The forkhead box M1 transcription factor contributes to the development and growth of mouse colorectal cancer

The conformation of FOXM1 homodimers in vivo is crucial for regulating transcriptional activities

Conformational changes in a transcription factor can significantly affect its transcriptional activity. The activated form of the FOXM1 transcription factor regulates the transcriptional network of genes essential for cell cycle progression and carcinogenesis. However, the mechanism and impact of FOXM1 conformational change on its transcriptional activity in vivo throughout the cell cycle progression remain unexplored. Here, we demonstrate that FOXM1 proteins form novel intermolecular homodimerizations in vivo, and these conformational changes in FOXM1 homodimers impact activity during the cell cycle. Specifically, during the G1 phase, FOXM1 undergoes autorepressive homodimerization, wherein the αβα motif in the C-terminal transcriptional activation domain interacts with the ββαβ motif in the N-terminal repression domain, as evidenced by FRET imaging. Phosphorylation of the αβα motif by PLK1 at S715/S724 disrupts ββαβ-αβα hydrophobic interactions, thereby facilitating a conserved αβα motif switch binding partner to the novel intrinsically disordered regions, leading to FOXM1 autostimulatory homodimerization persisting from the S phase to the G2/M phase in vivo. Furthermore, we identified a minimal ββαβ motif peptide that effectively inhibits cancer cell proliferation both in cell culture and in a mouse tumor model, suggesting a promising autorepression approach for targeting FOXM1 in cancer therapy.

Therapeutic Landscape of FOXM1 in Triple-Negative Breast Cancer and Aggressive Solid Cancers

Triple-negative breast cancer (TNBC) is one of the most aggressive forms of breast cancer, lacking common treatment targets such as estrogen (ER), progesterone (PR), and HER2 receptors. This subtype is associated with significant heterogeneity, chemoresistance, early recurrence, metastasis, and poor patient survival. FOXM1 is a cancer-promoting transcription factor that plays a critical role in TNBC and other highly aggressive cancers by driving cell proliferation, invasion, metastasis, and drug resistance. In TNBC, mutations in the TP53 gene-detected in approximately 80% of patients-lead to the overexpression of FOXM1, making it a promising therapeutic target. Beyond TNBC, FOXM1 is implicated in other solid cancers, such as brain (glioblastoma), lung, and pancreatic cancers, and is considered an Achilles' heel of aggressive cancers. Despite its potential as a therapeutic target, there are currently no FDA-approved FOXM1 inhibitors, and none have advanced to clinical trials. This review explores the role of FOXM1 in cancer progression and highlights the current status of efforts to develop effective FOXM1 inhibitors.

Novel benzothiazole/benzothiazole thiazolidine-2,4-dione derivatives as potential FOXM1 inhibitors: In silico, synthesis, and in vitro studies

The oncogenic transcription factor FOXM1 overexpressed in breast and other solid cancers, is a key driver of tumor growth and progression through complex interactions, making it an attractive molecular target for the development of targeted therapies. Despite the availability of small-molecule inhibitors, their limited specificity, potency, and efficacy hinder clinical translation. To identify effective FOXM1 inhibitors, we synthesized novel benzothiazole derivatives (KC10-KC13) and benzothiazole hybrids with thiazolidine-2,4-dione (KC21-KC36). These compounds were evaluated for FOXM1 inhibition. Molecular docking and molecular dynamics simulation analysis revealed their binding patterns and affinities for the FOXM1-DNA binding domain. The interactions with key amino acids such as Asn283, His287, and Arg286, crucial for FOXM1 inhibition, have been determined with the synthesized compounds. Additionally, the molecular modeling study indicated that KC12, KC21, and KC30 aligned structurally and interacted similarly to the reference compound FDI-6. In vitro studies with the MDA-MB-231 breast cancer cell line demonstrated that KC12, KC21, and KC30 significantly inhibited FOXM1, showing greater potency than FDI-6, with IC50 values of 6.13, 10.77, and 12.86 µM, respectively, versus 20.79 µM for FDI-6. Our findings suggest that KC12, KC21, and KC30 exhibit strong activity as FOXM1 inhibitors and may be suitable for in vivo animal studies.

FOXM1 transcriptional regulation

FOXM1 is a key transcriptional regulator involved in various biological processes in mammals, including carbohydrate and lipid metabolism, aging, immune regulation, development, and disease. Early studies have shown that FOXM1 acts as an oncogene by regulating cell proliferation, cell cycle, migration, metastasis, and apoptosis, as well as genes related to diagnosis, treatment, chemotherapy resistance, and prognosis. Researchers are increasingly focusing on FOXM1 functions in tumor microenvironment, epigenetics, and immune infiltration. However, researchers have not comprehensively described FOXM1's involvement in tumor microenvironment shaping, epigenetics, and immune cell infiltration. Here we review the role of FOXM1 in the formation and development of malignant tumors, and we will provide a comprehensive summary of the role of FOXM1 in transcriptional regulation, interacting proteins, tumor microenvironment, epigenetics, and immune infiltration, and suggest areas for further research.

Forkhead box M1 mediates metabolic reprogramming in human colorectal cancer cells

Metabolic reprogramming is recognized as a hallmark of cancer, enabling cancer cells to acquire essential biomolecules for cell growth, often characterized by upregulated glycolysis and/or fatty acid synthesis-related genes. The transcription factor forkhead box M1 (FOXM1) has been implicated in various cancers, contributing significantly to their development, including colorectal cancer (CRC), a major global health concern. Despite FOXM1's established role in cancer, its specific involvement in the Warburg effect and fatty acid biosynthesis in CRC remains unclear. We analyzed The Cancer Genome Atlas (TCGA) Colonic Adenocarcinoma and Rectal Adenocarcinoma (COADREAD) datasets to derive the correlation of the expression levels between FOXM1 and multiple genes and the survival prognosis based on FOXM1 expression. Using two human CRC cell lines, HT29 and HCT116, we conducted RNAi or plasmid transfection procedures, followed by a series of assays, including RNA extraction, quantitative real-time polymerase chain reaction, Western blot analysis, cell metabolic assay, glucose uptake assay, Oil Red O staining, cell viability assay, and immunofluorescence analysis. Higher expression levels of FOXM1 correlated with a poorer survival prognosis, and the expression of FOXM1 was positively correlated with glycolysis-related genes SLC2A1 and LDHA, de novo lipogenesis-related genes ACACA and FASN, and MYC. FOXM1 appeared to modulate AKT/mammalian target of rapamycin (mTOR) signaling, the expression of c-Myc, proteins related to glycolysis and fatty acid biosynthesis, and glucose uptake, as well as extracellular acidification rate in HT29 and HCT116 cells. In summary, FOXM1 plays a regulatory role in glycolysis, fatty acid biosynthesis, and cellular energy consumption, thereby influencing CRC cell growth and patient prognosis.NEW & NOTEWORTHY Transcription factor forkhead box M1 (FOXM1) regulates glycolysis, fatty acid biosynthesis, and cellular energy consumption, which, together, controls cell growth and patient prognosis in colorectal cancer (CRC).

Evaluation of Forkhead BOX M1 (FOXM1) gene expression in colorectal cancer

Forkhead Box M1 (FOXM1)-a key cell cycle regulator is a member of the Forkhead transcription factor family. It plays a key role in embryogenesis and cell proliferation and has been strongly linked to various solid tumors. We sought to understand the regulation of FOXM1 in colorectal cancer (CRC), as well as if and to what extent other clinicopathological characteristics are associated with FOXM1. The investigation comprised 98 CRC samples and normal tissues (controls). All colon cancer patients had a colonoscopy and targeted biopsy. All rectal cancer patients had a CT and MRI. Real-time PCR, Immunohistochemistry, and Western blotting were used to evaluate FOXM1 expression, and the findings were analyzed using SPSS (v.26). FOXM1 mRNA and protein expression were substantially upregulated in tumor tissues, with the majority of these proteins localized in nucleo-cytoplasm. Elevated protein levels of FOXM1 were strongly correlated with lower education level, larger tumor size, lymph node status, lymphovascular invasion (LVI), perineural invasion (PNI), lymph node metastasis (LNM), tumor invasion depth (subserosal and serosal invasion), late stage (III and IV), localization (nucleo-cytoplasmic), intensity (strong) and recurrence. Based on survival analysis, FOXM1 overexpression and nucleo-cytoplasmic localization were associated with shorter disease-free survival while stage and PNI were linked to poorer overall and disease-free survival. According to the results of the Cox regression analysis, stage and PNI were significant predictors of prognosis in CRC patients. FOXM1 expression was elevated in CRC and was linked to reduced disease-free survival. These findings support prior reports and hence FOXM1 can be an important prognostic marker for CRC and a promising therapeutic target. Additionally, we found a link between poor disease-free survival and FOXM1's nucleo-cytoplasmic localization. However, since the sample size of this study was small, further research is needed to validate our findings.

Development of an interfering peptide M1-20 with potent anti-cancer effects by targeting FOXM1

Disrupting protein-protein interactions (PPIs) has emerged as a promising strategy for cancer drug development. Interfering peptides disrupting PPIs can be rationally designed based on the structures of natural sequences mediating these interactions. Transcription factor FOXM1 overexpresses in multiple cancers and is considered an effective target for cancer therapeutic drug development. Using a rational design approach, we have generated a peptide library from the FOXM1 C-terminal sequence and screened FOXM1-binding peptides. Combining FOXM1 binding and cell inhibitory results, we have obtained a FOXM1-targeting interfering peptide M1-20 that is optimized from the natural parent peptide to the D-retro-inverso peptide. With improved stability characteristics, M1-20 inhibits proliferation and migration, and induces apoptosis of cancer cells. Mechanistically, M1-20 inhibits FOXM1 transcriptional activities by disrupting its interaction between the MuvB complex and the transcriptional co-activator CBP. These are consistent with the results that M1-20 suppresses cancer progression and metastasis without noticeable toxic and side effects in wild-type mice. These findings reveal that M1-20 has the potential to be developed as an anti-cancer drug candidate targeting FOXM1.

Modulation of the ubiquitin-proteasome system by phytochemicals: Therapeutic implications in malignancies with an emphasis on brain tumors

Regarding the multimechanistic nature of cancers, current chemo- or radiotherapies often fail to eradicate disease pathology, and frequent relapses or resistance to therapies occur. Brain malignancies, particularly glioblastomas, are difficult-to-treat cancers due to their highly malignant and multidimensional biology. Unfortunately, patients suffering from malignant tumors often experience poor prognoses and short survival periods. Thus far, significant efforts have been conducted to discover novel and more effective modalities. To that end, modulation of the ubiquitin-proteasome system (UPS) has attracted tremendous interest since it affects the homeostasis of proteins critically engaged in various cell functions, for example, cell metabolism, survival, proliferation, and differentiation. With their safe and multimodal actions, phytochemicals are among the promising therapeutic tools capable of turning the operation of various UPS elements. The present review, along with an updated outline of the role of UPS dysregulation in multiple cancers, provided a detailed discussion on the impact of phytochemicals on the UPS function in malignancies, especially brain tumors.

The development of an anti-cancer peptide M1-21 targeting transcription factor FOXM1

BACKGROUND

Transcription factor FOXM1 is a potential target for anti-cancer drug development. An interfering peptide M1-21, targeting FOXM1 and FOXM1-interacting proteins, is developed and its anti-cancer efficacy is evaluated.

METHODS

FOXM1 C-terminus-binding peptides are screened by in silico protocols from the peptide library of FOXM1 (1-138aa) and confirmed by cellular experiments. The selected peptide is synthesized into its D-retro-inverso (DRI) form by fusing a TAT cell-penetrating sequence. Anti-cancer activities are evaluated in vitro and in vivo with tumor-grafted nude mice, spontaneous breast cancer mice, and wild-type metastasis-tracing mice. Anti-cancer mechanisms are analyzed. Distribution and safety profiles in mice are evaluated.

RESULTS

With improved stability and cell inhibitory activity compared to the parent peptide, M1-21 binds to multiple regions of FOXM1 and interferes with protein-protein interactions between FOXM1 and its various known partner proteins, including PLK1, LIN9 and B-MYB of the MuvB complex, and β-catenin. Consequently, M1-21 inhibits FOXM1-related transcriptional activities and FOXM1-mediated nuclear importation of β-catenin and β-catenin transcriptional activities. M1-21 inhibits multiple types of cancer (20 µM in vitro or 30 mg/kg in vivo) by preventing proliferation, migration, and WNT signaling. Distribution and safety profiles of M1-21 are favorable (broad distribution and > 15 h stability in mice) and the tested non-severely toxic dose reaches 200 mg/kg in mice. M1-21 also has low hemolytic toxicity and immunogenicity in mice.

CONCLUSIONS

M1-21 is a promising interfering peptide targeting FOXM1 for the development of anti-cancer drugs.

Tumor-suppressive role of the musculoaponeurotic fibrosarcoma gene in colorectal cancer

Somatic cell reprogramming using the microRNAs miR-200c, miR-302s, and miR-369s leads to increased expression of cyclin-dependent kinase inhibitors in human colorectal cancer (CRC) cells and suppressed tumor growth. Here, we investigated whether these microRNAs inhibit colorectal tumorigenesis in CPC;Apc mice, which are prone to colon and rectal polyps. Repeated administration of microRNAs inhibited polyp formation. Microarray analysis indicated that c-MAF, which reportedly shows oncogene-like behavior in multiple myeloma and T cell lymphoma, decreased in tumor samples but increased in microRNA-treated normal mucosa. Immunohistochemistry identified downregulation of c-MAF as an early tumorigenesis event in CRC, with low c-MAF expression associated with poor prognosis. Of note, c-MAF expression and p53 protein levels were inversely correlated in CRC samples. c-MAF knockout led to enhanced tumor formation in azoxymethane/dextran sodium sulfate-treated mice, with activation of cancer-promoting genes. c-MAF may play a tumor-suppressive role in CRC development.

Aryl Hydrocarbon Receptor (AhR) Signaling in Colonic Cells and Tumors

The aryl hydrocarbon receptor (AhR) is overexpressed in many tumor types and exhibits tumor-specific tumor promoter and tumor suppressor-like activity. In colon cancer, most but not all studies suggest that the AhR exhibits tumor suppressor activity which is enhanced by AhR ligands acting as agonists. Our studies investigated the role of the AhR in colon tumorigenesis using wild-type and AhR-knockout mice, the inflammation model of colon tumorigenesis using mice treated with azoxymethane (AOM)/dextran sodium sulfate (DSS) and APCS580/+; KrasG12D/+ mice all of which form intestinal tumors. The effects of tissue-specific AhR loss in the intestine of the tumor-forming mice on colonic stem cells, organoid-initiating capacity, colon tumor formation and mechanisms of AhR-mediated effects were investigated. Loss of AhR enhanced stem cell and tumor growth and in the AOM/DSS model AhR-dependent suppression of FOXM1 and downstream genes was important for AhR-dependent anticancer activity. Furthermore, the effectiveness of interleukin-22 (IL22) in colonic epithelial cells was also dependent on AhR expression. IL22 induced phosphorylation of STAT3, inhibited colonic organoid growth, promoted colonic cell proliferation in vivo and enhanced DNA repair in AOM/DSS-induced tumors. In this mouse model, the AhR suppressed SOCS3 expression and enhanced IL22-mediated activation of STAT3, whereas the loss of the AhR increased levels of SOCS3 which in turn inhibited IL22-induced STAT3 activation. In the APCS580/+; KrasG12D/+ mouse model, the loss of the AhR enhanced Wnt signaling and colon carcinogenesis. Results in both mouse models of colon carcinogenesis were complemented by single cell transcriptomics on colonic intestinal crypts which also showed that AhR deletion promoted expression of FOXM1-regulated genes in multiple colonic cell subtypes. These results support the role of the AhR as a tumor suppressor-like gene in the colon.

The complex network of transcription factors, immune checkpoint inhibitors and stemness features in colorectal cancer: A recent update

Cancer immunity is regulated by several mechanisms that include co-stimulatory and/or co-inhibitory molecules known as immune checkpoints expressed by the immune cells. In colorectal cancer (CRC), CTLA-4, LAG3, TIM-3 and PD-1 are the major co-inhibitory checkpoints involved in tumor development and progression. On the other hand, the deregulation of transcription factors and cancer stem cells activity plays a major role in the development of drug resistance and in the spread of metastatic disease in CRC. In this review, we describe how the modulation of such transcription factors affects the response of CRC to therapies. We also focus on the role of cancer stem cells in tumor metastasis and chemoresistance and discuss both preclinical and clinical approaches for targeting stem cells to prevent their tumorigenic effect. Finally, we provide an update on the clinical applications of immune checkpoint inhibitors in CRC and discuss the regulatory effects of transcription factors on the expression of the immune inhibitory checkpoints with specific focus on the PD-1 and PD-L1 molecules.

Apigenin enhances apoptosis induction by 5-fluorouracil through regulation of thymidylate synthase in colorectal cancer cells

Although effective drugs have been developed, including 5-fluorouracil (5-FU), advanced colorectal cancer (CRC) shows low therapeutic sensitivity resulting from the development of 5-FU resistance. Thymidylate synthase (TS) is a target protein of 5-FU, and elevated TS lowers the 5-FU sensitivity of CRC cells. Here, we tested the efficacy of several candidate phytochemicals against human CRC-derived HCT116 cells expressing wild-type tumor suppressor protein P53 and HT29 cells expressing mutant P53. Among them, we found that apigenin enhanced the inhibitory effect of 5-FU on cell viability. In addition, apigenin inhibited the upregulation of TS induced by 5-FU. Apigenin also potentiated 5-FU-induced apoptosis of HCT116 cells and enhanced cell cycle disruption. Furthermore, apigenin increased reactive oxygen species production, intracellular and intramitochondrial Ca²⁺ concentrations, and mitochondrial membrane potential upon cotreatment with 5-FU. Knockdown of forkhead box protein M, a transcription factor modulating 5-FU sensitivity, enhanced the potentiation of apoptosis by apigenin in HCT116 cells. Moreover, apigenin suppressed TS expression and inhibited the viability of 5-FU-resistant HCT116 cells. Therefore, apigenin may improve the therapeutic efficacy of 5-FU against CRC by suppressing TS, but apoptosis induction is mainly dependent on functional P53.

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Apigenin inhibits the upregulation of TS induced by 5-FU for apoptosis of CRC.

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FOXM1 silencing enhances the potentiation of apoptosis by apigenin.

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Suppressing TS and promoting P53 activity by apigenin reduce acquired 5-FU resistance.

Wild-Type KRAS Allele Effects on Druggable Targets in KRAS Mutant Lung Adenocarcinomas

KRAS mutations are one of the most common oncogenic drivers in non-small cell lung cancer (NSCLC) and in lung adenocarcinomas in particular. Development of therapeutics targeting KRAS has been incredibly challenging, prompting indirect inhibition of downstream targets such as MEK and ERK. Such inhibitors, unfortunately, come with limited clinical efficacy, and therefore the demand for developing novel therapeutic strategies remains an urgent need for these patients. Exploring the influence of wild-type (WT) KRAS on druggable targets can uncover new vulnerabilities for the treatment of KRAS mutant lung adenocarcinomas. Using commercially available KRAS mutant lung adenocarcinoma cell lines, we explored the influence of WT KRAS on signaling networks and druggable targets. Expression and/or activation of 183 signaling proteins, most of which are targets of FDA-approved drugs, were captured by reverse-phase protein microarray (RPPA). Selected findings were validated on a cohort of 23 surgical biospecimens using the RPPA. Kinase-driven signatures associated with the presence of the KRAS WT allele were detected along the MAPK and AKT/mTOR signaling pathway and alterations of cell cycle regulators. FoxM1 emerged as a potential vulnerability of tumors retaining the KRAS WT allele both in cell lines and in the clinical samples. Our findings suggest that loss of WT KRAS impacts on signaling events and druggable targets in KRAS mutant lung adenocarcinomas.

The Dickkopf1 and FOXM1 positive feedback loop promotes tumor growth in pancreatic and esophageal cancers

Dickkopf1 (DKK1) is overexpressed in various cancers and promotes cancer cell proliferation by binding to cytoskeleton-associated protein 4 (CKAP4). However, the mechanisms underlying DKK1 expression are poorly understood. RNA sequence analysis revealed that expression of the transcription factor forkhead box M1 (FOXM1) and its target genes concordantly fluctuated with expression of DKK1 in pancreatic ductal adenocarcinoma (PDAC) cells. DKK1 knockdown decreased FOXM1 expression and vice versa in PDAC and esophageal squamous cell carcinoma (ESCC) cells. Inhibition of either the DKK1-CKAP4-AKT pathway or the ERK pathway suppressed FOXM1 expression, and simultaneous inhibition of both pathways showed synergistic effects. A FOXM1 binding site was identified in the 5'-untranslated region of the DKK1 gene, and its depletion decreased DKK1 expression and cancer cell proliferation. Clinicopathological and database analysis revealed that PDAC and ESCC patients who simultaneously express DKK1 and FOXM1 have a poorer prognosis. Multivariate analysis demonstrated that expression of both DKK1 and FOXM1 is the independent prognostic factor in ESCC patients. Although it has been reported that FOXM1 enhances Wnt signaling, FOXM1 induced DKK1 expression independently of Wnt signaling in PDAC and ESCC cells. These results suggest that DKK1 and FOXM1 create a positive feedback loop to promote cancer cell proliferation.

FOXM1: A Multifunctional Oncoprotein and Emerging Therapeutic Target in Ovarian Cancer

Forkhead box M1 (FOXM1) is a member of the conserved forkhead box (FOX) transcription factor family. Over the last two decades, FOXM1 has emerged as a multifunctional oncoprotein and a robust biomarker of poor prognosis in many human malignancies. In this review article, we address the current knowledge regarding the mechanisms of regulation and oncogenic functions of FOXM1, particularly in the context of ovarian cancer. FOXM1 and its associated oncogenic transcriptional signature are enriched in >85% of ovarian cancer cases and FOXM1 expression and activity can be enhanced by a plethora of genomic, transcriptional, post-transcriptional, and post-translational mechanisms. As a master transcriptional regulator, FOXM1 promotes critical oncogenic phenotypes in ovarian cancer, including: (1) cell proliferation, (2) invasion and metastasis, (3) chemotherapy resistance, (4) cancer stem cell (CSC) properties, (5) genomic instability, and (6) altered cellular metabolism. We additionally discuss the evidence for FOXM1 as a cancer biomarker, describe the rationale for FOXM1 as a cancer therapeutic target, and provide an overview of therapeutic strategies used to target FOXM1 for cancer treatment.

An Integrated Analysis of the Response of Colorectal Adenocarcinoma Caco-2 Cells to X-Ray Exposure

Colorectal cancer is among the three top cancer types for incidence and the second in terms of mortality, usually managed with surgery, chemotherapy and radiotherapy. In particular, radiotherapeutic concepts are crucial for the management of advanced rectal cancer, but patients’ survival remains poor, despite advances in treatment modalities. The use of well-characterized in vitro cell culture systems offers an important preclinical strategy to study mechanisms at the basis of cell response to therapeutic agents, including ionizing radiation, possibly leading to a better understanding of the in vivo response to the treatment. In this context, we present an integrated analysis of results obtained in an extensive measurement campaign of radiation effects on Caco-2 cells, derived from human colorectal adenocarcinoma. Cells were exposed to X-rays with doses up to 10 Gy from a radiotherapy accelerator. We measured a variety of endpoints at different post-irradiation times: clonogenic survival after ~ 2 weeks; cell cycle distribution, cell death, frequency of micronucleated cells and atypical mitoses, activation of matrix metalloproteases (MMPs) and of different proteins involved in DNA damage response and cell cycle regulation at earlier time points, up to 48 h post-exposure. Combined techniques of flow cytometry, immunofluorescence microscopy, gelatin zymography and western blotting were used. For selected endpoints, we also addressed the impact of the irradiation protocol, comparing results obtained when cells are plated before irradiation or first-irradiated and then re-plated. Caco-2 resistance to radiation, previously assessed up to 72 h post exposure in terms of cell viability, does not translate into a high clonogenic survival. Survival is not affected by the irradiation protocol, while endpoints measured on a shorter time frame are. Radiation mainly induces a G₂-phase arrest, confirmed by associated molecular markers. The activation of death pathways is dose- and time-dependent, and correlates with a dose-dependent inhibition of MMPs. Genomic aberrations are also found to be dose-dependent. The phosphorylated forms of several proteins involved in cell cycle regulation increase following exposure; the key regulator FoxM1 appears to be downregulated, also leading to inhibition of MMP-2. A unified molecular model of the chain of events initiated by radiation is proposed to interpret all experimental results.

Inonotus obliquus Polysaccharide Ameliorates Azoxymethane/Dextran Sulfate Sodium-Induced Colitis-Associated Cancer in Mice via Activation of the NLRP3 Inflammasome

Inonotus obliquus polysaccharide (IOP), the primary constituent of the parasitic fungus Inonotus obliquus, has anti-tumor, anti-inflammatory, anti-oxidation effects. However, the roles of IOP on colitis-associated cancer (CAC) are still unclear. Herein, we tested the efficacy of IOP using a mouse model of CAC induced by azoxymethane and dextran sulfate sodium (AOM/DSS). We confirmed that intragastric administration of IOP decreased CAC-induced body weight loss, colon tissue damage, colon shortening, and expression of proinflammatory mediators. Meanwhile, IOP treatment increased in expression of the NLRP3 inflammasome, IL-1β, and IL-18 in the colon of CAC mice. Moreover, in vitro, IOP inhibited the proliferation of SW620 colorectal cancer cells. Finally, overexpression of NLRP3 with plasmid transfection could further enhance the activation of NLRP3 inflammasome by IOP. Taken together, these results suggest that IOP suppresses the development of CAC, possibly by activation of the NLRP3 inflammasome, and reveal that IOP may be a therapeutic drug candidate for CAC.

Transcription factors in colorectal cancer: molecular mechanism and therapeutic implications

Colorectal cancer (CRC) is a major cause of cancer mortality worldwide, however, the molecular mechanisms underlying the pathogenesis of CRC remain largely unclear. Recent studies have revealed crucial roles of transcription factors in CRC development. Transcription factors essential for the regulation of gene expression by interacting with transcription corepressor/enhancer complexes and they orchestrate downstream signal transduction. Deregulation of transcription factors is a frequent occurrence in CRC, and the accompanying drastic changes in gene expression profiles play fundamental roles in multistep process of tumorigenesis, from cellular transformation, disease progression to metastatic disease. Herein, we summarized current and emerging key transcription factors that participate in CRC tumorigenesis, and highlighted their oncogenic or tumor suppressive functions. Moreover, we presented critical transcription factors of CRC, emphasized the major molecular mechanisms underlying their effect on signal cascades associated with tumorigenesis, and summarized of their potential as molecular biomarkers for CRC prognosis therapeutic response, as well as drug targets for CRC treatment. A better understanding of transcription factors involved in the development of CRC will provide new insights into the pathological mechanisms and reveal novel prognostic biomarkers and therapeutic strategies for CRC.

Loss of aryl hydrocarbon receptor potentiates FoxM1 signaling to enhance self-renewal of colonic stem and progenitor cells

The aryl hydrocarbon receptor (AhR), a ligand-activated transcription factor that senses xenobiotics, diet, and gut microbial-derived metabolites, is increasingly recognized as a key regulator of intestinal biology. However, its effects on the function of colonic stem and progenitor cells remain largely unexplored. Here, we observed that inducible deletion of AhR in Lgr5⁺ stem cells increases the percentage of colonic stem cells and enhances organoid initiating capacity and growth of sorted stem and progenitor cells, while AhR activation has the opposite effect. Moreover, intestinal-specific AhR knockout increases basal stem cell and crypt injury-induced cell proliferation and promotes colon tumorigenesis in a preclinical colitis-associated tumor model by upregulating FoxM1 signaling. Mechanistically, AhR transcriptionally suppresses FoxM1 expression. Activation of AhR in human organoids recapitulates phenotypes observed in mice, such as reduction in the percentage of colonic stem cells, promotion of stem cell differentiation, and attenuation of FoxM1 signaling. These findings indicate that the AhR-FoxM1 axis, at least in part, mediates colonic stem/progenitor cell behavior.

FOXM 1 induces Vasculogenic mimicry in esophageal cancer through β-catenin /Tcf4 signaling

Objective

To investigate the role of FOXM1, β-catenin and TCF4 in esophageal cancer (EC) and their relationship to VM (Vasculogenic Mimicry).

Methods

CCK-8 were performed to examine EC cell proliferation in FOXM1 silenced cells. EC cell migration and invasion were investigated through wound healing and Transwell assays, respectively. The formation of pipe like structures were assessed in 3D cultures. The expression of Foxm1, β-catenin, Tcf4 and E-cadherin were investigated through western blot, RT-qPCR and immunohistochemistry (IHC) staining. The relationship between FOXM1 expression, clinic-pathological features, and overall survival (OS) were further analyzed.

Results

A loss of FOXM1 expression correlated with the OS of ESCC patients. FOXM1 silencing led to a loss of cell growth and suppressed cell migration and invasion in ESCC cells. VM structures were identified in ESCC tissues and human EC cell lines. Mechanistically, FOXM1 was found to promote tumorigenesis through the regulation of β-catenin, Tcf4, and E-cadherin in EC cells, leading to the formation of VM structures.

Conclusions

These findings highlight FoxM1 as a novel therapeutic target in ESCC.

Forkhead Box M1 Transcription Factor Drives Liver Inflammation Linking to Hepatocarcinogenesis in Mice

BACKGROUND & AIMS

Liver inflammation has been recognized as a hallmark of hepatocarcinogenesis. Although Forkhead Box M1 (FoxM1) is a well-defined oncogenic transcription factor that is overexpressed in hepatocellular carcinoma (HCC), its role in liver inflammation has never been explored.

METHODS

We generated hepatocyte-specific FoxM1 conditional transgenic (TG) mice by using the Cre-loxP and Tetracycline (Tet)-on systems to induce FoxM1 expression in a hepatocyte-specific and time-dependent manner.

RESULTS

After treatment of Tet-derivatives doxycycline (DOX) to induce FoxM1, TG mice exhibited spontaneous development of hepatocyte death with elevated serum alanine aminotransferase levels and hepatic infiltration of macrophages. The removal of DOX in TG mice completely removed this effect, suggesting that spontaneous inflammation in TG mice occurs in a hepatocyte FoxM1-dependent manner. In addition, liver inflammation in TG mice was associated with increased levels of hepatic and serum chemokine (C-C motif) ligand 2 (CCL2). In vitro transcriptional analysis confirmed that CCL2 is a direct target of FoxM1 in murine hepatocytes. After receiving FoxM1 induction since birth, all TG mice exhibited spontaneous HCC with liver fibrosis at 12 months of age. Hepatic expression of FoxM1 was significantly increased in liver injury models. Finally, pharmacologic inhibition of FoxM1 reduced liver inflammation in models of liver injury.

CONCLUSIONS

Hepatocyte FoxM1 acts as a crucial regulator to orchestrate liver inflammation linking to hepatocarcinogenesis. Thus, hepatocyte FoxM1 may be a potential target not only for the treatment of liver injury but also for the prevention toward HCC.

FoxM1 Induced Paclitaxel Resistance via Activation of the FoxM1/PHB1/RAF-MEK-ERK Pathway and Enhancement of the ABCA2 Transporter

FoxM1 amplification in human pancreatic cancer predicts poor prognosis and resistance to paclitaxel. Here, a novel role between FoxM1 (FoxM1b and FoxM1c) and Prohibitin1 (PHB1) in paclitaxel resistance has been identified. We adopted a bioinformatics approach to predict the potential effector of FoxM1. It specifically bound to the promoter of PHB1, and it enhanced PHB1 expression at transcriptional and post-transcriptional levels. FoxM1 contributed to the PHB1/C-RAF interaction and phosphorylation of ERK1/2 kinases, thus promoting paclitaxel resistance. Notably, FoxM1 conferred tumor cell resistance to paclitaxel, but knocking down PHB1 could sensitize pancreatic cancer cells to it. Besides, we identified that ABCA2 promoted paclitaxel resistance under the regulation of FoxM1/PHB1/RAF-MEK-ERK. Thiostrepton, an inhibitor of FoxM1, significantly decreased the expression of PHB1, p-ERK1/2, and ABCA2. It increased the influx of paclitaxel into the cell, and it attenuated FoxM1-mediated paclitaxel resistance in vitro and in vivo. Collectively, our findings defined PHB1 as an important downstream effector of FoxM1. It was regulated by FoxM1 to maintain phosphorylation of ERK1/2 in drug-resistant cells, and FoxM1 simultaneously enhanced the function of ABCA2, which collectively contributed to paclitaxel resistance. Targeting FoxM1 and its downstream effector PHB1 increased the sensitivity of pancreatic cells to paclitaxel treatment, providing potential therapeutic strategies for patients with paclitaxel resistance.

CENPE promotes lung adenocarcinoma proliferation and is directly regulated by FOXM1

Lung cancer is the most common and most lethal type of cancer. A sustained proliferative capacity is one of the hallmarks of cancer, and microtubules serve an important role in maintaining a sustained cell cycle. Therefore, understanding the regulation of microtubule proteins in the cell cycle is important for tumor prevention and treatment. Centromere protein E (CENPE) is a human kinetochore protein that is highly expressed in the G2/M phase of the cell cycle. The present study identified that CENPE is highly expressed in lung adenocarcinoma (LUAD) tissues. Following knockdown of CENPE expression, the proliferation of lung cancer cells was inhibited. In addition, it was revealed that forkhead box M1 (FOXM1) is significantly correlated with CENE expression. Following FOXM1‑knockdown, the expression level of CENPE was decreased and the proliferation of lung cancer cells was inhibited. Overexpression of FOXM1 promoted the expression of CENPE and the proliferation of lung cancer cells. A chromatin immunoprecipitation assay identified that FOXM1 binds directly to the promoter region of CENPE. Therefore, the present data demonstrated that CENPE can promote the proliferation of LUAD cells and is directly regulated by FOXM1.

FOXM1 promotes the growth and metastasis of colorectal cancer via activation of β-catenin signaling pathway

Purpose

Our previous study proved that FOXM1 regulates colorectal cancer (CRC) cell metastasis through epithelial–mesenchymal transition program. The aim of this study is to further explore the underlying mechanism of FOXM1 in CRC.

Materials and methods

In this study, we detected the mRNA and protein expressions of FOXM1 and β-catenin in CRC tissues and their corresponding normal-appearing tissues (NATs) by quantitative reverse transcription-PCR and western blot analysis, respectively. Then the potential link between FOXM1 and β-catenin in CRC tissues was analyzed. Furthermore, we systematically analyzed the biological functions of FOXM1 in CRC cells after reconstitution of FOXM1 expression in vitro. Moreover, the mechanism of FOXM1-promoted CRC progression by improving β-catenin nuclear translocation was also discussed.

Results

Our data demonstrated that FOXM1 and β-catenin were upregulated in CRC tissues compared with the corresponding NATs (P<0.05). Clinicopathologic analysis revealed that increased FOXM1 (or β-catenin) expression positively correlated with some clinicopathologic features, such as tumor size, TNM stage, lymphatic metastasis, and distant metastasis (P<0.05). Meanwhile, the possible relationships between FOXM1 and β-catenin in CRC samples were evaluated using SPSS software, and a significant positive correlation was found (P<0.05). In vitro data demonstrate that elevated FOXM1 expression exerted oncogenic effects on CRC via activation of β-catenin signaling pathway. The inhibition of β-catenin by siRNAs significantly attenuates FOXM1-induced malignant activities.

Conclusion

The data suggested that FOXM1/β-catenin is critical for malignancy of CRC, which may constitute a potential therapeutic strategy for CRC.

The cell-penetrating FOXM1 N-terminus (M1-138) demonstrates potent inhibitory effects on cancer cells by targeting FOXM1 and FOXM1-interacting factor SMAD3

Transcription factor FOXM1 is involved in stimulating cell proliferation, enhancing DNA damage repair, promoting metastasis of cancer cells, and the inhibition of FOXM1 has been shown to prevent the initiation and progression of multiple cancers and FOXM1 is considered to be an effective target for tumor therapeutic drug development. The N-terminus of FOXM1 has been found to prevent transcriptional activities of FOXM1 and to mediate the interaction between FOXM1 and SMAD3.

Methods: A recombinant FOXM1 N-terminal domain (1-138aa) fused with a nine arginine cell-penetrating peptide is produced with an E. coli expression system and named as M1-138. The effects of M1-138 on the proliferation, migration, and tumorigenic ability of cancer cells are analyzed in vitro with cell counting, transwell assays, and colony formation assays. Electrophoretic mobility shift assays (EMSAs) and Luciferase activity assays are used to test the DNA binding ability and transcriptional activity of transcription factors. The levels of mRNAs and proteins are measured by quantitative-PCR, Western blotting or Immunohistochemistry. The interactions among proteins are analyzed with Pull-down and Co-immunoprecipitation (Co-IP) assays. The nude mouse engrafted tumor models are used to test the inhibitory effects of M1-138 in vivo.

Results: M1-138 diminishes the proliferation and migration abilities of cancer cells through binding to FOXM1 and FOXM1-interacting factor SMAD3, and consequently attenuating FOXM1 transcriptional activities from both direct and indirect FOXM1-promoter binding mechanisms and interfering with the interaction between FOXM1 and SMAD3. Treatment of M1-138 prevents tumorigenicity of cancer cells and inhibits tumor growth in nude mouse xenograft models with no obvious signs of toxicity.

Conclusion: M1-138 is a promising drug candidate for the development of anti-cancer therapeutics targeting FOXM1 and SMAD3.

FOXM1 modulates 5-FU resistance in colorectal cancer through regulating TYMS expression

Resistance to 5-Fluoruracil (5-FU) has been linked to elevated expression of the main target, thymidylate synthase (TYMS), which catalyses the de novo pathway for production of deoxythymidine monophosphate. The potent oncogenic forkhead box transcription factor, FOXM1 is is regulated by E2F1 which also controls TYMS. This study reveals a significant role of FOXM1 in 5-FU resistance. Overexpression and knock-down studies of FOXM1 in colon cancer cells suggest the importance of FOXM1 in TYMS regulation. ChIP and global ChIP-seq data also confirms that FOXM1 can also potentially regulate other 5-FU targets, such as TYMS, thymidine kinase 1 (TK-1) and thymidine phosphorylase (TYMP). In human colorectal cancer tissue specimens, a strong correlation of FOXM1 and TYMS staining was observed. Elevated FOXM1 and TYMS expression was also observed in acquired 5-FU resistant colon cancer cells (HCT116 5-FU Res). A synergistic effect was observed following treatment of CRC cells with an inhibitor of FOXM1, thiostrepton, in combination with 5-FU. The combination treatment decreased colony formation and migration, and induced cell cycle arrest, DNA damage, and apoptosis in CRC cell lines. In summary, this research demonstrated that FOXM1 plays a pivotal role in 5-FU resistance at least partially through the regulation of TYMS.

Smooth muscle cell-specific FoxM1 controls hypoxia-induced pulmonary hypertension

RATIONALE

Forkhead box M1 (FoxM1) is a transcription factor that promotes cell proliferation by regulating a broad spectrum of genes that participate in cell cycle regulation, such as Cyclin B, CDC25B, and Aurora B Kinase. We have shown that hypoxia, a well-known stimulus for pulmonary hypertension (PH), induces FoxM1 in pulmonary artery smooth muscle cells (PASMC) in a HIF-dependent pathway, resulting in PASMC proliferation, while the suppression of FoxM1 prevents hypoxia-induced PASMC proliferation. However, the implications of FoxM1 in the development of PH remain less known.

METHODS

We determined FoxM1 levels in the lung samples of idiopathic PAH (pulmonary arterial hypertension) (IPAH) patients and hypoxia-induced PH mice. We generated constitutive and inducible smooth muscle cell (SMC)-specific FoxM1 knockdown or knockout mice as well as FoxM1 transgenic mice which overexpress FoxM1, and exposed them to hypoxia (10% O₂, 90% N₂) or normoxia (Room air, 21% oxygen) for four weeks, and measured PH indices. We also isolated mouse PASMC (mPASMC) and mouse embryonic fibroblasts (MEF) from these mice to examine the cell proliferation and expression levels of SMC contractile proteins.

RESULTS

We showed that in hypertensive human lungs or mouse lungs, FoxM1 levels were elevated. Constitutive knockout of FoxM1 in mouse SMC caused early lethality, whereas constitutive knockdown of FoxM1 in mouse SMC prevented hypoxia-induced PH and PASMC proliferation. Inducible knockout of FoxM1 in SMC reversed hypoxia-induced pulmonary artery wall remodeling in existing PH. Overexpression of FoxM1 enhanced hypoxia-induced pulmonary artery wall remodeling and right ventricular hypertrophy in mice. Alteration of FoxM1 status did not affect hypoxia-induced hypoxia-inducible factor (HIF) activity in mice. Knockout of FoxM1 decreased PASMC proliferation and induced expression of SMC contractile proteins and TGF-β/Smad3 signaling.

CONCLUSIONS

Our studies provide clear evidence that altered FoxM1 expression in PASMC contributes to PH and uncover a correlation between Smad3-dependent signaling in FoxM1-mediated proliferation and de-differentiation of PASMC.

Targeting the mevalonate pathway is a novel therapeutic approach to inhibit oncogenic FoxM1 transcription factor in human hepatocellular carcinoma

Dysregulation of cell metabolism is a hallmark of cancer. The mevalonate pathway in lipid metabolism has been implicated as a potential target of cancer therapy for hepatocellular carcinoma (HCC). The role of the Forkhead Box M1 (FoxM1) transcription factor in HCC development has been well documented, however, its involvement in cancer metabolism of HCC has not been fully determined. Here, we hypothesized that FoxM1 is involved in the mevalonate pathway of cholesterol biosynthesis in HCC. Inhibition of the mevalonate pathway by statins, inhibitors of 3-hydroxy-3-methylglutaryl CoA reductase (HMGCR), resulted in reduced expression of FoxM1 and increased cell death in human hepatoma cells. Re-exposure of mevalonate, a product of HMGCR, restored these effects. Likewise, knockdown of HMGCR reduced FoxM1 expression, indicating that FoxM1 expression was regulated by the mevalonate pathway in HCC. Mechanistically, protein geranylgeranylation was found to be responsible for FoxM1 expression and geranylgeranylated proteins, including RhoA, Rac1 or Cdc42, were shown to be involved in this process. In surgically resected human HCC tissues, the gene expression of FoxM1 had a positive correlation with that of the mevalonate pathway-related genes, such as HMGCR or sterol regulatory element-binding protein 2 (SREBP2). Furthermore, the gene expression of FoxM1 along with that of HMGCR or SREBP2 defined prognosis of HCC patients, suggesting the clinical significance of the mevalonate-FoxM1 pathway in human HCC. Our data indicate that FoxM1 links the mevalonate pathway to oncogenic signals in HCC. Thus, we propose a novel therapeutic approach to inhibit FoxM1 by targeting the mevalonate pathway for HCC.

FOXM1 evokes 5-fluorouracil resistance in colorectal cancer depending on ABCC10

5-Fluorouracil (5-FU) is the most commonly used chemotherapeutic agent for colorectal cancer (CRC). However, frequently occurred 5-FU resistance poses a great challenge in the clinic. Elucidating the underlying mechanisms and developing effective strategies against 5-FU resistance are highly desired. Here we identified the upregulation of FOXM1 in 5-FU nonresponsive CRC patients by gene expression profile analysis and 5-FU-resistant CRC cells by qRT-PCR assay. Silencing of FOXM1 promoted the sensitivity of CRC cells to 5-FU by enhancing cell apoptosis, while overexpression of FOXM1 conferred CRC cells with 5-FU resistance both in vitro and in vivo. Furthermore, we showed that genetic and pharmacological inhibition of FOXM1 resensitized resistant CRC cells to 5-FU treatment. Mechanistically, FOXM1 promoted the transcription of ABCC10 by directly binding to its promoter region. Notably, treatment with ABCC10 inhibitor reversed FOXM1-induced resistance to 5-FU in vivo. Clinical investigation revealed that the levels of FOXM1 and ABCC10 were positively correlated in CRC tissues. Therefore, FOXM1 promotes 5-FU resistance by upregulating ABCC10, suggesting that FOXM1/ABCC10 axis may serve as a potential therapeutic target for 5-FU resistance in CRC patients.

Untying the knot of transcription factor druggability: Molecular modeling study of FOXM1 inhibitors

The FOXM1 protein is a relevant transcription factor involved in cancer cell proliferation. The direct or indirect inhibition of this protein's transcriptional activity by small molecule drugs correlates well with a potentially significant anti-cancer profile, making this macro molecule a promising drug target. There are a few drug molecules reported to interact with (and inhibit) the FOXM1 DNA binding domain (FOXM1-BD), causing downregulation of protein expression and cancer cell proliferation inhibition. Among these drug molecules are the proteasome inhibitor thiostrepton, the former antidiabetic drug troglitazone, and the new FDI-6 molecule. Despite their structural differences, these drugs exert a similar inhibitory profile, and this observation prompted us to study a possible similar mechanism of action. Using a series of molecular dynamics simulations and docking protocols, we identified essential binding interactions exerted by all three classes of drugs, among which, a π-sulfur interaction (between a His287 and a sulfur-containing heterocycle) was the most important. In this report, we describe the preliminary evidence suggesting the presence of a drug-binding pocket within FOXM1 DNA binding domain, in which inhibitors fit to dissociate the protein-DNA complex. This finding suggests a common mechanism of action and a basic framework to design new FOXM1 inhibitors.

Acetylation of FOXM1 is essential for its transactivation and tumor growth stimulation

Forkhead box transcription factor M1 (FOXM1) plays crucial roles in a wide array of biological processes, including cell proliferation and differentiation, the cell cycle, and tumorigenesis by regulating the expression of its target genes. Elevated expression of FOXM1 is frequently observed in a multitude of malignancies. Here we show that FOXM1 can be acetylated by p300/CBP at lysines K63, K422, K440, K603 and K614 in vivo. This modification is essential for its transactivation on the target genes. Acetylation of FOXM1 increases during the S phase and remains high throughout the G2 and M phases, when FOXM1 transcriptional activity is required. We find that the acetylation-deficient FOXM1 mutant is less active and exhibits significantly weaker tumorigenic activities compared to wild-type FOXM1. Mechanistically, the acetylation of FOXM1 enhances its transcriptional activity by increasing its DNA binding affinity, protein stability, and phosphorylation sensitivity. In addition, we demonstrate that NAD-dependent histone deacetylase SIRT1 physically binds to and deacetylates FOXM1 in vivo. The deacetylation of FOXM1 by SIRT1 attenuates its transcriptional activity and decreases its protein stability. Together, our findings demonstrate that the reversible acetylation of FOXM1 by p300/CBP and SIRT1 modulates its transactivation function.

Emerging roles and mechanisms of FOXC2 in cancer

Forkhead box protein C2 (FOXC2), a transcription factor of the forkhead/winged-helix family, is required for embryonic and prenatal development. FOXC2 acts as a crucial modulator during both angiogenesis and lymphangiogenesis via multiple angiogenic and lymphangiogenic pathways, respectively. Although recent studies have shed light on the emerging role of FOXC2 in cancer, very little is known about the precise underlying mechanisms. The purpose of this review is to summarize the current understanding of FOXC2 and provide potential mechanistic explanations of the relationship between FOXC2 and cancer, as well as discuss the prospect for future research in the promising prognostic value of FOXC2 in cancer.

Paeoniflorin inhibits cell growth and induces cell cycle arrest through inhibition of FoxM1 in colorectal cancer cells

Paeoniflorin (PF) exhibits tumor suppressive functions in a variety of human cancers. However, the function of PF and molecular mechanism in colorectal cancer are elusive. In the present study, we investigated whether PF could exert its antiproliferative activity, anti-migration, and anti-invasive function in colorectal cancer cells. We found that PF inhibited cell growth and induced apoptosis and blocked cell cycle progression in the G0/G1 phase in colorectal cancer cells. Moreover, we found that PF suppressed cell migration and invasion in colorectal cancer cells. FoxM1 has been reported to play an important oncogenic role in human cancers. We also determine whether PF inhibited the expression of FoxM1, leading to its anti-cancer activity. We found that PF treatment in colorectal cancer cells resulted in down-regulation of FoxM1. The rescue experiments showed that overexpression of FoxM1 abrogated the tumor suppressive function induced by PF treatment. Notably, depletion of FoxM1 promoted the anti-tumor activity of PF in colorectal cancer cells. Therefore, inhibition of FoxM1 could participate in the anti-tumor activity of PF in colorectal cancer cells.

FoxM1 and β-catenin predicts aggressiveness in Middle Eastern ovarian cancer and their co-targeting impairs the growth of ovarian cancer cells

Epithelial ovarian cancer (EOC) is a highly lethal disease with poor prognosis especially in advanced stage tumor. Emerging evidence has reported that aberrant upregulation of FoxM1 and β-catenin are closely associated with aggressiveness of human cancer. However, interplay between these factors in the aggressiveness of EOC is not fully illustrated. In this study, we show that FoxM1 is frequently increased in Middle Eastern EOC and associated with high proliferative index (p = 0.0007) and high grade tumor (p = 0.0024). Interestingly, FoxM1 is significantly associated with elevated nuclear β-catenin and the concomitant increase of FoxM1 and β-catenin is associated with advanced stage of EOC by immunohistochemical analysis of 261 samples of Saudi patients with EOC. Functional analysis showed that β-catenin is a direct transcriptional target of FoxM1 in EOC cell lines. FoxM1 inhibition either by specific inhibitor, thiostrepton or siRNA suppressed β-catenin expression, whereas overexpression of FoxM1 increased nuclear β-catenin expression. We identified two FoxM1 binding sites in the β-catenin promoter that specifically bound to FoxM1 protein. Down-regulation of FoxM1 using thiostrepton induced apoptosis and inhibited cell migration/invasion in EOC cells. Moreover, co-inhibition of FoxM1 by thiostrepton and β-catenin by FH535 significantly and synergistically inhibited EOC cell growth in vitro and in vivo. Collectively, our findings confer that co-targeting FoxM1/β-catenin signaling cascade may be a promising molecular therapeutic choice in advanced EOC.

Increased expression of Forkhead box M1 transcription factor is associated with clinicopathological features and confers a poor prognosis in human hepatocellular carcinoma

AIM

Forkhead Box M1 (FoxM1) is a proliferation-specific transcription factor. In this study, we aimed to elucidate the clinicopathological and prognostic values of FoxM1 expression in human hepatocellular carcinoma (HCC) and correlate FoxM1 expression with various etiologies of liver diseases. We also investigated its therapeutic value in HCC.

METHODS

We investigated the expression of FoxM1 in tumor tissues and adjacent non-tumor tissues of 79 Japanese HCC patients by quantitative real-time reverse transcription-polymerase chain reaction analysis. Depletion by siRNA or specific inhibition by siomycin A were also used to investigate the effect of FoxM1 inhibition on stem-like features of human HCC cells.

RESULTS

Quantitative real-time reverse transcription-polymerase chain reaction analysis showed that tumor tissues displayed an approximately 14-fold increase in FoxM1 expression compared with adjacent non-tumor tissues. Interestingly, the expression levels of FoxM1in tumor tissues did not depend on the etiology of liver disease. The expression of FoxM1 in tumor tissues was associated with serum α-fetoprotein level, maximum tumor size, histological grade, TNM staging, and portal involvement. Kaplan-Meier analysis indicated that the high FoxM1 expression (≥median) group had a poor prognosis compared with the low FoxM1 expression (<median) group. Using multivariate analysis, the expression of FoxM1 in tumor tissues was shown to be an independent prognostic factor that affected overall survival and disease-free survival. Furthermore, FoxM1 inhibition by siRNA or siomycin A reduced spheroid colony formation of HCC cells in vitro.

CONCLUSION

Our data suggest that FoxM1 might be a prognostic biomarker and a promising therapeutic target for HCC.

Metadherin/Astrocyte elevated gene-1 positively regulates the stability and function of forkhead box M1 during tumorigenesis

Background

Forkhead box M1 (FOXM1) is overexpressed and activates numerous oncoproteins in tumors. However, the mechanism by which the FOXM1 protein aberrantly accumulates in human cancer remains uncertain. This study was designed to clarify the upstream signaling pathway(s) that regulate FOXM1 protein stability and transcriptional activity.

Methods

Mass spectrometry and immunoprecipitation were performed to identify the FOXM-metadherin (MTDH) interaction. In vivo and in vitro ubiquitination assays were conducted to test the effect of MTDH on FOXM1 stability. Chromatin immunoprecipitation assays were used to determine the involvement of MTDH in FOXM1 transcriptional activity. Cell invasion assays, tube formation assays, and in vivo tumor formation assays were performed to evaluate the cooperative activities of FOXM1 and MTDH during tumorigenesis.

Results

MTDH directly interacts with FOXM1 via the N-terminal inhibitory domain of MTDH, and this interaction disrupted the binding of cadherin-1 to FOXM1, thus protecting FOXM1 from subsequent proteasomal degradation. Deleting the MTDH-binding sites of FOXM1 abolished the MTDH overexpression-mediated stabilization of FOXM1. MTDH also bound to FOXM1 target gene promoters and enhanced FOXM1 transcriptional activity. MTDH knockdown destabilized FOXM1 and attenuated its transcriptional activity, consequently inhibiting cell cycle progression, angiogenesis, and cancer cell invasion in vitro and in vivo; these effects were abolished via forced overexpression of a stabilized mutant form of FOXM1. Thus, MTDH stabilized FOXM1 and supported the sustained activation of FOXM1 target genes.

Conclusion

These findings highlight a novel MTDH-regulated mechanism of FOXM1 stabilization and provide profound insight into the tumorigenic events simultaneously mediated by FOXM1 and MTDH.

FoxM1: Repurposing an oncogene as a biomarker

The past few decades have witnessed a tremendous progress in understanding the biology of cancer, which has led to more comprehensive approaches for global gene expression profiling and genome-wide analysis. This has helped to determine more sophisticated prognostic and predictive signature markers for the prompt diagnosis and precise screening of cancer patients. In the search for novel biomarkers, there has been increased interest in FoxM1, an extensively studied transcription factor that encompasses most of the hallmarks of malignancy. Considering the attractive potential of this multifarious oncogene, FoxM1 has emerged as an important molecule implicated in initiation, development and progression of cancer. Bolstered with the skill to maneuver the proliferation signals, FoxM1 bestows resistance to contemporary anti-cancer therapy as well. This review sheds light on the large body of literature that has accumulated in recent years that implies that FoxM1 neoplastic functions can be used as a novel predictive, prognostic and therapeutic marker for different cancers. This assessment also highlights the key features of FoxM1 that can be effectively harnessed to establish FoxM1 as a strong biomarker in diagnosis and treatment of cancer.

A lignan induces lysosomal dependent degradation of FoxM1 protein to suppress β-catenin nuclear translocation

Colon cancer is one of the most common cancers. In this study, we isolated a lignan [(−)-(2R,3R)-1,4-O-diferuloylsecoisolariciresinol, DFS] from Alnus japonica (Betulaceae) and investigated its biological activity and mechanism of action on colon cancer. DFS reduced the viability of colon cancer cells and induced cell cycle arrest. DFS also suppressed β-catenin nuclear translocation and β-catenin target gene expression through a reduction in FoxM1 protein. To assess the mechanism of the action of DFS, we investigated the effect of DFS on endogenous and exogenous FoxM1 protein degradation in colon cancer cells. DFS-induced FoxM1 protein degradation was suppressed by lysosomal inhibitors, chloroquine and bafilomycin A1, but not by knock-down of proteasomal proteins. The mechanism of DFS for FoxM1 degradation is lysosomal dependent, which was not reported before. Furthermore, we found that FoxM1 degradation was partially lysosomal-dependent under normal conditions. These observations indicate that DFS from A. japonica suppresses colon cancer cell proliferation by reducing β-catenin nuclear translocation. DFS induces lysosomal-dependent FoxM1 protein degradation. This is the first report on the lysosomal degradation of FoxM1 by a small molecule. DFS may be useful in treating cancers that feature the elevated expression of FoxM1.

USP39 regulates the growth of SMMC-7721 cells via FoxM1

The present study investigated ubiquitin specific peptidase 39 (USP39) gene knockdown on SMMC-7721 cells in vitro and in vivo, and the role of USP39 in regulating the growth of hepatocellular carcinoma (HCC). Two small interfering RNAs (siRNA) were constructed, which targeted the USP39 gene and control sequences were synthesized and inserted into a pGCSIL-GFP lentiviral vector. The full length of USP39 cDNA was amplified by polymerase chain reaction (PCR) and cloned into pEGFP-N2, and the recombinant plasmids were transfected into cells. Knockdown efficiency and upregulation of USP39 was determined by reverse transcription-quantitative PCR and western blotting. The impact of USP39 on the growth of SMMC-7721 cells in vitro was examined using an MTT assay, colony formation, flow cytometry (FCM) and immunohistochemical staining. The impact of USP39 on the growth of SMMC-7721 cells in vivo was examined by assessing tumorigenicity in nude mice. Western blotting was performed to examine the mechanism of USP39 regulation on SMMC-7721 cell growth. Recombinant vectors containing specific and scrambled USP39 siRNA sequences were constructed and transfected into SMMC-7721 cells. USP39 knockdown inhibited cell proliferation and colony formation in SMMC-7721 cells, while upregulation of USP39 promoted the growth of tumor cells. FCM indicated that USP39 knockdown led to G2/M arrest and induced apoptosis in SMMC-7721 cells. USP39 knockdown inhibited xenograft tumor growth in nude mice and led to the downregulation of the transcription factor Forkhead Box M1 (FoxM1). Gene expression of FoxM1 targets, including polo-like kinase 1, cyclin B1 and centromere protein A also decreased following USP39 knockdown. The results suggest that knockdown of USP39 inhibits the growth of HCC in vitro and in vivo, potentially through the induction of G2/M arrest by regulating the pre-mRNA splicing of FoxM1.

Roles of FoxM1 in cell regulation and breast cancer targeting therapy

Forkhead box M1 (FoxM1) is an oncogenic transcription factor involved in a wide variety of cellular processes, such as cell cycle progression, proliferation, differentiation, migration, metabolism and DNA damage response. It is overexpressed in many human cancers, especially in breast cancers. Posttranslational modifications are known to play an important role in regulating the expression and transcriptional activity of FoxM1. In this review, we characterize the posttranslational modifications of FoxM1, summarize modifications of FoxM1 by different kinases, explore the relationship between the different sites of modifications and comprehensively describe how posttranslational modifications to regulate the function of FoxM1 by changing protein stability, nucleus localization and transcriptional activity. Additionally, we systematically summarize the roles of FoxM1 in breast cancer occurrence, therapy and drug resistance. The purpose of this paper tries to give a better understanding of the regulatory mechanisms of FoxM1 in cell regulation and highlights potential of a new method for breast cancer therapy by targeting FoxM1.

The Effect of Sex on the Azoxymethane/Dextran Sulfate Sodium-treated Mice Model of Colon Cancer

Background

The colitis-associated cancer exhibits different characteristics according to sex in the initiation and progression of the tumors. The aim of this study was to investigate the sex-associated difference in the azoxymethane/dextran sulfate sodium (AOM/DSS)-induced colitis-associated cancer model.

Methods

The AOM/DSS ICR mouse model was established to compare male with female, and then the severity of colitis-associated carcinogenesis was examined macroscopically and histologically regarding the number, size, and location of tumors. Subsequently, levels of colonic mucosal cytokine, interleukin (IL)-1β and myeloperoxidase (MPO) were assessed.

Results

At the 16th week, the tumor multiplicity and the pro-inflammatory factors differed according to sex. The total tumor number was significantly higher in male (P = 0.020) and the number of large tumors (diameter > 2 mm) was higher in male (P = 0.026). In male, the tumors located more in distal colon (P = 0.001). MPO was significantly higher in AOM/DSS-treated male mice compared to the control group (P = 0.003), whereas the corresponding female group showed no significant change (P = 0.086). Colonic IL-1β level significantly increased in AOM/DSS groups compared to control groups both in male and female (male, P = 0.014; female, P = 0.005). It was higher in male group; however, there was no statistical significance (P = 0.226).

Conclusions

In AOM/DSS murine model, colitis-associated colon tumorigenesis are induced more severely in male mice than female probably by way of inflammatory mediators such as IL-1β and MPO. The sex-related differences at the animal model of colon cancer suggest the importance of approach to disease with sex-specific medicine in human.

Fox transcription factors: from development to disease

Forkhead box (Fox) transcription factors are evolutionarily conserved in organisms ranging from yeast to humans. They regulate diverse biological processes both during development and throughout adult life. Mutations in many Fox genes are associated with human disease and, as such, various animal models have been generated to study the function of these transcription factors in mechanistic detail. In many cases, the absence of even a single Fox transcription factor is lethal. In this Primer, we provide an overview of the Fox family, highlighting several key Fox transcription factor families that are important for mammalian development.

FOXK1 interaction with FHL2 promotes proliferation, invasion and metastasis in colorectal cancer

The transcriptional factor Forkhead box k1 (FOXK1) is a member of the FOX family. The abnormal expression of FOXK1 may have an important role in tumour development. Our previous studies showed that four-and-a-half LIM protein 2 (FHL2) is a critical inducer of the epithelial-to-mesenchymal transition (EMT) and invasion. However, the molecular mechanism by which FOXK1 synergizes with FHL2 tumour proliferation, EMT and metastasis is not well defined. We evaluated that messenger RNA (mRNA) and protein expression levels by quantitative RT–PCR, western blot, immunofluorescence and immunohistochemistry (IHC) assays. The migration and invasive abilities of colorectal cancer (CRC) cells were evaluated using short hairpin RNA (shRNA)-mediated inhibition in vitro and in vivo. We showed that FOXK1 expression was upregulated in CRC compared with matched normal tissues. FOXK1 physically interacts with FHL2 in CRC. Moreover, higher expression levels of the two proteins were significantly associated with differentiation, lymph node metastasis, AJCC stage and poorer prognosis. Furthermore, the overexpression of FOXK1 in CRC cells is associated with EMT, invasion and metastasis. However, the siRNA-mediated repression of FHL2 in FOXK1-overexpressing cells reversed EMT and both the proliferative and metastatic phenotypes in vitro and in vivo. These data identified that the co-expression of FOXK1 and FHL2 enhances cell proliferation and metastasis through the induction of EMT. Thus, FOXK1 and FHL2 may serve as putative targets in the combined therapy of CRC.

Insights into a Critical Role of the FOXO3a-FOXM1 Axis in DNA Damage Response and Genotoxic Drug Resistance

FOXO3a and FOXM1 are two forkhead transcription factors with antagonistic roles in cancer and DNA damage response. FOXO3a functions like a typical tumour suppressor, whereas FOXM1 is a potent oncogene aberrantly overexpressed in genotoxic resistant cancers. FOXO3a not only represses FOXM1 expression but also its transcriptional output. Recent research has provided novel insights into a central role for FOXO3a and FOXM1 in DNA damage response. The FOXO3a-FOXM1 axis plays a pivotal role in DNA damage repair and the accompanied cellular response through regulating the expression of genes essential for DNA damage sensing, mediating, signalling and repair as well as for senescence, cell cycle and cell death control. In this manner, the FOXO3a-FOXM1 axis also holds the key to cell fate decision in response to genotoxic therapeutic agents and controls the equilibrium between DNA repair and cell termination by cell death or senescence. As a consequence, inhibition of FOXM1 or reactivation of FOXO3a in cancer cells could enhance the efficacy of DNA damaging cancer therapies by decreasing the rate of DNA repair and cell survival while increasing senescence and cell death. Conceptually, targeting FOXO3a and FOXM1 may represent a promising molecular therapeutic option for improving the efficacy and selectivity of DNA damage agents, particularly in genotoxic agent resistant cancer. In addition, FOXO3a, FOXM1 and their downstream transcriptional targets may also be reliable diagnostic biomarkers for predicting outcome, for selecting therapeutic options, and for monitoring treatments in DNA-damaging agent therapy.

Expression and potential correlation among Forkhead box protein M1, Caveolin-1 and E-cadherin in colorectal cancer

The aim of the present study was to investigate the expression and functions of Forkhead box protein M1 (FoxM1), Caveolin-1 (Cav-1) and E-cadherin in colorectal cancer (CRC), and to determine the correlations among these proteins in CRC development and progression. The protein expression of FoxM1, Cav-1 and E-cadherin was identified using a human CRC and normal tissue microarray. A standard immunohistochemistry assay was performed employing anti-FoxM1, anti-Cav-1 and anti-E-cadherin antibodies. The clinicopathological significance of FoxM1, Cav-1 and E-cadherin in CRC was determined, and correlations were investigated between FoxM1 and Cav-1, FoxM1 and E-cadherin, Cav-1 and E-cadherin, respectively. The level of FoxM1, Cav-1 and E-Cadherin protein expression in CRC was found to be associated with pathological grade, tumor clinical stages and the presence of metastasis, respectively. Elevated expression of FoxM1 and Cav-1 was observed in the CRC tissues, and a significant correlation was found between the two proteins in CRC. However, it was also observed that FoxM1 was overexpressed while E-cadherin expression was low, indicating that there was a negative correlation between FoxM1 expression and E-cadherin expression. Moreover, there was also a negative correlation between Cav-1 and E-cadherin expression. Overall, the elevated expression of FoxM1 and Cav-1 in a human CRC microarray provided novel clinical evidence to elucidate the fact that they may play a critical role in the development and progression of CRC by negatively regulating E-cadherin expression. Furthermore, the positive correlation between FoxM1 and Cav-1 suggested that the proteins may constitute a novel signaling pathway in human CRC.

Effect of taxol on the expression of FoxM1 ovarian cancer-associated gene

The incidence of ovarian cancer in women has been on the increase in recent years. The aim of the present study was to examine the effects of taxol on the expression of ovarian cancer-associated gene forkhead box transcription factor M1 (FoxM1) and its therapeutic effects for ovarian cancer. The expression of FoxM1 gene was examined in patients with or without ovarian cancer. RNA and protein levels of FoxM1 gene of ovarian cancer patients were detected at different time periods (1, 3, 6, 8, 12 and 24 months) after treatment with taxol. The results showed that the mRNA level of FoxM1 gene in patients with ovarian cancer was significantly higher than that in normal women (P<0.05). With time and progression of the disease, the expression of FoxM1 gene significantly increased in the patients not being administered taxol, whereas the expression of FoxM1 in the patients administered taxol was significantly lower comparatively (P<0.05). In conclusion, an asssociation was identified between the FoxM1 gene and ovarian cancer. The FoxM1 gene therefore promotes the generation and deterioration of ovarian cancer, whereas taxol reduces it. These findings provide a certain theoretical basis for the later treatment of ovarian cancer disease.