP1/YitFc mouse strain represents a model of Crohn's disease (CD)-like ileitis that is ideal for investigating the pathogenesis of chronic intestinal inflammation. Different from the vast majority of animal models of colitis, the ileal-specific phenotype characteristic of SAMP1/YitFc mice occurs spontaneously, without genetic, chemical, or immunological manipulation. In addition, SAMP1/YitFc mice possess remarkable similarities to the human condition with regard to disease location, histologic features, incidence of extraintestinal manifestations, and response to conventional therapies. SAMP1/YitFc mice also display a well-defined time course of a predisease state and phases of acute and chronic ileitis. As such, the SAMP1/YitFc model is particularly suitable for elucidating pathways that precede the clinical phenotype that may lead to preventive, and therefore more efficacious, intervention with the natural course of disease, or alternatively, for the development of therapeutic strategies directed against chronic, established ileitis. In this review we summarize important contributions made by our group and others that uncover potential mechanisms in the pathogenesis of CD using this unique murine model of chronic intestinal inflammation.

Glutamine activates peroxisome proliferator-activated receptor-γ in intestinal epithelial cells via 15-S-HETE and 13-OXO-ODE: a novel mechanism

Glutamine possesses gut-protective effects both clinically and in the laboratory. We have shown in a rodent model of mesenteric ischemia-reperfusion that enteral glutamine increased peroxisome proliferator-activated receptor-γ (PPAR-γ) and was associated with a reduction in mucosal injury and inflammation. The mechanism by which glutamine activates PPAR-γ is unknown, and we hypothesized that it was via a ligand-dependent mechanism. Intestinal epithelial cells, IEC-6, were co-transfected with PPAR-γ response element-luciferase promoter/reporter construct. Cells were pretreated with increasing concentrations of glutamine ± GW9662 (a specific antagonist of PPAR-γ) and analyzed for PPAR-γ response element luciferase activity as an indicator of PPAR-γ activation. PPAR-γ nuclear activity was assessed by electrophoretic mobility shift assay. Cell lysates were subjected to tandem mass spectroscopy for measurement of prostaglandin and lipoxygenase metabolites. A time- and concentration-dependent increase in PPAR-γ transcriptional activity, but not mRNA or protein, was demonstrated. Activity was abrogated by the PPAR-γ inhibitor, GW9662, and changes in activity correlated with PPAR-γ nuclear binding. Glutamine, via degradation to glutamate, activated the metabolic by-products of the lipoxygenase and linoleic acid pathways, 15-S-hydroxyeicosatetraenoic acid and dehydrogenated 13-hydroxyoctaolecadienoic acid, known endogenous PPAR-γ ligands in the small bowel. This novel mechanism may explain the gut-protective effects of enteral glutamine.

Variants of the human PPARG locus and the susceptibility to chronic periodontitis

Apart from its regulatory function in lipid and glucose metabolism, peroxisome proliferator-activated receptor (PPAR)γ has impact on the regulation of inflammation and bone metabolism. The aim of the study was to investigate the association of five polymorphisms (rs10865710, rs2067819, rs3892175, rs1801282, rs3856806) within the PPARG gene with chronic periodontitis. The study population comprised 402 periodontitis patients and 793 healthy individuals. Genotyping of the PPARG gene polymorphisms was performed by PCR and melting curve analysis. Comparison of frequency distribution of genotypes between individuals with periodontal disease and healthy controls for the polymorphism rs3856806 showed a P-value of 0.04 but failed to reach significance after correction for multiple testing ( P < 0.01). Two single nucleotide polymorphisms (SNPs) (rs10865710 and rs3892175) were found to be in strong linkage disequilibrium to rs2067819 (D’ > 0.90). A 3-site analysis (rs2067819-rs1801282-rs3856860) revealed five haplotypes with a frequency of ≥1% among cases and controls. Following adjustment for age, gender and smoking, none of the haplotypes was significantly different between periodontitis and healthy controls after Bonferroni correction. This study could not show a significant association between PPARG gene variants and chronic periodontitis.

Polymorphisms in NF-κB, PXR, LXR, PPARγ and risk of inflammatory bowel disease

AIM: To investigate the contribution of polymorphisms in nuclear receptors to risk of inflammatory bowel disease (IBD).

METHODS: Genotypes of nuclear factor (NF)-κB (NFKB1) NFκB -94ins/del (rs28362491); peroxisome proliferator-activated receptor (PPAR)-γ (PPARγ) PPARγ Pro12Ala (rs 1801282) and C1431T (rs 3856806); pregnane X receptor (PXR) (NR1I2) PXR A-24381C (rs1523127), C8055T (2276707), and A7635G (rs 6785049); and liver X receptor (LXR) (NR1H2) LXR T-rs1405655-C and T-rs2695121-C were assessed in a Danish case-control study of 327 Crohn’s disease patients, 495 ulcerative colitis (UC) patients, and 779 healthy controls. Odds ratio (OR) and 95% CI were estimated by logistic regression models.

RESULTS: The PXR A7635G variant, the PPARγ Pro12Ala and LXR T-rs2695121-C homozygous variant genotypes were associated with risk of UC (OR: 1.31, 95% CI: 1.03-1.66, P = 0.03, OR: 2.30, 95% CI: 1.04-5.08, P = 0.04, and OR: 1.41, 95% CI: 1.00-1.98, P = 0.05, respectively) compared to the corresponding homozygous wild-type genotypes. Among never smokers, PXR A7635G and the LXR T-rs1405655-C and T-rs2695121-C variant genotypes were associated with risk of IBD (OR: 1.41, 95% CI: 1.05-1.91, P = 0.02, OR: 1.63, 95% CI: 1.21-2.20, P = 0.001, and OR: 2.02, 95% CI: 1.36-2.99, P = 0.0005, respectively) compared to the respective homozygous variant genotypes. PXR A7635G (rs6785049) variant genotype was associated with a higher risk of UC diagnosis before the age of 40 years and with a higher risk of extensive disease (OR: 1.34, 95% CI: 1.03-1.75 and OR: 2.49, 95% CI: 1.24-5.03, respectively).

CONCLUSION: Common PXR and LXR polymorphisms may contribute to risk of IBD, especially among never smokers.

Gastrointestinal Cytoprotection by PPARγ Ligands

Peroxisome proliferator-activated receptor γ (PPARγ) is a nuclear receptor that is known to play a central role in lipid metabolism and insulin sensitivity as well as inflammation and cell proliferation. According to the results obtained from studies on several animal models of gastrointestinal inflammation, PPARγ has been implicated in the regulation of the immune response, particularly inflammation control, and has gained importance as a potential therapeutic target in the management of gastrointestinal inflammation. In the present paper, we present the current knowledge on the role of PPARγ ligands in the gastrointestinal tract.

Mechanisms of intestinal inflammation and development of associated cancers: lessons learned from mouse models

Chronic inflammation is strongly associated with approximately 1/5th of all human cancers. Arising from combinations of factors such as environmental exposures, diet, inherited gene polymorphisms, infections, or from dysfunctions of the immune response, chronic inflammation begins as an attempt of the body to remove injurious stimuli; however, over time, this results in continuous tissue destruction and promotion and maintenance of carcinogenesis. Here we focus on intestinal inflammation and its associated cancers, a group of diseases on the rise and affecting millions of people worldwide. Intestinal inflammation can be widely grouped into inflammatory bowel diseases (ulcerative colitis and Crohn's disease) and celiac disease. Long-standing intestinal inflammation is associated with colorectal cancer and small-bowel adenocarcinoma, as well as extraintestinal manifestations, including lymphomas and autoimmune diseases. This article highlights potential mechanisms of pathogenesis in inflammatory bowel diseases and celiac disease, as well as those involved in the progression to associated cancers, most of which have been identified from studies utilizing mouse models of intestinal inflammation. Mouse models of intestinal inflammation can be widely grouped into chemically induced models; genetic models, which make up the bulk of the studied models; adoptive transfer models; and spontaneous models. Studies in these models have lead to the understanding that persistent antigen exposure in the intestinal lumen, in combination with loss of epithelial barrier function, and dysfunction and dysregulation of the innate and adaptive immune responses lead to chronic intestinal inflammation. Transcriptional changes in this environment leading to cell survival, hyperplasia, promotion of angiogenesis, persistent DNA damage, or insufficient repair of DNA damage due to an excess of proinflammatory mediators are then thought to lead to sustained malignant transformation. With regards to extraintestinal manifestations such as lymphoma, however, more suitable models are required to further investigate the complex and heterogeneous mechanisms that may be at play.

Microbial sensing by the intestinal epithelium in the pathogenesis of inflammatory bowel disease

Recent years have raised evidence that the intestinal microbiota plays a crucial role in the pathogenesis of chronic inflammatory bowels diseases. This evidence comes from several observations. First, animals raised under germ-free conditions do not develop intestinal inflammation in several different model systems. Second, antibiotics are able to modulate the course of experimental colitis. Third, genetic polymorphisms in a variety of genes of the innate immune system have been associated with chronic intestinal inflammatory diseases. Dysfunction of these molecules results in an inappropriate response to bacterial and antigenic stimulation of the innate immune system in the gastrointestinal tract. Variants of pattern recognition receptors such as NOD2 or TLRs by which commensal and pathogenic bacteria can be detected have been shown to be involved in the pathogenesis of IBD. But not only pathways of microbial detection but also intracellular ways of bacterial processing such as autophagosome function are associated with the risk to develop Crohn's disease. Thus, the "environment concept" and the "genetic concept" of inflammatory bowel disease pathophysiology are converging via the intestinal microbiota and the recognition mechanisms for an invasion of members of the microbiota into the mucosa.

New pathophysiological insights and modern treatment of IBD

Inflammatory bowel disease (IBD), which comprises two main types, namely, Crohn's disease and ulcerative colitis, affects approximately 3.6 million people in the USA and Europe, and an alarming rise in low-incidence areas, such as Asia, is currently being observed. In the last decade, spontaneous mutations in a diversity of genes have been identified, and these have helped to elucidate pathways that can lead to IBD. Animal studies have also increased our knowledge of the pathological dialogue between the intestinal microbiota and components of the innate and adaptive immune systems misdirecting the immune system to attack the colon. Present-day medical therapy of IBD consists of salicylates, corticosteroids, immunosuppressants and immunomodulators. However, their use may result in severe side effects and complications, such as an increased rate of malignancies or infectious diseases. In clinical practice, there is still a high frequency of incomplete or absent response to medical therapy, indicating a compelling need for new therapeutic strategies. This review summarizes current epidemiology, pathogenesis and diagnostic strategies in IBD. It also provides insight in today's differentiated clinical therapy and describes mechanisms of promising future medicinal approaches.

Model of colonic inflammation: immune modulatory mechanisms in inflammatory bowel disease

Inflammatory bowel disease (IBD) is an immunoinflammatory illness of the gut initiated by an immune response to bacteria in the microflora. The resulting immunopathogenesis leads to lesions in epithelial lining of the colon through which bacteria may infiltrate the tissue causing recurring bouts of diarrhea, rectal bleeding, and malnutrition. In healthy individuals such immunopathogenesis is avoided by the presence of regulatory cells that inhibit the inflammatory pathway. Highly relevant to the search for treatment strategies is the identification of components of the inflammatory pathway that allow regulatory mechanisms to be overridden and immunopathogenesis to proceed. In vitro techniques have identified cellular interactions involved in inflammation-regulation crosstalk. However, tracing immunological mechanisms discovered at the cellular level confidently back to an in vivo context of multiple, simultaneous interactions has met limited success. To explore the impact of specific interactions, we have constructed a system of 29 ordinary differential equations representing different phenotypes of T-cells, macrophages, dendritic cells, and epithelial cells as they move and interact with bacteria in the lumen, lamina propria, and lymphoid tissue of the colon. Simulations revealed the positive inflammatory feedback loop formed by inflammatory M1 macrophage activation of T-cells as a driving force underlying the immunopathology of IBD. Furthermore, strategies that remove M1 from the site of infection, by either (i) increasing its potential to switch to a regulatory M2 phenotype or (ii) increasing the rate of reversion (for M1 and M2 alike) to a resting state, cease immunopathogenesis even as bacteria are eliminated by other inflammatory cells. Based on these results, we identify macrophages and their mechanisms of plasticity as key targets for mucosal inflammation intervention strategies. In addition, we propose that the primary mechanism behind the association of PPARgamma mutation with IBD is its ability to mediate the M1 to M2 switch.

Distribution of peroxisome proliferator-activated receptor-gamma polymorphisms in Chinese and Dutch patients with inflammatory bowel disease

BACKGROUND

As peroxisome proliferator-activated receptor-gamma (PPAR-gamma) is frequently expressed in colon, its genetic polymorphism may play a role in the etiology of inflammatory bowel disease (IBD). The aims of the present study were to determine the distribution of PPAR-gamma polymorphisms Pro12Ala and C161T and to explore the association between the PPAR-gamma genotypes and phenotypes of IBD patients.

METHODS

A total of 244 IBD patients [212 ulcerative colitis (UC) and 32 Crohn's disease (CD)] and 220 controls in the Chinese population and 603 IBD patients (302 UC and 301 CD) and 180 controls in the white Dutch population were enrolled in the study. The phenotypes of Chinese IBD patients were grouped according to disease location. The PPAR-gamma polymorphisms Pro12Ala and C161T were genotyped by PCR-based methods.

RESULTS

In the Chinese population, T carriers of the PPAR-gamma C161T polymorphism were more common in UC patients than in the controls [37.7% vs. 25.5%, odds ratio 1.77, 95% confidence interval 1.18-2.68, P = 0.007], whereas Ala carriers of the Pro12Ala polymorphism showed no significant association in UC patients, but there was a significant association of Ala carriers with more extensive disease among the UC patients (P = 0.002); Pro12Ala and C161T genotypes did not show any associations with CD patients. No associations were found for the PPAR-gamma C161T SNP studied in the Dutch IBD population.

CONCLUSIONS

Our study showed the potential association between the PPAR-gamma C161T polymorphism and UC patients in the central Chinese population. This finding was not replicated in the Dutch population. Further studies are necessary to explore the functional implication of the PPAR-gamma C161T polymorphism in Chinese UC patients.

Role of the innate immune system in the pathogenesis of inflammatory bowel disease

Crohn disease and ulcerative colitis are chronic inflammatory diseases of the intestinal tract commonly denoted as inflammatory bowel diseases. It has been proposed that these diseases result from aberrant mucosal immune responses to nonpathogenic microbial residents of the intestines. Recently, it was established that continuous interactions between the innate and the adaptive intestinal immune cells and the microbiota are directly involved in maintaining the physiological noninflammatory state of the intestinal mucosa. In light of the complexity of this mucosal homeostasis, it is astonishing that the inflammatory bowel diseases are relatively rare. Recently, altered functions of the innate immune system have been identified. As such, both hyperresponsiveness and hyporesponsiveness of innate cells have been implicated in the pathogenesis of inflammatory bowel diseases.

Current understanding of fungal microflora in inflammatory bowel disease pathogenesis

Inflammatory bowel diseases are a current and growing public health problem, with a prevalence that appears to be increasing in most countries and cultures. While most research into the triggering phenomenon has focused on the interaction between commensal bacteria and inflammatory bowel disease, enteric fungi may also be important in determining disease susceptibility. Herein we review what is known about enteric fungi and the mechanisms by which they and their dysregulation might be involved in triggering inflammatory diseases of the bowel.

A gut feeling of the PXR, PPAR and NF-kappaB connection

Bowel diseases reveal the complex interplay of sensing and signalling pathways in maintaining healthy homeostasis of the intestine. Recent studies of the xenobiotic nuclear receptor, pregnane X receptor and the inflammatory mediator nuclear transcription factor kappaB (NF-kappaB) reveal a functional link between xenobiotic neutralization and inflammation and explain how certain xenobiotics can affect the immune response. Furthermore, another nuclear receptor, peroxisome proliferator-activated receptor gamma (PPAR gamma) has been shown to produce beneficial effects in experimental inflammatory bowel diseases by repression of NF-kappaB thereby reducing inflammation, whilst its close relative PPAR beta/delta appears at a central position in signalling pathways involved in the progression of colon cancer. Recently accumulated knowledge on the action of these nuclear receptors and NF-kappaB in intestinal homeostasis may provide the rationale for the development of innovative treatment strategies with selective receptor modulators.

Comparison of cytokine modulation by natural peroxisome proliferator-activated receptor gamma ligands with synthetic ligands in intestinal-like Caco-2 cells and human dendritic cells--potential for dietary modulation of peroxisome proliferator-activated receptor gamma in intestinal inflammation

BACKGROUND

Peroxisome proliferator-activated receptor gamma (PPARgamma) plays a role in the regulation of intestinal inflammation and is activated by both natural (polyunsaturated fatty acid; PUFAs) and synthetic (troglitazone) ligands. The fatty acid content of defined formula diets may play a role in mediating the antiinflammatory effect, but the mechanism is unclear.

OBJECTIVE

We evaluated to what extent the effect of PUFAs on intestinal inflammation is mediated via PPARgamma.

DESIGN

The human enterocyte-like cell line Caco-2 and human dendritic cells were stimulated by interleukin (IL) 1beta and lipoprotein polysaccharide, respectively, in the presence of PPARgamma agonists (troglitazone or PUFAs) or antagonist (GW9662). Five PUFAs were tested: alpha-linolenic acid (ALA), conjugated linoleic acid (CLA), docosahexaenoic acid (DHA), eicosapentaenoic acid (EPA), and gamma-linolenic acid (GLA). Cytokine production was measured by enzyme-linked immunosorbent assay and PPARgamma, I-kappaB, and inducible nitric oxide synthase (iNOS) expression by Western blot.

RESULTS

In Caco-2 cells, IL-6 secretion was significantly decreased by troglitazone, DHA, EPA, and GLA. IL-8 production was significantly decreased by troglitazone, ALA, DHA, EPA, and GLA. PPARgamma expression was significantly increased by troglitazone, DHA, and EPA. iNOS expression was significantly decreased by troglitazone, DHA, and EPA. Troglitazone and PUFAs at 0.1 mumol/L tended to increase the expression of I-kappaB. Addition of GW9662 reversed the effect of troglitazone and PUFAs at 0.1 mumol/L on IL-8 production and decreased the expression of PPARgamma. EPA and DHA also modulated the dendritic cell response to lipoprotein polysaccharide.

CONCLUSIONS

The tested PUFAs exerted an antiinflammatory effect in vitro in both models. This effect of PUFAs in Caco-2 cells is similar to that of troglitazone on intestinal inflammation mediated by PPARgamma, and the potency of the antiinflammatory effect is linked to the number of double bonds.

Peroxisome proliferator activated receptor gamma and oxidized docosahexaenoic acids as new class of ligand

PPARgamma regulates the expression of numerous genes. In addition to their anti-diabetic activity, PPARgamma agonists have been reported to have beneficial effects for cancer, inflammation including inflammatory bowel disease, atherosclerosis and brain inflammation, as well as bone turnover. To investigate a potential new class of ligands for PPARgamma, we designed with reference to the crystal structure of the ligand-binding domain of PPARgamma oxidized docosahexaenoic acid (DHA) derivatives, which have a hydrophilic substituent at the C(4)-position and are putative metabolites of DHA. We synthesized 14 compounds and evaluated their activities in vitro. We found that these DHA derivatives show PPARgamma transactivation higher than, or comparable to, that of pioglitazone, which is a thiazolidinedione derivative used as an antidiabetic agent. Furthermore, one of them showed anti-diabetic activity in animal models. In this paper, we review the potential of PPARgamma as a drug target and oxidized DHA as a new class of ligand for PPARgamma.