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Xie X, Yan B, Yang L, Deng L, Xue X, Gao M, Wei H, Chen S, Wu Y, Yang X, Ma P. Prenatal co-exposure to diisodecyl phthalate and ozone contribute to depressive behavior in offspring mice through oxidative stress and TWIST1 participation. THE SCIENCE OF THE TOTAL ENVIRONMENT 2024; 928:172411. [PMID: 38608898 DOI: 10.1016/j.scitotenv.2024.172411] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 02/19/2024] [Revised: 04/09/2024] [Accepted: 04/09/2024] [Indexed: 04/14/2024]
Abstract
Exposure to diisodecyl phthalate (DIDP) during early pregnancy may be a risk factor for depressive behavior in offspring. While ozone (O3) exposure also raises the probability of depressive behavior during the preceding DIDP-induced process. In the present study, we investigated the effects of prenatal exposure to DIDP and O3 on the development of depressive-like behavior in offspring mice. The study found that prenatal exposure to both DIDP and O3 significantly increased depressive-like behavior in the offspring mice compared to either DIDP or O3 alone. Prenatal exposure to DIDP and O3 obviously increased the levels of corticotropin-releasing hormone (CRH), adrenocorticotropic hormone (ACTH) and cortisol, and decreased the levels of brain-derived neurotrophic factor (BDNF), 5-hydroxytryptamine (5-HT), dopamine (DA) and norepinephrine (NE) in the brain tissues of offspring mice. Transcriptome analysis further revealed significant alterations in genes related to oxidative stress and TWIST1 (a helix-loop-helix transcription factor) in response to the combined exposure to DIDP and O3. HPA axis activation, dysregulation of neurodevelopmental factors, oxidative stress and TWIST1 involvement, collectively contributed to the development of depression-like behaviors in offspring mice following prenatal exposure to DIDP and O3. Moreover, the study also verified the potential role of oxidative stress using vitamin E as an antioxidant. The findings provide valuable evidence for the relationship between co-exposure to DIDP and O3 and depression, highlighting the importance of considering the combined effects of multiple environmental pollutants in assessing their impact on mental health outcomes.
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Affiliation(s)
- Xiaomin Xie
- Key Laboratory of Environmental Related Diseases and One Health, Xianning Medical College, Hubei University of Science and Technology, Xianning 437100, PR China
| | - Biao Yan
- Key Laboratory of Environmental Related Diseases and One Health, Xianning Medical College, Hubei University of Science and Technology, Xianning 437100, PR China
| | - Lihua Yang
- State Key Laboratory of Freshwater Ecology and Biotechnology, Institute of Hydrobiology, Chinese Academic of Sciences, Wuhan 430072, PR China
| | - Linjing Deng
- School of Environment and Safety Engineering, Jiangsu University, Zhenjiang 212000, PR China
| | - Xin Xue
- Key Laboratory of Environmental Related Diseases and One Health, Xianning Medical College, Hubei University of Science and Technology, Xianning 437100, PR China
| | - Minmin Gao
- Key Laboratory of Environmental Related Diseases and One Health, Xianning Medical College, Hubei University of Science and Technology, Xianning 437100, PR China
| | - Huaqin Wei
- Key Laboratory of Environmental Related Diseases and One Health, Xianning Medical College, Hubei University of Science and Technology, Xianning 437100, PR China
| | - Shaohui Chen
- Key Laboratory of Environmental Related Diseases and One Health, Xianning Medical College, Hubei University of Science and Technology, Xianning 437100, PR China
| | - Yang Wu
- Key Laboratory of Environmental Related Diseases and One Health, Xianning Medical College, Hubei University of Science and Technology, Xianning 437100, PR China
| | - Xu Yang
- Key Laboratory of Environmental Related Diseases and One Health, Xianning Medical College, Hubei University of Science and Technology, Xianning 437100, PR China
| | - Ping Ma
- Key Laboratory of Environmental Related Diseases and One Health, Xianning Medical College, Hubei University of Science and Technology, Xianning 437100, PR China.
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Wang S, Zhou S, Han Z, Yu B, Xu Y, Lin Y, Chen Y, Jin Z, Li Y, Cao Q, Xu Y, Zhang Q, Wang YC. From gut to brain: understanding the role of microbiota in inflammatory bowel disease. Front Immunol 2024; 15:1384270. [PMID: 38576620 PMCID: PMC10991805 DOI: 10.3389/fimmu.2024.1384270] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 02/09/2024] [Accepted: 03/12/2024] [Indexed: 04/06/2024] Open
Abstract
With the proposal of the "biological-psychological-social" model, clinical decision-makers and researchers have paid more attention to the bidirectional interactive effects between psychological factors and diseases. The brain-gut-microbiota axis, as an important pathway for communication between the brain and the gut, plays an important role in the occurrence and development of inflammatory bowel disease. This article reviews the mechanism by which psychological disorders mediate inflammatory bowel disease by affecting the brain-gut-microbiota axis. Research progress on inflammatory bowel disease causing "comorbidities of mind and body" through the microbiota-gut-brain axis is also described. In addition, to meet the needs of individualized treatment, this article describes some nontraditional and easily overlooked treatment strategies that have led to new ideas for "psychosomatic treatment".
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Affiliation(s)
- Siyu Wang
- Zhongda Hospital, School of Medicine, Southeast University, Nanjing, China
- Department of Gastroenterology, The First Hospital of Hunan University of Chinese Medicine, Changsha, China
| | - Shuwei Zhou
- Zhongda Hospital, School of Medicine, Southeast University, Nanjing, China
- Nurturing Center of Jiangsu Province for State Laboratory of AI Imaging & Interventional Radiology, Department of Radiology, Zhongda Hospital, School of Medicine, Southeast University, Nanjing, China
| | - Zhongyu Han
- Zhongda Hospital, School of Medicine, Southeast University, Nanjing, China
| | - Bin Yu
- Department of Gastroenterology, The First Hospital of Hunan University of Chinese Medicine, Changsha, China
| | - Yin Xu
- Department of Gastroenterology, The First Hospital of Hunan University of Chinese Medicine, Changsha, China
| | - Yumeng Lin
- Eye School of Chengdu University of Traditional Chinese Medicine, Chengdu, China
| | - Yutong Chen
- The Second Clinical Medical College, Zhejiang Chinese Medical University, Hangzhou, China
| | - Zi Jin
- Department of Anesthesiology and Pain Rehabilitation, Shanghai YangZhi Rehabilitation Hospital (Shanghai Sunshine Rehabilitation Center), School of Medicine, Tongji University, Shanghai, China
| | - Yalong Li
- Anorectal Department, The Third Affiliated Hospital of Yunnan University of Chinese Medicine, Kunming, China
| | - Qinhan Cao
- School of Clinical Medicine, Chengdu University of Traditional Chinese Medicine (TCM), Chengdu, China
| | - Yunying Xu
- Clinical Medical School, Affiliated Hospital of Chengdu University, Chengdu, China
| | - Qiang Zhang
- Department of Gastroenterology, The First Hospital of Hunan University of Chinese Medicine, Changsha, China
| | - Yuan-Cheng Wang
- Zhongda Hospital, School of Medicine, Southeast University, Nanjing, China
- Nurturing Center of Jiangsu Province for State Laboratory of AI Imaging & Interventional Radiology, Department of Radiology, Zhongda Hospital, School of Medicine, Southeast University, Nanjing, China
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Zhu C, Li S. The peripheral corticotropin releasing factor family's role in vasculitis. Vascul Pharmacol 2024; 154:107275. [PMID: 38184094 DOI: 10.1016/j.vph.2023.107275] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 11/01/2023] [Revised: 12/15/2023] [Accepted: 12/31/2023] [Indexed: 01/08/2024]
Abstract
Corticotropin releasing factor family peptides (CRF peptides) include 4 members, corticotropin releasing hormone (CRH), Urocortin (UCN1), UCN2 and UCN3. CRF peptides function via the two distinct receptors, CRF1 and CRF2. Among them, CRH/CRF1 has been recognized to influence immunity/inflammation peripherally. Both pro- and anti-inflammatory effects of CRH are reported. Likewise, UCNs, peripherally in cardiovascular system have been documented to have both potent protective and harmful effects, with UCN1 acting on both CRF1 & CRF2 and UCN2 & UCN3 on CRF2. We and others also observe protective and detrimental effects of CRF peptides/receptors on vasculature, with the latter of predominantly higher incidence, i.e., they play an important role in the development of vasculitis while in some cases they are found to counteract vascular inflammation. The pro-vasculitis effects of CRH & UCNs include increasing vascular endothelial permeability, interrupting endothelial adherens & tight junctions leading to hyperpermeability, stimulating immune/inflammatory cells to release inflammatory factors, and promoting angiogenesis by VEGF release while the anti-vasculitis effects may be just the opposite, depending on many factors such as different CRF receptor types, species and systemic conditions. Furthermore, CRF peptides' pro-vasculitis effects are found to be likely related to cPLA2 and S1P receptor signal pathway. This minireview will focus on summarizing the peripheral effects of CRF peptides on vasculature participating in the processes of vasculitis.
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Affiliation(s)
- Chao Zhu
- Department of Pharmacology, School of Basic Medical Sciences, Nanjing Medical University, Longmian Avenue, 101, Nanjing, China
| | - Shengnan Li
- Department of Pharmacology, School of Basic Medical Sciences, Nanjing Medical University, Longmian Avenue, 101, Nanjing, China.
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Wang Y, Qiao M, Yao X, Feng Z, Hu R, Chen J, Liu L, Liu J, Sun Y, Guo Y. Lidocaine ameliorates intestinal barrier dysfunction in irritable bowel syndrome by modulating corticotropin-releasing hormone receptor 2. Neurogastroenterol Motil 2023; 35:e14677. [PMID: 37736684 DOI: 10.1111/nmo.14677] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Submit a Manuscript] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 08/13/2022] [Revised: 07/11/2023] [Accepted: 08/28/2023] [Indexed: 09/23/2023]
Abstract
BACKGROUND Intestinal barrier dysfunction is a prevalent pathogenic factor underlying various disorders. Currently there is no effective resolution. Previous studies have reported the potential anti-inflammatory properties of lidocaine and its ability to alleviate visceral hypersensitivity in individuals with irritable bowel syndrome (IBS). Therefore, our study will further verify the effect of lidocaine on intestinal barrier dysfunction in IBS and investigate the underlying mechanisms. METHODS In this study, we investigated the role of lidocaine by assessing visceral hypersensitivity, body weight, inflammatory factors, fluorescein isothiocyanate-dextran 4000 (FD4) flux, tight junctions (TJs) and spleen and thymus index in rats subjected to water avoidance stress (WAS) to mimic intestinal barrier dysfunction in IBS with and without lidocaine. In vitro, we investigated the role of corticotropin-releasing hormone receptor 2 (CRHR2) in lidocaine-treated Caco2 cells using small interfering RNA (siRNA) targeting CRHR2. KEY RESULTS In WAS rats, lidocaine significantly restored weight loss, damaged TJs, spleen index and thymus index and inhibited abdominal hypersensitivity as well as blood levels of markers indicating intestinal permeability, such as diamine oxidase (DAO), D-lactic acid (D-Lac) and lipopolysaccharide (LPS). Consequently, the leakage of FD4 flux from intestine was significantly attenuated in lidocaine group, and levels of intestinal inflammatory factors (IL-1β, IFN-γ, TNF-α) were reduced. Interestingly, lidocaine significantly suppressed corticotropin-releasing hormone (CRH) levels in lamina propria cells, while the CRH receptor CRHR2 was upregulated in intestinal epithelial cells. In vitro, lidocaine enhanced the expression of CRHR2 on Caco-2 intestinal epithelial cells and restored disrupted TJs and the epithelial barrier caused by LPS. Conversely, these effects were diminished by a CRHR2 antagonist and siRNA-CRHR2, suggesting that the protective effect of lidocaine depends on CRHR2. CONCLUSIONS AND INFERENCES Lidocaine ameliorates intestinal barrier dysfunction in IBS by potentially modulating the expression of CRHR2 on intestinal epithelial cells.
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Affiliation(s)
- Yanrong Wang
- Department of Laboratory Medicine, Sichuan Tianfu New Area People's Hospital, Chengdu, China
| | - Mingbiao Qiao
- Department of Pathology, De Yang People's Hospital, Deyang, China
| | - Xue Yao
- Medical Research Center, The Affiliated Hospital of Southwest Jiaotong University, The Third People's Hospital of Chengdu, The Second Chengdu Hospital Affiliated to Chongqing Medical University, Chengdu, China
| | - Zhonghui Feng
- Center of Gastrointestinal and Minimally Invasive Surgery, Department of General Surgery, The Third People's Hospital of Chengdu, The Second Chengdu Hospital Affiliated to Chongqing Medical University, Chengdu, China
| | - Ruiqi Hu
- Department of Clinical Laboratory, The Affiliated Hospital of Southwest Medical University, Luzhou, China
| | - Jianguo Chen
- Department of Clinical Laboratory, The Affiliated Hospital of Southwest Medical University, Luzhou, China
| | - Lei Liu
- Medical Research Center, The Affiliated Hospital of Southwest Jiaotong University, The Third People's Hospital of Chengdu, The Second Chengdu Hospital Affiliated to Chongqing Medical University, Chengdu, China
| | - Jinbo Liu
- Department of Clinical Laboratory, The Affiliated Hospital of Southwest Medical University, Luzhou, China
| | - Yueshan Sun
- Medical Research Center, The Affiliated Hospital of Southwest Jiaotong University, The Third People's Hospital of Chengdu, The Second Chengdu Hospital Affiliated to Chongqing Medical University, Chengdu, China
| | - Yuanbiao Guo
- Medical Research Center, The Affiliated Hospital of Southwest Jiaotong University, The Third People's Hospital of Chengdu, The Second Chengdu Hospital Affiliated to Chongqing Medical University, Chengdu, China
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Lui PP, Ainali C, Chu CC, Terranova-Barberio M, Karagiannis P, Tewari A, Safinia N, Sharif-Paghaleh E, Tsoka S, Woszczek G, Di Meglio P, Lombardi G, Young AR, Nestle FO, Ali N. Human skin CD141 + dendritic cells regulate cutaneous immunity via the neuropeptide urocortin 2. iScience 2023; 26:108029. [PMID: 37860766 PMCID: PMC10583083 DOI: 10.1016/j.isci.2023.108029] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 11/20/2022] [Revised: 08/11/2023] [Accepted: 09/21/2023] [Indexed: 10/21/2023] Open
Abstract
Skin immune homeostasis is a multi-faceted process where dermal dendritic cells (DDCs) are key in orchestrating responses to environmental stressors. We have previously identified CD141+CD14+ DDCs as a skin-resident immunoregulatory population that is vitamin-D3 (VitD3) inducible from monocyte-derived DCs (moDCs), termed CD141hi VitD3 moDCs. We demonstrate that CD141+ DDCs and CD141hi VitD3 moDCs share key immunological features including cell surface markers, reduced T cell stimulation, IL-10 production, and a common transcriptomic signature. Bioinformatic analysis identified the neuroactive ligand receptor pathway and the neuropeptide, urocortin 2 (UCN2), as a potential immunoregulatory candidate molecule. Incubation with VitD3 upregulated UCN2 in CD141+ DCs and UVB irradiation induced UCN2 in CD141+ DCs in healthy skin in vivo. Notably, CD141+ DDC generation of suppressive Tregs was dependent upon the UCN2 pathway as in vivo administration of UCN2 reversed skin inflammation in humanized mice. We propose the neuropeptide UCN2 as a novel skin DC-derived immunoregulatory mediator with a potential role in UVB and VitD3-dependent skin immune homeostasis.
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Affiliation(s)
- Prudence PokWai Lui
- Peter Gorer Department of Immunobiology, School of Immunology and Microbial Science, King’s College London, London, UK
- Centre for Gene Therapy and Regenerative Medicine, School of Basic and Biomedical Sciences, King’s College London, London, UK
| | - Chrysanthi Ainali
- St. John’s Institute of Dermatology, King’s College London and NIHR Biomedical Research Centre, London, UK
| | - Chung-Ching Chu
- St. John’s Institute of Dermatology, King’s College London and NIHR Biomedical Research Centre, London, UK
| | - Manuela Terranova-Barberio
- St. John’s Institute of Dermatology, King’s College London and NIHR Biomedical Research Centre, London, UK
| | - Panagiotis Karagiannis
- St. John’s Institute of Dermatology, King’s College London and NIHR Biomedical Research Centre, London, UK
| | - Angela Tewari
- St. John’s Institute of Dermatology, King’s College London and NIHR Biomedical Research Centre, London, UK
| | - Niloufar Safinia
- Institute of Liver Studies, Department of Inflammation Biology, School of Immunology and Microbial Sciences, James Black Centre, King’s College London, London, UK
| | - Ehsan Sharif-Paghaleh
- Department of Imaging Chemistry & Biology, School of Biomedical Engineering & Imaging Sciences, Faculty of Life Sciences & Medicine, King’s College London, London, UK
| | - Sophia Tsoka
- Department of Informatics, Faculty of Natural, Mathematical and Engineering Sciences, King’s College London, Bush House, London, UK
| | - Grzegorz Woszczek
- Asthma UK Centre in Allergic Mechanisms of Asthma, School of Immunology and Microbial Sciences, King’s College London, London, UK
| | - Paola Di Meglio
- St. John’s Institute of Dermatology, King’s College London and NIHR Biomedical Research Centre, London, UK
| | - Giovanna Lombardi
- Peter Gorer Department of Immunobiology, School of Immunology and Microbial Science, King’s College London, London, UK
| | - Antony R. Young
- St. John’s Institute of Dermatology, King’s College London and NIHR Biomedical Research Centre, London, UK
| | - Frank O. Nestle
- St. John’s Institute of Dermatology, King’s College London and NIHR Biomedical Research Centre, London, UK
| | - Niwa Ali
- Peter Gorer Department of Immunobiology, School of Immunology and Microbial Science, King’s College London, London, UK
- Centre for Gene Therapy and Regenerative Medicine, School of Basic and Biomedical Sciences, King’s College London, London, UK
- St. John’s Institute of Dermatology, King’s College London and NIHR Biomedical Research Centre, London, UK
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Shao M, Yuan F, Liu J, Luo H. Mast Cell Specific Receptor Mrgprb2 Regulating Experimental Colitis is Associated with the Microbiota-Gut-Brain Axis. J Inflamm Res 2022; 15:6137-6151. [PMID: 36386594 PMCID: PMC9656444 DOI: 10.2147/jir.s383812] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 08/01/2022] [Accepted: 10/20/2022] [Indexed: 11/09/2022] Open
Abstract
Purpose Ulcerative colitis (UC) patients have disturbances in the microbiota-gut-brain axis, and mast cells are important components of this axis. The mast cell-specific receptor Mrgprb2 has effects on host defense against bacterial infection and neurogenic inflammation, which may help mast cells act on the axis. This study analyzed how Mrgprb2 participates in the pathogenesis of UC by affecting the microbiota-gut-brain axis. Materials and Methods Mrgprb2 knockout (b2KO) mice and wild-type (WT) mice were fed 2% (w/v) dextran sulfate sodium (DSS) in drinking water for 7 days, which was then replaced with normal water for 14 days. This cycle was repeated three times. Feces were collected on Days 21, 42, and 63 for intestinal microbiota analysis, and mice were euthanized on Day 64. Hypothalamus, amygdala and colon tissues were removed and analyzed. Results Compared with WT mice, B2KO mice exhibited increased weight loss, colon shortening and colonic pathological damage after colitis induction. Analysis of the intestinal microbiota showed that b2KO mice with colitis had a significant decrease in the abundance and diversity, as well as an increase in Allobaculum and a decrease in norank_f__Muribaculaceae and Ileibacterium. In colon tissues, the expression of mucin 2 (MUC2) and junctional adhesion molecule A (JAM-A) in b2KO mice was reduced, and oxidative stress levels were higher. B2KO mice with colitis had higher corticotropin-releasing hormone (CRH), corticotropin-releasing hormone receptor 1 (CRHR1), neuropeptide Y (NPY) and brain-derived neurotrophic factor (BDNF) mRNA levels in hypothalamus tissues and glucocorticoid receptor mRNA levels in the amygdala. Conclusion In the microbiota-gut-brain axis, Mrgprb2 was involved in regulating the intestinal microbiota composition, intestinal barrier and oxidative stress levels, and was related to stress regulation, which might help to explain the pathogenesis of UC.
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Affiliation(s)
- Ming Shao
- Department of Gastroenterology, Renmin Hospital of Wuhan University, Wuhan, 430060, People’s Republic of China
- Hubei Key Laboratory of Digestive Diseases, Wuhan, 430060, People’s Republic of China
| | - Fangting Yuan
- Department of Gastroenterology, Renmin Hospital of Wuhan University, Wuhan, 430060, People’s Republic of China
- Hubei Key Laboratory of Digestive Diseases, Wuhan, 430060, People’s Republic of China
| | - Jingwen Liu
- Department of Gastroenterology, Renmin Hospital of Wuhan University, Wuhan, 430060, People’s Republic of China
- Hubei Key Laboratory of Digestive Diseases, Wuhan, 430060, People’s Republic of China
| | - Hesheng Luo
- Department of Gastroenterology, Renmin Hospital of Wuhan University, Wuhan, 430060, People’s Republic of China
- Hubei Key Laboratory of Digestive Diseases, Wuhan, 430060, People’s Republic of China
- Correspondence: Hesheng Luo, Department of Gastroenterology, Renmin Hospital of Wuhan University, Wuhan, 430060, People’s Republic of China, Email
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Pagán-Busigó JE, López-Carrasquillo J, Appleyard CB, Torres-Reverón A. Beyond depression and anxiety; a systematic review about the role of corticotropin-releasing hormone antagonists in diseases of the pelvic and abdominal organs. PLoS One 2022; 17:e0264909. [PMID: 35275963 PMCID: PMC8916623 DOI: 10.1371/journal.pone.0264909] [Citation(s) in RCA: 1] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 10/01/2021] [Accepted: 02/21/2022] [Indexed: 12/12/2022] Open
Abstract
Evidence for beneficial effects of corticotropin releasing hormone (CRH) antagonists in abdominal and pelvic organs is emerging in preclinical studies. Following the Preferred Reporting Items for Systematic Reviews and Meta-Analyses (PRISMA) statement a compilation of preclinical studies using CRH receptor antagonists as a treatment for abdominal and pelvic disease was carried out. The Animal Research: Reporting of In Vivo Experiments (ARRIVE) essential 10 guidelines were used to determine quality of the included studies. A total of 40 studies from the last 15 years studying irritable bowel syndrome, inflammatory bowel disease, endometriosis, enteritis, stress impact on gastrointestinal processes and exogenous CRH administration effects were included. Blockage of the CRH receptor 1 was mainly associated with beneficial effects while that of CRH receptor 2 worsened studied effects. However, time of administration, route of administration and the animal model used, all had an impact on the beneficial outcomes. Frequency of drugs administered indicated that astressin-2B, astressin and antalarmin were among the most utilized antagonists. Of concern, studies included were predominantly carried out in male models only, representing a gender discrepancy in preclinical studies compared to the clinical scenario. The ARRIVE score average was 13 with ~60% of the studies failing to randomize or blind the experimental units. Despite the failure to date of the CRH antagonists in moving across the clinical trials pipeline, there is evidence for their beneficial effects beyond mood disorders. Future pre-clinical studies should be tailored towards effectively predicting the clinical scenario, including reduction of bias and randomization.
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Affiliation(s)
- Joshua E. Pagán-Busigó
- Department of Basic Sciences, Ponce Health Sciences University, Ponce Research Institute, Ponce, Puerto Rico, United States of America
| | - Jonathan López-Carrasquillo
- Department of Basic Sciences, Ponce Health Sciences University, Ponce Research Institute, Ponce, Puerto Rico, United States of America
| | - Caroline B. Appleyard
- Department of Basic Sciences, Ponce Health Sciences University, Ponce Research Institute, Ponce, Puerto Rico, United States of America
- Sur180 Therapeutics, LLC, McAllen, Texas, United States of America
| | - Annelyn Torres-Reverón
- Department of Basic Sciences, Ponce Health Sciences University, Ponce Research Institute, Ponce, Puerto Rico, United States of America
- Sur180 Therapeutics, LLC, McAllen, Texas, United States of America
- * E-mail: ,
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Ceulemans M, Jacobs I, Wauters L, Vanuytsel T. Immune Activation in Functional Dyspepsia: Bystander Becoming the Suspect. Front Neurosci 2022; 16:831761. [PMID: 35557605 PMCID: PMC9087267 DOI: 10.3389/fnins.2022.831761] [Citation(s) in RCA: 5] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 12/08/2021] [Accepted: 03/25/2022] [Indexed: 11/13/2022] Open
Abstract
Disorders of gut-brain interaction (DGBI), formerly termed functional gastrointestinal disorders (FGID), are highly prevalent although exact pathophysiological mechanisms remain unclear. Intestinal immune activation has been recognized, but increasing evidence supports a pivotal role for an active inflammatory state in these disorders. In functional dyspepsia (FD), marked eosinophil and mast cell infiltration has been repeatedly demonstrated and associations with symptoms emphasize the relevance of an eosinophil-mast cell axis in FD pathophysiology. In this Review, we highlight the importance of immune activation in DGBI with a focus on FD. We summarize eosinophil biology in both homeostasis and inflammatory processes. The evidence for immune activation in FD is outlined with attention to alterations on both cellular and molecular level, and how these may contribute to FD symptomatology. As DGBI are complex and multifactorial conditions, we shed light on factors associated to, and potentially influencing immune activation, including bidirectional gut-brain interaction, allergy and the microbiota. Crucial studies reveal a therapeutic benefit of treatments targeting immune activation, suggesting that specific anti-inflammatory therapies could offer renewed hope for at least a subset of DGBI patients. Lastly, we explore the future directions for DGBI research that could advance the field. Taken together, emerging evidence supports the recognition of FD as an immune-mediated organic-based disorder, challenging the paradigm of a strictly functional nature.
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Affiliation(s)
- Matthias Ceulemans
- Department of Chronic Diseases and Metabolism, Translational Research Center for Gastrointestinal Disorders (TARGID), Katholieke Universiteit Leuven, Leuven, Belgium
| | - Inge Jacobs
- Allergy and Clinical Immunology Research Group, Department of Microbiology, Immunology and Transplantation, Katholieke Universiteit Leuven, Leuven, Belgium
| | - Lucas Wauters
- Department of Chronic Diseases and Metabolism, Translational Research Center for Gastrointestinal Disorders (TARGID), Katholieke Universiteit Leuven, Leuven, Belgium
- Department of Gastroenterology and Hepatology, University Hospitals Leuven, Leuven, Belgium
| | - Tim Vanuytsel
- Department of Chronic Diseases and Metabolism, Translational Research Center for Gastrointestinal Disorders (TARGID), Katholieke Universiteit Leuven, Leuven, Belgium
- Department of Gastroenterology and Hepatology, University Hospitals Leuven, Leuven, Belgium
- *Correspondence: Tim Vanuytsel,
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Hatton-Jones KM, du Toit EF, Cox AJ. Effect of chronic restraint stress and western-diet feeding on colonic regulatory gene expression in mice. Neurogastroenterol Motil 2022; 34:e14300. [PMID: 34825433 DOI: 10.1111/nmo.14300] [Citation(s) in RCA: 1] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Submit a Manuscript] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 08/04/2021] [Revised: 10/07/2021] [Accepted: 11/10/2021] [Indexed: 12/13/2022]
Abstract
BACKGROUND Diet-induced obesity (DIO) and psychological stress are significant independent regulators of gastrointestinal physiology; however, our understanding of how these two disorders influence the host-microbe interface is still poorly characterized. The aim of this study was to assess the combined influences of diet-induced obesity and psychological stress on microbiome composition and colonic gene expression. METHODS C57BL/6J mice (n = 48) were subject to a combination of 22 weeks of Western diet (WD) feeding and a chronic restraint stressor (CRS) for the last 4 weeks of feeding. At the end of the combined intervention, microbiome composition was determined from cecal contents, and colonic tissue gene expression was assessed by multiplex analysis using NanoString nCounter System and real-time qPCR. RESULTS WD feeding induced a DIO phenotype with increased body weight, worsened metabolic markers, and alterations to microbiome composition. CRS reduced body weight in both dietary groups while having differential effects on glucose metabolism. CRS improved the Firmicutes/Bacteroidetes ratio in WD-fed animals while expanding the Proteobacteria phyla. Significantly lower expression of colonic Tlr4 (p = 0.008), Ocln (p = 0.004), and Cldn3 (p = 0.004) were noted in WD-fed animals compared to controls with no synergistic effects observed when combined with CRS. No changes to colonic expression of downstream inflammatory mediators were observed. Interestingly, higher levels of expression of Cldn2 (p = 0.04) and bile acid receptor Nr1h4 (p = 0.02) were seen in mice exposed to CRS. CONCLUSION Differential but not synergistic effects of WD and CRS were noted at the host-microbe interface suggesting multifactorial responses that require further investigation.
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Affiliation(s)
- Kyle M Hatton-Jones
- School of Medical Science, Griffith University, Southport, Queensland, Australia
| | - Eugene F du Toit
- School of Medical Science, Griffith University, Southport, Queensland, Australia
| | - Amanda J Cox
- School of Medical Science, Griffith University, Southport, Queensland, Australia
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Ramírez-Guerrero AA, González-Villaseñor CO, Leal-Ugarte E, Gutiérrez-Angulo M, Ramírez-Flores M, Delgado-Enciso I, Macías-Gómez NM. Association between genetic variant rs2267716 of CRHR2 gene with colorectal cancer. J Investig Med 2021; 70:947-952. [PMID: 34969780 DOI: 10.1136/jim-2021-002047] [Citation(s) in RCA: 1] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Accepted: 11/24/2021] [Indexed: 12/12/2022]
Abstract
Colorectal cancer (CRC) is the third most common cancer and one of the main causes of death around the world. Multiple lines of evidence have suggested the role of the corticotropin-releasing hormone (CRH) family in CRC induction, including the low expression of corticotropin-releasing hormone receptor 2 (CRHR2), which is an angiogenesis inhibitor and inflammatory modulator. Previous research suggests that CRHR2 expression in colonic intestinal cells can regulate migration, proliferation and apoptosis through the modulation of several pathways. The aim of this study was to analyze the association of the rs10250835, rs2267716 and rs2267717 variants of CRHR2 gene with CRC in the Mexican population in order to consider its predictive value in CRC. This cross-sectional study included a group of 187 unrelated patients with sporadic CRC and a control group of 191 healthy blood donors. DNA extraction from peripheral blood was carried out using the Miller method. Identification of the rs10250835 variant was performed using PCR-restriction fragment length polymorphism (RFLP) and the rs2267716 and rs2267717 variants using TaqMan allelic discrimination assay. The minor allele homozygous CC of the rs2267716 variant of CRHR2 showed significant difference between CRC and control group (p=0.025), as well as the GCA haplotype (p=0.007), corresponding to the rs10250835, rs2267716 and rs2267717 variants, respectively. Our results suggest that the rs2267716 variant and GCA haplotype of CRHR2 represent a risk factor for CRC development in Mexican patients.
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Affiliation(s)
| | | | - Evelia Leal-Ugarte
- Facultad de Medicina, Universidad Autónoma de Tamaulipas Facultad de Ingeniería y Ciencias, Matamoros, Tamaulipas, Mexico
| | - Melva Gutiérrez-Angulo
- Ciencias de la Salud, Universidad de Guadalajara-Centro Universitario Los Altos, Tepatitlan de Morelos, Mexico
| | | | | | - Nelly Margarita Macías-Gómez
- Laboratorio de Genética Humana, Universidad de Guadalajara Campus Centro Universitario del Sur, Ciudad Guzmán, Mexico
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Zhao SB, Wu JY, He ZX, Song YH, Chang X, Xia T, Fang X, Li ZS, Xu C, Wang SL, Bai Y. Corticotropin releasing hormone promotes inflammatory bowel disease via inducing intestinal macrophage autophagy. Cell Death Dis 2021; 7:377. [PMID: 34873177 PMCID: PMC8648763 DOI: 10.1038/s41420-021-00767-8] [Citation(s) in RCA: 3] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 05/26/2021] [Revised: 11/07/2021] [Accepted: 11/15/2021] [Indexed: 12/16/2022]
Abstract
Psychosocial stress is a vital factor contributing to the pathogenesis and progression of inflammatory bowel disease (IBD). The contribution of intestinal macrophage autophagy to the onset and development of IBD has been widely studied. Herein, we investigated the underlying mechanism of psychosocial stress in an IBD mouse model pertaining to macrophage autophagy. Corticotropin releasing hormone (CRH) was peripherally administrated to induce psychosocial stress. For in vivo studies, dextran sulfate sodium (DSS) was used for the creation of our IBD mouse model. For in vitro studies, lipopolysaccharide (LPS) was applied on murine bone marrow-derived macrophages (BMDMs) as a cellular IBD-related challenge. Chloroquine was applied to inhibit autophagy. We found that CRH aggravated the severity of DSS-induced IBD, increasing overall and local inflammatory reactions and infiltration. The levels of autophagy in intestinal macrophages and murine BMDMs were increased under these IBD-related inflammatory challenges and CRH further enhanced these effects. Subsequent administration of chloroquine markedly attenuated the detrimental effects of CRH on IBD severity and inflammatory reactions via inhibition of autophagy. These findings illustrate the effects of peripheral administration of CRH on DSS-induced IBD via the enhancement of intestinal macrophage autophagy, thus providing a novel understanding as well as therapeutic target for the treatment of IBD.
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Affiliation(s)
- Sheng-Bing Zhao
- grid.73113.370000 0004 0369 1660Department of Gastroenterology, Changhai Hospital, Second Military Medical University/Naval Medical University, Shanghai, China
| | - Jia-Yi Wu
- grid.73113.370000 0004 0369 1660Department of Gastroenterology, Changhai Hospital, Second Military Medical University/Naval Medical University, Shanghai, China
| | - Zi-Xuan He
- grid.73113.370000 0004 0369 1660Department of Gastroenterology, Changhai Hospital, Second Military Medical University/Naval Medical University, Shanghai, China
| | - Yi-Hang Song
- grid.73113.370000 0004 0369 1660Department of Gastroenterology, Changhai Hospital, Second Military Medical University/Naval Medical University, Shanghai, China
| | - Xin Chang
- grid.73113.370000 0004 0369 1660Department of Gastroenterology, Changhai Hospital, Second Military Medical University/Naval Medical University, Shanghai, China ,grid.417279.eDepartment of Gastroenterology, General Hospital of Central Theater Command, Wuhan, China
| | - Tian Xia
- grid.73113.370000 0004 0369 1660Department of Gastroenterology, Changhai Hospital, Second Military Medical University/Naval Medical University, Shanghai, China
| | - Xue Fang
- grid.73113.370000 0004 0369 1660Department of Gastroenterology, Changhai Hospital, Second Military Medical University/Naval Medical University, Shanghai, China
| | - Zhao-Shen Li
- Department of Gastroenterology, Changhai Hospital, Second Military Medical University/Naval Medical University, Shanghai, China.
| | - Can Xu
- Department of Gastroenterology, Changhai Hospital, Second Military Medical University/Naval Medical University, Shanghai, China.
| | - Shu-Ling Wang
- Department of Gastroenterology, Changhai Hospital, Second Military Medical University/Naval Medical University, Shanghai, China.
| | - Yu Bai
- Department of Gastroenterology, Changhai Hospital, Second Military Medical University/Naval Medical University, Shanghai, China.
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Xu W, Lu J, Chen Y, Wang Z, Cao J, Dong Y. Impairment of CRH in the intestinal mucosal epithelial barrier of pregnant Bama miniature pig induced by restraint stress. Endocr J 2021; 68:485-502. [PMID: 33408312 DOI: 10.1507/endocrj.ej20-0332] [Citation(s) in RCA: 2] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Submit a Manuscript] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/23/2022] Open
Abstract
Female, especially for pregnant female, are vulnerable to psychological stress. The morphology and metabolism of the maternal intestine are both obviously changed during pregnancy, thus making intestinal health status more fragile under psychological stress. The aim of the present study was to investigate the role of CRH and CRHR1 in the pregnant maternal intestine under psychological stress, thus exploring the mechanism of psychological stress in the pregnant maternal intestine. Bama miniature pigs were divided into the control and restraint stress groups from the first day of pregnancy. After restraint stress treatment for 18 consecutive days (D18), the plasma, duodenum, jejunum, ileum and colon were collected for study. Pregnant Bama miniature pigs subjected to restraint stress had significantly elevated CRH, adrenocorticotropic hormone (ACTH) and cortisol (COR) levels in plasma. Consistent with the increase in CRH levels, we observed enhanced oxidative stress levels in the intestine, which resulted in intestinal mucosal injury, including impaired intestinal morphology, a reduced number of goblet cells and proliferating cell nuclear antigen-positive cells, decreased expression of MUC2 and tight junctions, and elevated expression of CRHR1 and caspase-3. Moreover, exogenous CRH could directly promote IPEC-J2 cell apoptosis and influence its cell cycle (S and G2 phase) through CRHR1, and antalarmin could alleviate this phenomenon. Therefore, our results illustrated that the intestinal dysfunction of pregnant Bama miniature pigs was caused by restraint stress, and these changes were associated with the enhanced expression of CRH and CRHR1 in the intestine.
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Affiliation(s)
- Wenjiao Xu
- Laboratory of Neurobiology, College of Animal Medicine, China Agricultural University, Beijing, 100193, China
| | - Jiayin Lu
- Laboratory of Neurobiology, College of Animal Medicine, China Agricultural University, Beijing, 100193, China
| | - Yaoxing Chen
- Laboratory of Neurobiology, College of Animal Medicine, China Agricultural University, Beijing, 100193, China
| | - Zixu Wang
- Laboratory of Neurobiology, College of Animal Medicine, China Agricultural University, Beijing, 100193, China
| | - Jing Cao
- Laboratory of Neurobiology, College of Animal Medicine, China Agricultural University, Beijing, 100193, China
| | - Yulan Dong
- Laboratory of Neurobiology, College of Animal Medicine, China Agricultural University, Beijing, 100193, China
- Key Laboratory of Precision Nutrition and Food Quality, Ministry of Education, College of Veterinary Medicine, China Agricultural University, Beijing, 100193, China
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Effect of Central Corticotropin-Releasing Factor on Hepatic Lipid Metabolism and Inflammation-Related Gene Expression in Rats. Int J Mol Sci 2021; 22:ijms22083940. [PMID: 33920431 PMCID: PMC8069855 DOI: 10.3390/ijms22083940] [Citation(s) in RCA: 3] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 03/10/2021] [Revised: 04/05/2021] [Accepted: 04/09/2021] [Indexed: 12/30/2022] Open
Abstract
Corticotropin-releasing factor (CRF) in the brain acts on physiological and pathophysiological modulation of the hepatobiliary system. Central CRF administration aggravates experimental acute liver injury by decreasing hepatic blood flow. Conversely, minimal evidence is available regarding the effect of centrally acting CRF on hepatic lipid metabolism and inflammation. We examined whether central CRF affects hepatic lipid metabolism and inflammation-related gene expression in rats. Male Long Evans rats were intracisternally injected with CRF (10 μg) or saline. Rats were sacrificed 2 h, 6 h, and 24 h after the CRF injection, the liver was isolated, and mRNA was extracted. Next, hepatic lipid metabolism and inflammation-related gene expression were examined. Hepatic SREBF1 (sterol regulatory element-binding transcription factor 1) mRNA levels were significantly increased 6 h and 24 h after intracisternal CRF administration when compared with those in the control group. Hepatic TNFα and IL1β mRNA levels increased significantly 6 h after intracisternal CRF administration. Hepatic sympathectomy or guanethidine treatment, not hepatic branch vagotomy or atropine treatment, inhibited central CRF-induced increase in hepatic SREBF1, TNFα and IL1β mRNA levels. These results indicated that central CRF affects hepatic de novo lipogenesis and inflammation-related gene expression through the sympathetic-noradrenergic nervous system in rats.
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Lee Y, Ma EL, Patel M, Kim G, Howe C, Pothoulakis C, Kim YS, Im E, Rhee SH. Corticotropin-Releasing Hormone Receptor Alters the Tumor Development and Growth in Apcmin/+ Mice and in a Chemically-Induced Model of Colon Cancer. Int J Mol Sci 2021; 22:ijms22031043. [PMID: 33494263 PMCID: PMC7864487 DOI: 10.3390/ijms22031043] [Citation(s) in RCA: 1] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 12/19/2020] [Revised: 01/15/2021] [Accepted: 01/19/2021] [Indexed: 12/17/2022] Open
Abstract
The neuroendocrine circuit of the corticotropin-releasing hormone (CRH) family peptides, via their cognate receptors CRHR1 and CRHR2, copes with psychological stress. However, peripheral effects of the CRH system in colon cancer remains elusive. Thus, we investigate the role of CRHR1 and CRHR2 in colon cancer. Human colon cancer biopsies were used to measure the mRNA levels of the CRH family by quantitative real-time PCR. Two animal models of colon cancer were used: Apcmin/+ mice and azoxymethane (AOM)/dextran sulfate sodium (DSS)-treated mice. The mRNA levels of CRHR2 and UCN III are reduced in human colon cancer tissues compared to those of normal tissues. Crhr1 deletion suppresses the tumor development and growth in Apcmin/+ mice, while Crhr2 deficiency exacerbates the tumorigenicity. Crhr1 deficiency not only inhibits the expression of tumor-promoting cyclooxygenase 2, but also upregulates tumor-suppressing phospholipase A2 in Apcmin/+ mice; however, Crhr2 deficiency does not change these expressions. In the AOM/DSS model, Crhr2 deficiency worsens the tumorigenesis. In conclusion, Crhr1 deficiency confers tumor-suppressing effects in Apcmin/+ mice, but Crhr2 deficiency worsens the tumorigenicity in both Apcmin/+ and AOM/DSS-treated mice. Therefore, pharmacological inhibitors of CRHR1 or activators of CRHR2 could be of significance as anti-colon cancer drugs.
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Affiliation(s)
- Yunna Lee
- College of Pharmacy, Pusan National University, Busan 46241, Korea;
| | - Elise L. Ma
- Inflammatory Bowel Disease Center, and Center for Systems Biomedicine, Vatcher and Tamar Manoukian Division of Digestive Diseases, David Geffen School of Medicine, UCLA, Los Angeles, CA 90095, USA; (E.L.M.); (C.P.)
| | - Marisa Patel
- Department of Biological Sciences, Oakland University, Rochester, MI 48309, USA; (M.P.); (G.K.); (C.H.)
| | - Gayoung Kim
- Department of Biological Sciences, Oakland University, Rochester, MI 48309, USA; (M.P.); (G.K.); (C.H.)
| | - Cody Howe
- Department of Biological Sciences, Oakland University, Rochester, MI 48309, USA; (M.P.); (G.K.); (C.H.)
| | - Charalabos Pothoulakis
- Inflammatory Bowel Disease Center, and Center for Systems Biomedicine, Vatcher and Tamar Manoukian Division of Digestive Diseases, David Geffen School of Medicine, UCLA, Los Angeles, CA 90095, USA; (E.L.M.); (C.P.)
| | - Yong Sung Kim
- Digestive Disease Research Institute and GutnFood Healthcare Inc., School of Medicine, Wonkwang University, Iksan 54538, Korea;
| | - Eunok Im
- College of Pharmacy, Pusan National University, Busan 46241, Korea;
- Correspondence: (E.I.); (S.H.R.); Tel.: +82-51-510-2812 (E.I.); +1-248-370-4162 (S.H.R.)
| | - Sang Hoon Rhee
- Department of Biological Sciences, Oakland University, Rochester, MI 48309, USA; (M.P.); (G.K.); (C.H.)
- Correspondence: (E.I.); (S.H.R.); Tel.: +82-51-510-2812 (E.I.); +1-248-370-4162 (S.H.R.)
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15
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Corticotropin-Releasing Factor Family: A Stress Hormone-Receptor System's Emerging Role in Mediating Sex-Specific Signaling. Cells 2020; 9:cells9040839. [PMID: 32244319 PMCID: PMC7226788 DOI: 10.3390/cells9040839] [Citation(s) in RCA: 19] [Impact Index Per Article: 4.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 02/12/2020] [Revised: 03/25/2020] [Accepted: 03/28/2020] [Indexed: 12/14/2022] Open
Abstract
No organ in the body is impervious to the effects of stress, and a coordinated response from all organs is essential to deal with stressors. A dysregulated stress response that fails to bring systems back to homeostasis leads to compromised function and ultimately a diseased state. The components of the corticotropin-releasing factor (CRF) family, an ancient and evolutionarily conserved stress hormone-receptor system, helps both initiate stress responses and bring systems back to homeostasis once the stressors are removed. The mammalian CRF family comprises of four known agonists, CRF and urocortins (UCN1–3), and two known G protein-coupled receptors (GPCRs), CRF1 and CRF2. Evolutionarily, precursors of CRF- and urocortin-like peptides and their receptors were involved in osmoregulation/diuretic functions, in addition to nutrient sensing. Both CRF and UCN1 peptide hormones as well as their receptors appeared after a duplication event nearly 400 million years ago. All four agonists and both CRF receptors show sex-specific changes in expression and/or function, and single nucleotide polymorphisms are associated with a plethora of human diseases. CRF receptors harbor N-terminal cleavable peptide sequences, conferring biased ligand properties. CRF receptors have the ability to heteromerize with each other as well as with other GPCRs. Taken together, CRF receptors and their agonists due to their versatile functional adaptability mediate nuanced responses and are uniquely positioned to orchestrate sex-specific signaling and function in several tissues.
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Faraj Tabrizi P, Mohebbi Tafrechi A, Peters I, Atschekzei F, Kuczyk MA, Serth J, Tezval H. Cancer-Specific Loss of Urocortin 3 in Human Renal Cancer. Adv Ther 2020; 37:288-299. [PMID: 31721113 DOI: 10.1007/s12325-019-01141-y] [Citation(s) in RCA: 3] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 07/15/2019] [Indexed: 01/12/2023]
Abstract
INTRODUCTION The corticotropin-releasing hormone (CRH) system, its receptors corticotropin-releasing hormone receptor 1 (CRHR1) and 2 (CRHR2), and its corresponding binding protein corticotropin-releasing hormone-binding protein (CRHBP) as well as the urocortin proteins-structural homologues to CRH, which are included in this peptide family-have become interesting oncological targets recently. Carcinogenesis of various human tumors has been reported with an altered presence of members of this system. The aim of the present study was to examine the role of urocortin 3 (UCN3) in renal cell carcinoma (RCC). METHODS Therefore, tumoral tissues of 106 patients with RCC and available corresponding normal tissues were analyzed using qPCR for quantitative mRNA expression analysis. Tissue localization and protein signals of UCN3 in normal and tumoral renal specimens were evaluated using western blot and immunohistochemistry. In addition, correlation studies of UCN3 mRNA expression with clinicopathological parameters of patients with RCC and different histological subtypes were evaluated. RESULTS UCN3 mRNA was significantly downregulated in nearly all tumoral tissues (p = 7.92 × 10-13). The same effect was observed at protein level using immunohistochemistry. Level of UCN3 mRNA expression was not directly correlated with clinicopathological parameters. CONCLUSION We report for the first time the significant downregulation of UCN3 in RCC. These results demonstrate a possible involvement of the CRH system and its significance in carcinogenesis of RCC.
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Baritaki S, de Bree E, Chatzaki E, Pothoulakis C. Chronic Stress, Inflammation, and Colon Cancer: A CRH System-Driven Molecular Crosstalk. J Clin Med 2019; 8:E1669. [PMID: 31614860 PMCID: PMC6833069 DOI: 10.3390/jcm8101669] [Citation(s) in RCA: 31] [Impact Index Per Article: 6.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 10/01/2019] [Revised: 10/08/2019] [Accepted: 10/11/2019] [Indexed: 12/12/2022] Open
Abstract
Chronic stress is thought to be involved in the occurrence and progression of multiple diseases, via mechanisms that still remain largely unknown. Interestingly, key regulators of the stress response, such as members of the corticotropin-releasing-hormone (CRH) family of neuropeptides and receptors, are now known to be implicated in the regulation of chronic inflammation, one of the predisposing factors for oncogenesis and disease progression. However, an interrelationship between stress, inflammation, and malignancy, at least at the molecular level, still remains unclear. Here, we attempt to summarize the current knowledge that supports the inseparable link between chronic stress, inflammation, and colorectal cancer (CRC), by modulation of a cascade of molecular signaling pathways, which are under the regulation of CRH-family members expressed in the brain and periphery. The understanding of the molecular basis of the link among these processes may provide a step forward towards personalized medicine in terms of CRC diagnosis, prognosis and therapeutic targeting.
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Affiliation(s)
- Stavroula Baritaki
- Division of Surgery, School of Medicine, University of Crete, Heraklion, 71500 Crete, Greece.
| | - Eelco de Bree
- Division of Surgery, School of Medicine, University of Crete, Heraklion, 71500 Crete, Greece.
| | - Ekaterini Chatzaki
- Laboratory of Pharmacology, Medical School, Democritus University of Thrace, 68100 Alexandroupolis, Greece.
| | - Charalabos Pothoulakis
- IBD Center, Division of Digestive Diseases, David Geffen School of Medicine at UCLA, Los Angeles, CA 10833, USA.
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Wang SL, Shao BZ, Zhao SB, Chang X, Wang P, Miao CY, Li ZS, Bai Y. Intestinal autophagy links psychosocial stress with gut microbiota to promote inflammatory bowel disease. Cell Death Dis 2019; 10:391. [PMID: 31564717 PMCID: PMC6766473 DOI: 10.1038/s41419-019-1634-x] [Citation(s) in RCA: 52] [Impact Index Per Article: 10.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 02/02/2019] [Revised: 04/14/2019] [Accepted: 05/07/2019] [Indexed: 12/14/2022]
Abstract
Psychosocial stress is a critical inducing factor of inflammatory bowel diseases (IBD), while autophagy is a novel central issue of IBD development. The present study investigated the potential role of autophagy in stress-related IBD in patients and animal model. The correlation between psychosocial stress and intestinal autophagy was determined in 23 patients with IBD. Corticotropin-releasing hormone (CRH), a well-established inducer of psychosocial stress, was administrated in dextran sulfate sodium (DSS)-induced IBD mice and lipopolysaccharide (LPS)-stimulated bone marrow-derived macrophages (BMDM). In IBD patients, the autophagy markers beclin-1, LC3-II/I ratio, Atg16L1, and Atg4B were significantly enhanced. The psychosocial stress score was positively associated with the levels of beclin-1 and the LC3II/I ratio in intestinal biopsy specimens. In IBD mouse model, CRH significantly aggravated intestinal inflammation, increased Paneth cell metaplasia, and enhanced intestinal autophagy (beclin-1, Atg16L1, PIK3R4, and Atg4B upregulation; GAA, CTSD, and PPKAA1 downregulation). Additionally, the CRH-induced gut microbial dysbiosis was evidenced by a marked increase in the number of detrimental bacteria. In LPS-stimulated BMDM, CRH substantially increased M1/M2 polarization and thus promoted inflammation. In both IBD mice and LPS-treated BMDM, blockade of autophagy by chloroquine abrogated the unbeneficial effects of CRH, whereas autophagy inducer rapamycin resulted in a pronounced protective effect against IBD lesion. Our data demonstrate that psychosocial stress may link the enhanced intestinal autophagy by modulating gut microbiota and inflammation to aggravate IBD. These data indicate autophagy as a promising therapeutic target for psychosocial stress-related IBD.
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Affiliation(s)
- Shu-Ling Wang
- Department of Gastroenterology, Changhai Hospital, Second Military Medical University/Naval Medical University, Shanghai, China
| | - Bo-Zong Shao
- General Hospital of the Chinese People's Liberation Army, Beijing, China
| | - Sheng-Bing Zhao
- Department of Gastroenterology, Changhai Hospital, Second Military Medical University/Naval Medical University, Shanghai, China
| | - Xin Chang
- Department of Gastroenterology, Changhai Hospital, Second Military Medical University/Naval Medical University, Shanghai, China
| | - Pei Wang
- Department of Pharmacology, Second Military Medical University/Naval Medical University, Shanghai, China
| | - Chao-Yu Miao
- Department of Pharmacology, Second Military Medical University/Naval Medical University, Shanghai, China.
| | - Zhao-Shen Li
- Department of Gastroenterology, Changhai Hospital, Second Military Medical University/Naval Medical University, Shanghai, China.
| | - Yu Bai
- Department of Gastroenterology, Changhai Hospital, Second Military Medical University/Naval Medical University, Shanghai, China.
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Tooke K, Girard B, Vizzard MA. Functional effects of blocking VEGF/VEGFR2 signaling in the rat urinary bladder in acute and chronic CYP-induced cystitis. Am J Physiol Renal Physiol 2019; 317:F43-F51. [PMID: 30995112 DOI: 10.1152/ajprenal.00083.2019] [Citation(s) in RCA: 10] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 02/07/2023] Open
Abstract
High expression of VEGF is associated with immature angiogenesis within the urinary bladder wall and bladder afferent nerve sensitization, leading to visceral hyperalgesia and pelvic pain. Research suggests a shift in VEGF alternative splice variant (VEGF-Axxxa and VEGF-Axxxb) expression with several pathologies (e.g., neuropathic pain and inflammation) as well as differing effects on pain. Translational studies have also demonstrated increased total VEGF expression in the bladders of women with interstitial cystitis/bladder pain syndrome. In the present study, we quantified VEGF alternative splice variant expression in lower urinary tract tissues under control conditions and with cyclophosphamide (CYP)-induced cystitis. Using conscious cystometry and intravesical instillation of a potent and selective VEGF receptor 2 (VEGFR2) tyrosine kinase inhibitor (Ki-8751, 1 mg/kg) in Wistar rats (male and female) with acute and chronic CYP-induced cystitis and control (no CYP) rats, we further determined the functional effects of VEGFR2 blockade on bladder function. With VEGFR2 blockade, bladder capacity increased (P ≤ 0.01) in male and female control rats as well as in male and female rats with acute (P ≤ 0.05) or chronic (P ≤ 0.01 or P ≤ 0.05, respectively) CYP-induced cystitis. Void volume also increased in female control rats (P ≤ 0.01) and female rats with acute (P ≤ 0.05) or chronic (P ≤ 0.05) CYP-induced cystitis as well as in male control rats (P ≤ 0.05) and male rats with chronic CYP-induced cystitis (P ≤ 0.01). These data suggest that VEGF may be a biomarker for interstitial cystitis/bladder pain syndrome and that targeting VEGF/VEGFR2 signaling may be an effective treatment.
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Affiliation(s)
- Katharine Tooke
- Department of Neurological Sciences, Larner College of Medicine, University of Vermont , Burlington, Vermont
| | - Beatrice Girard
- Department of Neurological Sciences, Larner College of Medicine, University of Vermont , Burlington, Vermont
| | - Margaret A Vizzard
- Department of Neurological Sciences, Larner College of Medicine, University of Vermont , Burlington, Vermont
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Electroacupuncture and Moxibustion Improved Anxiety Behavior in DSS-Induced Colitis Mice. Gastroenterol Res Pract 2019; 2019:2345890. [PMID: 30881446 PMCID: PMC6383400 DOI: 10.1155/2019/2345890] [Citation(s) in RCA: 15] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Submit a Manuscript] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 07/11/2018] [Revised: 09/18/2018] [Accepted: 10/31/2018] [Indexed: 12/19/2022] Open
Abstract
Background and Aims Psychological disorders are prevalent in patients with inflammatory bowel disease, but the underlying mechanisms remain unknown. The aim of this study was to study whether electroacupuncture (EA) and moxibustion (MB) can improve anxiety behavior in DSS-induced colitis mice and to investigate whether this effect is related to hypothalamic-pituitary-adrenocortical (HPA) axis. Methods The colitis model was established by drinking 2.5% dextran sodium sulfate (DSS). DSS-induced colitis mice were treated by EA or MB. Disease activity index (DAI) was scored; intestinal morphological and pathological structure was observed; anxiety behavior was tested by the elevated plus maze and open field. The concentration of corticotropin-releasing hormone (CRH) and cortisol (CORT) in serum was measured by enzyme-linked immunosorbent assay (ELISA). The protein expression of CRH in the colon and hypothalamus was detected by Western blot (WB). Results Both EA and MB treatments can improvethe morphology of their distal colonic mucosal epithelia, as well as the disease activity index. Meanwhile, anxiety behavior in colitis mice was improved slightly after EA and MB treatment. In addition, the levels of CRH and CORT in the serum were slightly improved after EA and MB treatment. These effects are further supported by WB results. The expression of CRH in the colon and hypothalamus was increased significantly after treatment, compared with the model group. Conclusion EA and MB were able to regulate the concentration of CRH in serum and protein expression in the peripheral and central at different levels and promote the recovery of the HPA axis that may be the basis for EA and MB to improve colonic pathology and alleviate anxiety behavior in DSS-induced colitis.
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21
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Hagiwara SI, Hasdemir B, Heyman MB, Chang L, Bhargava A. Plasma Corticotropin-Releasing Factor Receptors and B7-2⁺ Extracellular Vesicles in Blood Correlate with Irritable Bowel Syndrome Disease Severity. Cells 2019; 8:cells8020101. [PMID: 30704133 PMCID: PMC6406316 DOI: 10.3390/cells8020101] [Citation(s) in RCA: 11] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 11/19/2018] [Revised: 01/10/2019] [Accepted: 01/27/2019] [Indexed: 12/13/2022] Open
Abstract
Extracellular vesicles (EVs) are composed of bilayer membranes that are released by different cell types and are present in bodily fluids, such as blood, urine, and bile. EVs are thought to play a key role in intracellular communication. Based on their size and density, EVs are classified into small, medium, or large EVs. Cargo composition in EVs reflects physiological changes in health and disease. Patients with irritable bowel syndrome (IBS) exhibit visceral hypersensitivity and mood disorders. Stressful episodes often precede disease symptoms in IBS patients. Stress-induced symptoms include, but are not limited to, abdominal pain and mood swings. Perceived stress responses are mediated by two known G protein-coupled receptors (GPCRs), corticotropin-releasing factor receptor 1 and 2 (CRFRs). CRFRs belong to the Class B secretin receptor family of GPCRs. Here, we show that CRFRs were present in human and murine plasma, and in EVs purified from mouse serum. CRFRs were present in plasma from IBS patients and healthy controls. EVs secreted from immune cells influence both adaptive and innate immune responses via exchange of EVs between different immune cell types. B7-2 (CD86), a plasma membrane antigen-presenting protein, is present on EVs secreted from dendritic, B-, and mast cells, whereas CD9 is present on EVs secreted from dendritic and intestinal epithelial cells. We found that plasma CRFR levels positively correlated with B7-2+ EVs (R = 0.8597, p < 0.0001), but no association was seen with CD9+ EVs. Plasma CRFRs expression negatively correlated with IBS severity scores. Our data suggests that plasma EVs from immune cells carry CRFRs as cargos and influence cell-cell communication in health and disease.
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Affiliation(s)
- Shin-Ichiro Hagiwara
- The Osher Center for Integrative Medicine, University of California, San Francisco, CA 94143, USA.
| | - Burcu Hasdemir
- The Osher Center for Integrative Medicine, University of California, San Francisco, CA 94143, USA.
- Department of OBGYN, University of California, San Francisco, CA 94143-0556, USA.
| | - Melvin B Heyman
- Department of Pediatrics, University of California, San Francisco, CA 94158, USA.
| | - Lin Chang
- G. Oppenheimer Center for Neurobiology of Stress and Resilience Vatche and Tamar Manoukian Division of Digestive Diseases David Geffen School of Medicine, University of California, Los Angeles, CA 90095-7378, USA.
| | - Aditi Bhargava
- The Osher Center for Integrative Medicine, University of California, San Francisco, CA 94143, USA.
- Department of OBGYN, University of California, San Francisco, CA 94143-0556, USA.
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22
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Choo J, Heo G, Kim SJ, Lee Y, Ishigami A, Maruyama N, Chung HY, Im E. Senescence marker protein 30 protects intestinal epithelial cells against inflammation-induced cell death by enhancing Nrf2 activity. Biochim Biophys Acta Mol Basis Dis 2018; 1864:3668-3678. [PMID: 30266650 DOI: 10.1016/j.bbadis.2018.09.031] [Citation(s) in RCA: 7] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 05/21/2018] [Revised: 09/14/2018] [Accepted: 09/24/2018] [Indexed: 12/12/2022]
Abstract
Senescence marker protein 30 (SMP30) is a calcium-binding protein whose expression decreases during senescence. SMP30 deficiency increases susceptibility to cytokine-induced apoptosis in the liver and to radiation-induced apoptosis in the small intestine. Furthermore, colonic epithelial cell death is associated with the severity of colitis. Therefore, in the present study, we investigated the function of SMP30 during intestinal inflammation. In SMP30 deficient mice, colitis was significantly exacerbated as demonstrated by increased mortality (p = 0.001), body weight loss (p = 0.0105 at day 8), rectal bleeding (p = 0.0047 at day 8) and diarrhea (p = 0.0030 at day 8), histological scores (ulcers, p = 0.0002; edema, p = 0.0125; leukocyte infiltration, p = 0.0016) and productions of pro-inflammatory cytokines (IL-1α, p = 0.0452; IL-6, p = 0.0074; G-CSF, p = 0.0036). In addition, greater proportions of apoptotic cells and lower levels of anti-apoptotic marker proteins (total PARP-1 and Bcl-2) were observed in the inflamed intestines of SMP30 deficient mice than in wild type controls. In vitro experiments on colonic epithelial cells showed that stable SMP30 expression inhibited but that SMP30 siRNA expression increased TNF-α-induced apoptosis. SMP30 inhibition decreased Nrf2 mRNA expression levels (p < 0.0001), but SMP30 overexpression increased Nrf2 mRNA expression levels (p = 0.0495). The underlying mechanism by which SMP30 protected cells appeared to be by inhibiting Nrf2 ubiquitination and Keap1 expression, and thus enhancing Nrf2 activity. Moreover, SMP30 deficiency increased the incidence of colitis-associated colon cancer as determined by increased mortality (p = 0.0572) and average polyp number (p = 0.0277). Collectively, these findings suggest that SMP30 protects intestinal epithelial cells from apoptosis and this can contribute to amelioration of colitis and colitis-associated colon cancer.
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Affiliation(s)
- Jieun Choo
- College of Pharmacy, Pusan National University, Busan 46241, Republic of Korea
| | - Gwangbeom Heo
- College of Pharmacy, Pusan National University, Busan 46241, Republic of Korea
| | - Su Jin Kim
- College of Pharmacy, Pusan National University, Busan 46241, Republic of Korea
| | - Yunna Lee
- College of Pharmacy, Pusan National University, Busan 46241, Republic of Korea
| | - Akihito Ishigami
- Molecular Regulation of Aging, Tokyo Metropolitan Institute of Gerontology, Tokyo 173-0015, Japan
| | - Naoki Maruyama
- Molecular Regulation of Aging, Tokyo Metropolitan Institute of Gerontology, Tokyo 173-0015, Japan
| | - Hae Young Chung
- College of Pharmacy, Pusan National University, Busan 46241, Republic of Korea
| | - Eunok Im
- College of Pharmacy, Pusan National University, Busan 46241, Republic of Korea.
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23
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Hagiwara SI, Kaushal E, Paruthiyil S, Pasricha PJ, Hasdemir B, Bhargava A. Gastric corticotropin-releasing factor influences mast cell infiltration in a rat model of functional dyspepsia. PLoS One 2018; 13:e0203704. [PMID: 30192883 PMCID: PMC6128656 DOI: 10.1371/journal.pone.0203704] [Citation(s) in RCA: 18] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 06/17/2018] [Accepted: 08/25/2018] [Indexed: 12/12/2022] Open
Abstract
Functional gastrointestinal disorders (FGIDs) are characterized by dysregulated gut-brain interactions. Emerging evidence shows that low-grade mucosal inflammation and immune activation contribute to FGIDs, including functional dyspepsia (FD). Stress plays an important role in the onset of FD symptoms. In human subjects with FD, presence of gastric mast cells has been reported, but factors that influence mast cell infiltration remain uncharacterized. Corticotropin-releasing factor (CRF) initiates the body's stress response and is known to degranulate mast cells. In this study, we delineated the role of the CRF system in the pathogenesis of FD in a rat model. Gastric irritation in neonate rat pups with iodoacetamide (IA) was used to induce FD-like symptoms. RNA interference (RNAi) was used to silence gastric CRF expression. Mast cell infiltrate in the stomach increased by 54% in IA-treated rats compared to controls and CRF-RNAi tended to decrease gastric mast cell infiltrate. Sucrose intake decreased in IA-treated rats and mast cell numbers showed a negative association with sucrose intake. IA treatment and transient silencing of gastric CRF increased hypothalamic CRF levels. In IA-treated rats, gastric levels of CRF receptor 2 (CRF2) decreased by ~76%, whereas hypothalamic CRF receptor 1 (CRF1) levels increased. Plasma levels of TNF-α showed a positive correlation with plasma CRF levels. Levels of phosphorylated p38 and ERK1/2 in the stomach showed a positive correlation with gastric CRF levels. Thus, CRF may contribute to low grade inflammation via modulating mast cell infiltration, cytokine levels, MAPK signaling, and the gut-brain axis.
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Affiliation(s)
- Shin-ichiro Hagiwara
- The Osher Center for Integrative Medicine, University of California, San Francisco, San Francisco, CA, United States of America
| | - Esha Kaushal
- The Osher Center for Integrative Medicine, University of California, San Francisco, San Francisco, CA, United States of America
| | - Sreenivasan Paruthiyil
- The Osher Center for Integrative Medicine, University of California, San Francisco, San Francisco, CA, United States of America
| | - Pankaj J. Pasricha
- Division of Gastroenterology & Hepatology, Johns Hopkins School of Medicine, Baltimore, MD, United States of America
| | - Burcu Hasdemir
- The Osher Center for Integrative Medicine, University of California, San Francisco, San Francisco, CA, United States of America
| | - Aditi Bhargava
- The Osher Center for Integrative Medicine, University of California, San Francisco, San Francisco, CA, United States of America
- Department of OBGYN, University of California, San Francisco, San Francisco, CA, United States of America
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24
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Gong SS, Fan YH, Wang SY, Han QQ, Lv B, Xu Y, Chen X, He YE. Mucosa repair mechanisms of Tong-Xie-Yao-Fang mediated by CRH-R2 in murine, dextran sulfate sodium-induced colitis. World J Gastroenterol 2018; 24:1766-1778. [PMID: 29713130 PMCID: PMC5922995 DOI: 10.3748/wjg.v24.i16.1766] [Citation(s) in RCA: 12] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Journal Information] [Submit a Manuscript] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 02/12/2018] [Revised: 03/14/2018] [Accepted: 03/30/2018] [Indexed: 02/06/2023] Open
Abstract
AIM To explore the significance of corticotropin-releasing hormone (CRH)-receptor (R)2 in mucosal healing of dextran sulfate sodium (DSS)-induced colitis and the effect of Tong-Xie-Yao-Fang (TXYF) on CRH-R2 expression and regulation.
METHODS Ulcerative colitis was induced in mice by administration of 3% (w/v) DSS for 7 d. Once the model was established, mice were administered urocortin-2 (30 μg/kg), a peptide which binds exclusively to CRH-R2, or various doses of aqueous TXYF extracts (2.8-11.2 g/kg), a CRH-R2 antagonist Astressin (Ast)2B (20 μg/kg), Ast2B + Ucn2, or Ast2B with various doses of aqueous TXYF extracts for 9 d. Colonic mucosal permeability was then evaluated by measuring the fluorescence intensity in serum. The colitis disease activity index (DAI), histology, body weight loss and colon length were assessed to evaluate the condition of colitis. Terminal deoxynucleotidyl transferase dUTP nick-end labeling was used to detect apoptosis of the intestinal epithelial cells. The expression level of Ki-67 represented the proliferation of colonic epithelial cells and was detected by immunohistochemistry. The expression levels of inflammation cytokines IL-6, TNF-α and CXCL-1 were examined in colon tissues using real-time PCR and ELISA kits.
RESULTS Compared with the DSS group, mice treated with the CRH-R2 antagonist Ast2B showed greater loss of body weight, shorter colon lengths (4.90 ± 0.32 vs 6.21 ± 0.34 cm, P < 0.05), and higher DAI (3.61 ± 0.53 vs 2.42 ± 0.32, P < 0.05) and histological scores (11.50 ± 1.05 vs 8.33 ± 1.03, P < 0.05). Additionally, the Ast2B group showed increased intestinal permeability (2.76 ± 0.11 μg/mL vs 1.47 ± 0.11 μg/mL, P < 0.001), improved secretion of inflammatory cytokines in colon tissue, and reduced colonic epithelial cell proliferation (4.97 ± 4.25 vs 22.51 ± 8.22, P < 0.05). Increased apoptosis (1422.39 ± 90.71 vs 983.01 ± 98.17, P < 0.001) was also demonstrated. The Ucn2 group demonstrated lower DAI (0.87 ± 0.55 vs 2.42 ± 0.32, P < 0.001) and histological scores (4.33 ± 1.50 vs 8.33 ± 1.03, P < 0.05). Diminished weight loss, longer colon length (9.58 ± 0.62 vs 6.21 ± 0.34 cm, P < 0.001), reduced intestinal permeability (0.75 ± 0.07 vs 1.47 ± 0.11 μg/mL, P < 0.001), inhibited secretion of inflammatory cytokines in colon tissue and increased colonic epithelial cell proliferation (90.04 ± 15.50 vs 22.51 ± 8.22, P < 0.01) were all observed. Reduced apoptosis (149.55 ± 21.68 vs 983.01 ± 98.17, P < 0.05) was also observed. However, significant statistical differences in the results of the Ast2B group and Ast2B + Ucn2 group were observed. TXYF was also found to ameliorate symptoms of DSS-induced colitis in mice and to promote mucosal repair like Ucn2. There were significant differences between the Ast2B + TXYF groups and the TXYF groups.
CONCLUSION CRH-R2 activates the intestinal mucosal antiinflammatory response by regulating migration, proliferation and apoptosis of intestinal epithelial cells in colitis-induced mice, and plays an important antiinflammatory role. TXYF promotes mucosal repair in colitis mice by regulating CRH-R2.
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Affiliation(s)
- Shan-Shan Gong
- The First Clinical Medical College of Zhejiang Chinese Medical University, Hangzhou 310053, Zhejiang Province, China
| | - Yi-Hong Fan
- Department of Gastroenterology, The First Affiliated Hospital of Zhejiang Chinese Medical University, Hangzhou 310006, Zhejiang Province, China
| | - Shi-Yi Wang
- The First Clinical Medical College of Zhejiang Chinese Medical University, Hangzhou 310053, Zhejiang Province, China
| | - Qing-Qing Han
- The First Clinical Medical College of Zhejiang Chinese Medical University, Hangzhou 310053, Zhejiang Province, China
| | - Bin Lv
- Department of Gastroenterology, The First Affiliated Hospital of Zhejiang Chinese Medical University, Hangzhou 310006, Zhejiang Province, China
| | - Yi Xu
- Department of Gastroenterology, The First Affiliated Hospital of Zhejiang Chinese Medical University, Hangzhou 310006, Zhejiang Province, China
| | - Xi Chen
- The First Clinical Medical College of Zhejiang Chinese Medical University, Hangzhou 310053, Zhejiang Province, China
| | - Yao-Er He
- The First Clinical Medical College of Zhejiang Chinese Medical University, Hangzhou 310053, Zhejiang Province, China
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25
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Law IKM, Padua DM, Iliopoulos D, Pothoulakis C. Role of G protein-coupled receptors-microRNA interactions in gastrointestinal pathophysiology. Am J Physiol Gastrointest Liver Physiol 2017; 313:G361-G372. [PMID: 28774868 PMCID: PMC5792214 DOI: 10.1152/ajpgi.00144.2017] [Citation(s) in RCA: 7] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Submit a Manuscript] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 05/05/2017] [Revised: 07/13/2017] [Accepted: 07/24/2017] [Indexed: 01/31/2023]
Abstract
G protein-coupled receptors (GPCRs) make up the largest transmembrane receptor superfamily in the human genome and are expressed in nearly all gastrointestinal cell types. Coupling of GPCRs and their respective ligands activates various phosphotransferases in the cytoplasm, and, thus, activation of GPCR signaling in intestine regulates many cellular and physiological processes. Studies in microRNAs (miRNAs) demonstrate that they represent critical epigenetic regulators of different pathophysiological responses in different organs and cell types in humans and animals. Here, we reviewed recent research on GPCR-miRNA interactions related to gastrointestinal pathophysiology, such as inflammatory bowel diseases, irritable bowel syndrome, and gastrointestinal cancers. Given that the presence of different types of cells in the gastrointestinal tract suggests the importance of cell-cell interactions in maintaining gastrointestinal homeostasis, we also discuss how GPCR-miRNA interactions regulate gene expression at the cellular level and subsequently modulate gastrointestinal pathophysiology through molecular regulatory circuits and cell-cell interactions. These studies helped identify novel molecular pathways leading to the discovery of potential biomarkers for gastrointestinal diseases.
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Affiliation(s)
- Ivy Ka Man Law
- 1Center for Inflammatory Bowel Diseases, Vatche and Tamar Manoukian Division of Digestive Diseases, David Geffen School of Medicine, University of California Los Angeles, Los Angeles, California; and
| | - David Miguel Padua
- 1Center for Inflammatory Bowel Diseases, Vatche and Tamar Manoukian Division of Digestive Diseases, David Geffen School of Medicine, University of California Los Angeles, Los Angeles, California; and
| | - Dimitrios Iliopoulos
- 1Center for Inflammatory Bowel Diseases, Vatche and Tamar Manoukian Division of Digestive Diseases, David Geffen School of Medicine, University of California Los Angeles, Los Angeles, California; and ,2Center for Systems Biomedicine, Vatche and Tamar Manoukian Division of Digestive Diseases, David Geffen School of Medicine, University of California Los Angeles, Los Angeles, California
| | - Charalabos Pothoulakis
- Center for Inflammatory Bowel Diseases, Vatche and Tamar Manoukian Division of Digestive Diseases, David Geffen School of Medicine, University of California Los Angeles, Los Angeles, California; and
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26
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Chen H, Shi H, Liu Y, Ren X, He S, Chang X, Yin Y. Activation of corticotropin-releasing factor receptor 1 aggravates dextran sodium sulphate-induced colitis in mice by promoting M1 macrophage polarization. Mol Med Rep 2017; 17:234-242. [PMID: 29115460 PMCID: PMC5780132 DOI: 10.3892/mmr.2017.7909] [Citation(s) in RCA: 5] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 02/08/2017] [Accepted: 09/19/2017] [Indexed: 12/27/2022] Open
Abstract
The corticotropin-releasing factor (CRF) family is involved in modulating gastrointestinal motility, sensitivity and inflammation. CRF signalling exerts an important role in inflammatory bowel disease (IBD), predominantly by activating CRF receptors. The aim of the present study was to investigate the function of CRF receptor 1 (CRF-R1) in the development of mucosal inflammation induced by dextran sulphate sodium (DSS) and the underlying mechanism. Consecutive administration of CRF or CP154526 was used to activate or block the CRF-R1 in DSS-treated mice. Colonic inflammation was evaluated by determining the Disease Activity Index (DAI) and histology score. CRF-R1 expression was proportional to the DAI, the histology score and the number of macrophages. Activation of CRF-R1 aggravated mucosal inflammation by activating nuclear factor (NF)-κB and subsequently increasing the expression levels of tumour necrosis factor (TNF)-α and interleukin (IL)-6. Inhibition of CRF-R1 decreased the expression level of CRF-R1, macrophage infiltration, NF-κB activation, and TNF-α and IL-6 expression levels, ultimately alleviating the mucosal inflammation. Thus, CRF-R1 expression was proportional to the severity of DSS-induced colitis. Activation of CRF-R1 increased the DAI and histological scores of the colons from DSS-treated mice by promoting M1 macrophage polarization, demonstrated as increased NF-κB activation, and TNF-α and IL-6 release. These results provide evidence of the pro-inflammatory role of CRF-R1 in a DSS-induced ulcerative colitis (UC) model and a possible underlying mechanism, which may facilitate the elucidation of potential treatment approaches for UC.
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Affiliation(s)
- Hong Chen
- Department of Gastroenterology, First Affiliated Hospital of Xi'an Jiaotong University, Xi'an, Shaanxi 710061, P.R. China
| | - Haitao Shi
- Department of Gastroenterology, Second Affiliated Hospital of Xi'an Jiaotong University, Xi'an, Shaanxi 710004, P.R. China
| | - Yaping Liu
- Department of Gastroenterology, First Affiliated Hospital of Xi'an Jiaotong University, Xi'an, Shaanxi 710061, P.R. China
| | - Xiaoyang Ren
- Department of Gastroenterology, First Affiliated Hospital of Xi'an Jiaotong University, Xi'an, Shaanxi 710061, P.R. China
| | - Shuixiang He
- Department of Gastroenterology, First Affiliated Hospital of Xi'an Jiaotong University, Xi'an, Shaanxi 710061, P.R. China
| | - Xinming Chang
- Department of Gastroenterology, First Affiliated Hospital of Xi'an Jiaotong University, Xi'an, Shaanxi 710061, P.R. China
| | - Yan Yin
- Department of Gastroenterology, First Affiliated Hospital of Xi'an Jiaotong University, Xi'an, Shaanxi 710061, P.R. China
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27
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Pothoulakis C, Torre-Rojas M, Duran-Padilla MA, Gevorkian J, Zoras O, Chrysos E, Chalkiadakis G, Baritaki S. CRHR2/Ucn2 signaling is a novel regulator of miR-7/YY1/Fas circuitry contributing to reversal of colorectal cancer cell resistance to Fas-mediated apoptosis. Int J Cancer 2017; 142:334-346. [PMID: 28929494 DOI: 10.1002/ijc.31064] [Citation(s) in RCA: 23] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 10/20/2016] [Revised: 06/16/2017] [Accepted: 07/19/2017] [Indexed: 12/21/2022]
Abstract
Colorectal cancer (CRC) responds poorly to immuno-mediated cytotoxicity. Underexpression of corticotropin-releasing-hormone-receptor-2 (CRHR2) in CRC, promotes tumor survival, growth and Epithelial to Mesenchymal Transition (EMT), in vitro and in vivo. We explored the role of CRHR2 downregulation in CRC cell resistance to Fas/FasL-mediated apoptosis and the underlying molecular mechanism. CRC cell sensitivity to CH11-induced apoptosis was compared between Urocortin-2 (Ucn2)-stimulated parental and CRHR2-overexpressing CRC cell lines and targets of CRHR2/Ucn2 signaling were identified through in vitro and ex vivo analyses. Induced CRHR2/Ucn2 signaling in SW620 and DLD1 cells increased specifically their sensitivity to CH11-mediated apoptosis, via Fas mRNA and protein upregulation. CRC compared to control tissues had reduced Fas expression that was associated with lost CRHR2 mRNA, poor tumor differentiation and high risk for distant metastasis. YY1 silencing increased Fas promoter activity in SW620 and re-sensitized them to CH11-apoptosis, thus suggesting YY1 as a putative transcriptional repressor of Fas in CRC. An inverse correlation between Fas and YY1 expression was confirmed in CRC tissue arrays, while elevated YY1 mRNA was clinically relevant with advanced CRC grade and higher risk for distant metastasis. CRHR2/Ucn2 signaling downregulated specifically YY1 expression through miR-7 elevation, while miR-7 modulation in miR-7high SW620-CRHR2+ and miR-7low HCT116 cells, had opposite effects on YY1 and Fas expressions and cell sensitivity to CH11-killing. CRHR2/Ucn2 signaling is a negative regulator of CRC cell resistance to Fas/FasL-apoptosis via targeting the miR-7/YY1/Fas circuitry. CRHR2 restoration might prove effective in managing CRC response to immune-mediated apoptotic stimuli.
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Affiliation(s)
- Charalabos Pothoulakis
- IBD Center, Division of Digestive Diseases, David Geffen School of Medicine at UCLA, Los Angeles, CA
| | - Monica Torre-Rojas
- Unidad de Investigacion en Enfermedades Oncologicas, Hospital Infantil de Mexico Federico Gomez, Mexico City, Mexico
| | - Marco A Duran-Padilla
- Servicio de Patologia, Hospital General de Mexico 'Eduardo Liceaga', Facultad de Medicina de la UNAM, Mexico City, Mexico
| | - Jonathan Gevorkian
- IBD Center, Division of Digestive Diseases, David Geffen School of Medicine at UCLA, Los Angeles, CA
| | - Odysseas Zoras
- Division of Surgical Oncology, School of Medicine, University of Crete, Heraklion, Crete, Greece
| | - Emmanuel Chrysos
- Division of Surgical Oncology, School of Medicine, University of Crete, Heraklion, Crete, Greece
| | - George Chalkiadakis
- Division of Surgical Oncology, School of Medicine, University of Crete, Heraklion, Crete, Greece
| | - Stavroula Baritaki
- IBD Center, Division of Digestive Diseases, David Geffen School of Medicine at UCLA, Los Angeles, CA.,Division of Surgical Oncology, School of Medicine, University of Crete, Heraklion, Crete, Greece
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28
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Fang X, Hong Y, Dai L, Qian Y, Zhu C, Wu B, Li S. CRH promotes human colon cancer cell proliferation via IL-6/JAK2/STAT3 signaling pathway and VEGF-induced tumor angiogenesis. Mol Carcinog 2017; 56:2434-2445. [PMID: 28618089 DOI: 10.1002/mc.22691] [Citation(s) in RCA: 39] [Impact Index Per Article: 5.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 03/15/2017] [Revised: 06/01/2017] [Accepted: 06/13/2017] [Indexed: 12/14/2022]
Abstract
Corticotrophin-releasing hormone (CRH) has been demonstrated to participate in various diseases. Our previous study showed that its receptor CRHR1 mediated the development of colitis-associated cancer in mouse model. However, the detailed mechanisms remain unclear. In this study, we explored the oncogenetic role of CRH/CRHR1 signaling in colon cancer cells. Cell proliferation and colony formation assays revealed that CRH contributed to cell proliferation. Moreover, tube formation assay showed that CRH-treated colon cancer cell supernatant significantly promoted tube formation of human umbilical vein endothelial cells (HUVECs). And these effects could be reversed by the CRHR1 specific antagonist Antalarmin. Further investigation showed that CRH significantly upregulated the expressions of interlukin-6 (IL-6) and vascular endothelial growth factor (VEGF) through activating nuclear factor-kappa B (NF-κB). The CRH-induced IL-6 promoted phosphorylation of janus kinase 2 (JAK2) and signal transducers and activators of transcription 3 (STAT3). STAT3 inhibition by Stattic significantly inhibited the CRH-induced cell proliferation. In addition, silence of VEGF resulted in declined tube formation induced by CRH. Taken together, CRH/CRHR1 signaling promoted human colon cancer cell proliferation via NF-κB/IL-6/JAK2/STAT3 signaling pathway and tumor angiogenesis via NF-κB/VEGF signaling pathway. Our results provide evidence to support a critical role for the CRH/CRHR1 signaling in colon cancer progression and suggest its potential utility as a new therapeutic target for colon cancer.
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Affiliation(s)
- Xianjun Fang
- Department of Pharmacology, Nanjing Medical University, Nanjing, China
| | - Yali Hong
- Department of Pharmacology, Nanjing Medical University, Nanjing, China
| | - Li Dai
- Department of Pharmacology, Nanjing Medical University, Nanjing, China
| | - Yuanyuan Qian
- Department of Pharmacology, Nanjing Medical University, Nanjing, China
| | - Chao Zhu
- Department of Pharmacology, Nanjing Medical University, Nanjing, China
| | - Biao Wu
- Department of Surgery, The first affiliated hospital, Nanchang University, Nanchang, China
| | - Shengnan Li
- Department of Pharmacology, Nanjing Medical University, Nanjing, China
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29
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Inhibition of corticotropin-releasing hormone receptor 1 and activation of receptor 2 protect against colonic injury and promote epithelium repair. Sci Rep 2017; 7:46616. [PMID: 28492284 PMCID: PMC5425914 DOI: 10.1038/srep46616] [Citation(s) in RCA: 32] [Impact Index Per Article: 4.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 11/01/2016] [Accepted: 03/21/2017] [Indexed: 12/16/2022] Open
Abstract
Maternal separation (MS) in neonates can lead to intestinal injury. MS in neonatal mice disrupts mucosal morphology, induces colonic inflammation and increases trans-cellular permeability. Several studies indicate that intestinal epithelial stem cells are capable of initiating gut repair in a variety of injury models but have not been reported in MS. The pathophysiology of MS-induced gut injury and subsequent repair remains unclear, but communication between the brain and gut contribute to MS-induced colonic injury. Corticotropin-releasing hormone (CRH) is one of the mediators involved in the brain–gut axis response to MS-induced damage. We investigated the roles of the CRH receptors, CRHR1 and CRHR2, in MS-induced intestinal injury and subsequent repair. To distinguish their specific roles in mucosal injury, we selectively blocked CRHR1 and CRHR2 with pharmacological antagonists. Our results show that in response to MS, CRHR1 mediates gut injury by promoting intestinal inflammation, increasing gut permeability, altering intestinal morphology, and modulating the intestinal microbiota. In contrast, CRHR2 activates intestinal stem cells and is important for gut repair. Thus, selectively blocking CRHR1 and promoting CRHR2 activity could prevent the development of intestinal injuries and enhance repair in the neonatal period when there is increased risk of intestinal injury such as necrotizing enterocolitis.
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30
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Identification of a novel interaction between corticotropin releasing hormone (Crh) and macroautophagy. Sci Rep 2016; 6:23342. [PMID: 26987580 PMCID: PMC4796911 DOI: 10.1038/srep23342] [Citation(s) in RCA: 12] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 08/11/2015] [Accepted: 03/02/2016] [Indexed: 02/07/2023] Open
Abstract
In inflammatory bowel disease (IBD), compromised restitution of the epithelial barrier contributes to disease severity. Owing to the complexity in the pathogenesis of IBD, a variety of factors have been implicated in its progress. In this study, we report a functional interaction between macroautophagy and Corticotropin Releasing Hormone (Crh) in the gut. For this purpose we used DSS colitis model on Crh -/- or wild-type (wt) with pharmacological inhibition of autophagy. We uncovered sustained basal autophagy in the gut of Crh -/- mice, which persisted over the course of DSS administration. Autophagy inhibition resulted in partial rescue of Crh -/- mice, while it increased the expression of Crh in the wt gut. Similarly, Crh deficiency was associated with sustained activation of base line autophagy. In vitro models of amino acid deprivation- and LPS-induced autophagy confirmed the in vivo findings. Our results indicate a novel role for Crh in the intestinal epithelium that involves regulation of autophagy, while suggesting the complementary action of the two pathways. These data suggest the intriguing possibility that targeting Crh stimulation in the intestine may provide a novel therapeutic approach to support the integrity of the epithelial barrier and to protect from chronic colitis.
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Yuan PQ, Wu SV, Pothoulakis C, Taché Y. Urocortins and CRF receptor type 2 variants in the male rat colon: gene expression and regulation by endotoxin and anti-inflammatory effect. Am J Physiol Gastrointest Liver Physiol 2016; 310:G387-98. [PMID: 26744472 PMCID: PMC4796293 DOI: 10.1152/ajpgi.00337.2015] [Citation(s) in RCA: 15] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.9] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Submit a Manuscript] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 09/24/2015] [Accepted: 12/30/2015] [Indexed: 01/31/2023]
Abstract
Urocortins (Ucns) 1, 2, and 3 and corticotropin-releasing factor receptor 2 (CRF2) mRNA are prominently expressed in various layers of the upper gut. We tested whether Ucns and CRF2 variants are also expressed in the different layers of the rat colon, regulated by LPS (100 μg/kg ip) and play a modulatory role in the colonic immune response to LPS. Transcripts of Ucns and CRF2b, the most common isoform in the periphery, were detected in all laser microdissected layers, including myenteric neurons. LPS increased the mRNA level of Ucn 1, Ucn 2, and Ucn 3 and decreased that of CRF2b in both the colonic mucosa and submucosa + muscle (S+M) layers at 2, 6, and 9 h after injection with a return to basal at 24 h. In addition, CRF2a, another variant more prominent in the brain, and a novel truncated splice variant CRF2a-3 mRNA were detected in all segments of the large intestine. LPS reciprocally regulated the colonic expression of these CRF2 variants by decreasing both CRF2a and CRF2b, while increasing CRF2a-3 in the mucosa and S+M. The CRF2 antagonist astressin2-B further enhanced LPS-induced increase of mRNA level of interleukin (IL)-1β, TNF-α, and inducible nitric oxide synthase in S+M layers and IL-1β in the mucosa and evoked TNF-α expression in the mucosa. These data indicate that Ucns/CRF2 variants are widely expressed in all colonic layers and reciprocally regulated by LPS. CRF2 signaling dampens the CD14/TLR4-mediated acute inflammatory response to Gram-negative bacteria in the colon.
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Affiliation(s)
- Pu-Qing Yuan
- Center for Neurobiology of Stress, Inflammatory Bowel Disease Center, CURE: Digestive Diseases Research Center, Digestive Diseases Division, Veterans Affairs Greater Los Angeles Healthcare System, Department of Medicine and Brain Research Institute, University of California, Los Angeles, California
| | - S Vincent Wu
- Center for Neurobiology of Stress, Inflammatory Bowel Disease Center, CURE: Digestive Diseases Research Center, Digestive Diseases Division, Veterans Affairs Greater Los Angeles Healthcare System, Department of Medicine and Brain Research Institute, University of California, Los Angeles, California
| | - Charalabos Pothoulakis
- Center for Neurobiology of Stress, Inflammatory Bowel Disease Center, CURE: Digestive Diseases Research Center, Digestive Diseases Division, Veterans Affairs Greater Los Angeles Healthcare System, Department of Medicine and Brain Research Institute, University of California, Los Angeles, California
| | - Yvette Taché
- Center for Neurobiology of Stress, Inflammatory Bowel Disease Center, CURE: Digestive Diseases Research Center, Digestive Diseases Division, Veterans Affairs Greater Los Angeles Healthcare System, Department of Medicine and Brain Research Institute, University of California, Los Angeles, California
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Corticotropin-Releasing Hormone Receptor 2 Gene Variants in Irritable Bowel Syndrome. PLoS One 2016; 11:e0147817. [PMID: 26808377 PMCID: PMC4726564 DOI: 10.1371/journal.pone.0147817] [Citation(s) in RCA: 18] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 09/16/2015] [Accepted: 01/08/2016] [Indexed: 12/15/2022] Open
Abstract
Background Corticotropin-releasing hormone (CRH) plays an important role in the pathophysiology of irritable bowel syndrome (IBS) and regulates the stress response through two CRH receptors (R1 and R2). Previously, we reported that a CRHR1 gene polymorphism (rs110402, rs242924, and rs7209436) and haplotypes were associated with IBS. However, the association between the CRHR2 gene and IBS was not investigated. We tested the hypothesis that genetic polymorphisms and haplotypes of CRHR2 are associated with IBS pathophysiology and negative emotion in IBS patients. Methods A total of 142 IBS patients and 142 healthy controls participated in this study. Seven single nucleotide polymorphisms (SNPs) of the CRHR2 gene (rs4722999, rs3779250, rs2240403, rs2267710, rs2190242, rs2284217, and rs2284220) were genotyped. Subjects' psychological states were evaluated using the Perceived-Stress Scale, the State-Trait Anxiety Inventory, and the Self-Rating Depression Scale. Results We found that rs4722999 and rs3779250, located in intronic region, were associated with IBS in terms of genotype frequency (rs4722999: P = 0.037; rs3779250: P = 0.017) and that the distribution of the major allele was significantly different between patients and controls. There was a significant group effect (controls vs. IBS), and a CRHR2 genotype effect was observed for three psychological scores, but the interaction was not significant. We found a haplotype of four SNPs (rs4722999, rs3779250, rs2240403, and rs2267710) and two SNPs (rs2284217 and rs2284220) in strong linkage disequilibrium (D′ > 0.90). We also found that haplotypes of the CRHR2 gene were significantly different between IBS patients and controls and that they were associated with negative emotion. Conclusion Our findings support the hypothesis that genetic polymorphisms and haplotypes of CRHR2 are related to IBS. In addition, we found associations between CRHR2 genotypes and haplotypes and negative emotion in IBS patients and controls. Further studies on IBS and the CRH system are warranted.
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Angiogenesis in Inflammatory Bowel Disease. Int J Inflam 2015; 2015:970890. [PMID: 26839731 PMCID: PMC4709626 DOI: 10.1155/2015/970890] [Citation(s) in RCA: 67] [Impact Index Per Article: 7.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 09/29/2015] [Revised: 12/07/2015] [Accepted: 12/08/2015] [Indexed: 12/24/2022] Open
Abstract
Angiogenesis is an important component of pathogenesis of inflammatory bowel disease (IBD). Chronic inflammation and angiogenesis are two closely related processes. Chronic intestinal inflammation is dependent on angiogenesis and this angiogenesis is modulated by immune system in IBD. Angiogenesis is a very complex process which includes multiple cell types, growth factors, cytokines, adhesion molecules, and signal transduction. Lymphangiogenesis is a new research area in the pathogenesis of IBD. While angiogenesis supports inflammation via leukocyte migration, carrying oxygen and nutrients, on the other hand, it has a major role in wound healing. Angiogenic molecules look like perfect targets for the treatment of IBD, but they have risk for serious side effects because of their nature.
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Hoffman JM, Baritaki S, Ruiz JJ, Sideri A, Pothoulakis C. Corticotropin-Releasing Hormone Receptor 2 Signaling Promotes Mucosal Repair Responses after Colitis. THE AMERICAN JOURNAL OF PATHOLOGY 2015; 186:134-44. [PMID: 26597886 DOI: 10.1016/j.ajpath.2015.09.013] [Citation(s) in RCA: 19] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.1] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 04/23/2015] [Revised: 08/10/2015] [Accepted: 09/10/2015] [Indexed: 01/09/2023]
Abstract
The corticotropin-releasing hormone family mediates functional responses in many organs, including the intestine. Activation of corticotropin-releasing hormone receptor 2 (CRHR2) in the colonic mucosa promotes inflammation during acute colitis but inhibits inflammation during chronic colitis. We hypothesized that specific modulation of CRHR2 signaling in the colonic mucosa can promote restoration of the epithelium through stimulation of cell proliferative, migratory, and wound healing responses. Mucosal repair was assessed after dextran sodium sulfate (DSS)-induced colitis in mice receiving intracolonic injections of a CRHR2 antagonist or vehicle and in Crhr2(-/-) mice. Histologic damage, cytokine expression, terminal deoxynucleotidyl transferase-mediated dUTP nick-end labeling, and Ki-67 immunoreactivity were evaluated. Cell viability, proliferation, and migration were compared between parental and CRHR2-overexpressing colonic epithelial cells. Protein lysates were processed for phosphoprotein assays and a wound healing assay performed in vitro. Administration of a CRHR2 antagonist after DSS-induced colitis increased disease activity, delayed healing, and decreased epithelial cell proliferation in vivo. Colons from these mice also showed increased apoptosis and proinflammatory cytokine expression. Compared with controls, Crhr2(-/-) mice showed increased mortality in the DSS healing protocol. CRHR2-overexpressing cells had increased proliferation and migration compared with parental cells. Wound healing and signal transducer and activator of transcription 3 activity were elevated in CRHR2-overexpressing cells after urocortin 2 and IL-6 treatment, suggesting advanced healing progression. Our results suggest that selective CRHR2 activation may provide a targeted approach to enhance mucosal repair pathways after colitis.
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Affiliation(s)
- Jill M Hoffman
- Center for Inflammatory Bowel Diseases, Division of Digestive Diseases, David Geffen School of Medicine, University of California, Los Angeles, Los Angeles, California
| | - Stavroula Baritaki
- Center for Inflammatory Bowel Diseases, Division of Digestive Diseases, David Geffen School of Medicine, University of California, Los Angeles, Los Angeles, California
| | - Jonathan J Ruiz
- Center for Inflammatory Bowel Diseases, Division of Digestive Diseases, David Geffen School of Medicine, University of California, Los Angeles, Los Angeles, California
| | - Aristea Sideri
- Center for Inflammatory Bowel Diseases, Division of Digestive Diseases, David Geffen School of Medicine, University of California, Los Angeles, Los Angeles, California
| | - Charalabos Pothoulakis
- Center for Inflammatory Bowel Diseases, Division of Digestive Diseases, David Geffen School of Medicine, University of California, Los Angeles, Los Angeles, California.
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Rhee SH, Ma EL, Lee Y, Taché Y, Pothoulakis C, Im E. Corticotropin Releasing Hormone and Urocortin 3 Stimulate Vascular Endothelial Growth Factor Expression through the cAMP/CREB Pathway. J Biol Chem 2015; 290:26194-203. [PMID: 26350463 DOI: 10.1074/jbc.m115.678979] [Citation(s) in RCA: 16] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 07/14/2015] [Indexed: 12/15/2022] Open
Abstract
Colonic epithelium is the first line of defense against various pathological offenses in the gut. Previous studies have shown that the peptides of the corticotropin-releasing hormone (CRH) family modulate vascular endothelial growth factor (VEGF)-A production in other cells. Here we sought to investigate whether CRH and urocortin (Ucn) 3 regulate VEGF-A secretion in colonocytes through CRH receptors and to elucidate the underlying mechanism of action. CRH and Ucn 3 significantly increased the expression levels of VEGF-A mRNA and protein through CRH receptor 1 and 2, respectively, in human colonic epithelial cells and primary mouse intestinal epithelial cells. Underlying mechanisms involve activation of adenylyl cyclase with subsequent increase of intracellular cAMP level and increased DNA binding activity of transcription factor CREB on VEGF-A promoter region. Finally, genetic deficiency of CREB decreased intestinal inflammation and VEGF-A expression in a dextran sodium sulfate-induced colitis model. These results show that activation of CRH receptors by CRH ligands stimulates VEGF-A expression in intestinal epithelial cells through the cAMP/CREB pathway. Since VEGF-A boosts inflammatory responses through angiogenesis, these data suggest that CREB may be a key effector of CRH and Ucn 3-dependent inflammatory angiogenesis.
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Affiliation(s)
- Sang Hoon Rhee
- From the Section of Inflammatory Bowel Disease & Inflammatory Bowel Disease Center, Division of Digestive Diseases, David Geffen School of Medicine, University of California, Los Angeles, California 90095 and
| | - Elise L Ma
- From the Section of Inflammatory Bowel Disease & Inflammatory Bowel Disease Center, Division of Digestive Diseases, David Geffen School of Medicine, University of California, Los Angeles, California 90095 and
| | - Yunna Lee
- College of Pharmacy, Pusan National University, Busan, 609-735, South Korea
| | - Yvette Taché
- From the Section of Inflammatory Bowel Disease & Inflammatory Bowel Disease Center, Division of Digestive Diseases, David Geffen School of Medicine, University of California, Los Angeles, California 90095 and
| | - Charalabos Pothoulakis
- From the Section of Inflammatory Bowel Disease & Inflammatory Bowel Disease Center, Division of Digestive Diseases, David Geffen School of Medicine, University of California, Los Angeles, California 90095 and
| | - Eunok Im
- College of Pharmacy, Pusan National University, Busan, 609-735, South Korea
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Rodriguez JA, Huerta-Yepez S, Law IKM, Baay-Guzman GJ, Tirado-Rodriguez B, Hoffman JM, Iliopoulos D, Hommes DW, Verspaget HW, Chang L, Pothoulakis C, Baritaki S. Diminished expression of CRHR2 in human colon cancer promotes tumor growth and EMT via persistent IL-6/Stat3 signaling. Cell Mol Gastroenterol Hepatol 2015; 1:610-630. [PMID: 26495412 PMCID: PMC4610032 DOI: 10.1016/j.jcmgh.2015.08.001] [Citation(s) in RCA: 35] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.9] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Submit a Manuscript] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/13/2022]
Abstract
BACKGROUND & AIMS Chronic inflammation promotes development and progression of colorectal cancer (CRC). We explored the distribution of Corticotropin-Releasing-Hormone (CRH)-family of receptors and ligands in CRC and their contribution in tumor growth and oncogenic EMT. METHODS mRNA expression of CRH-family members was analyzed in CRC (N=56) and control (N=46) samples, 7 CRC cell lines and normal NCM460 cells. Immunohistochemical detection of CRHR2 was performed in 20 CRC and 5 normal tissues. Cell proliferation, migration and invasion were compared between Urocortin-2 (Ucn2)-stimulated parental and CRHR2-overexpressing (CRHR2+) cells in absence or presence of IL-6. CRHR2/Ucn2-targeted effects on tumor growth and EMT were validated in SW620-xenograft mouse models. RESULTS CRC tissues and cell lines showed decreased mRNA and protein CRHR2 expression compared to controls and NCM460, respectively. The opposite trend was shown for Ucn2. CRHR2/Ucn2 signaling inhibited cell proliferation, migration, invasion and colony formation in CRC-CRHR2+ cells. In vivo, SW620-CRHR2+ xenografts showed decreased growth, reduced expression of EMT-inducers and elevated levels of EMT-suppressors. IL-1b, IL-6 and IL-6R mRNAs where diminished in CRC-CRHR2+ cells, while CRHR2/Ucn2 signaling inhibited IL-6-mediated Stat3 activation, invasion, migration and expression of downstream targets acting as cell cycle- and EMT-inducers. Expression of cell cycle- and EMT-suppressors was augmented in IL-6/Ucn2-stimulated CRHR2+ cells. In patients, CRHR2 mRNA expression was inversely correlated with IL-6R and vimentin levels and metastasis occurrence, while positively associated with E-cadherin expression and overall survival. CONCLUSIONS CRHR2 downregulation in CRC supports tumor expansion and spread through maintaining persistent inflammation and constitutive Stat3 activation. CRHR2low CRC phenotypes are associated with higher risk for distant metastases and poor clinical outcomes.
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Affiliation(s)
- Jorge A. Rodriguez
- IBD Center, Division of Digestive Diseases, David Geffen School of Medicine at the University of California–Los Angeles (UCLA), Los Angeles, California
| | - Sara Huerta-Yepez
- Unidad de Investigacion en Enfermedades Oncologicas, Hospital Infantil de México Federico Gomez, Mexico City, Mexico
| | - Ivy Ka Man Law
- IBD Center, Division of Digestive Diseases, David Geffen School of Medicine at the University of California–Los Angeles (UCLA), Los Angeles, California
| | - Guillermina J. Baay-Guzman
- Unidad de Investigacion en Enfermedades Oncologicas, Hospital Infantil de México Federico Gomez, Mexico City, Mexico
| | - Belen Tirado-Rodriguez
- Unidad de Investigacion en Enfermedades Oncologicas, Hospital Infantil de México Federico Gomez, Mexico City, Mexico
| | - Jill M. Hoffman
- IBD Center, Division of Digestive Diseases, David Geffen School of Medicine at the University of California–Los Angeles (UCLA), Los Angeles, California
| | - Dimitrios Iliopoulos
- Center for Systems Biomedicine, Division of Digestive Diseases, David Geffen School of Medicine at UCLA, Los Angeles, California
| | - Daniel W. Hommes
- IBD Center, Division of Digestive Diseases, David Geffen School of Medicine at the University of California–Los Angeles (UCLA), Los Angeles, California,Department of Gastroenterology and Hepatology, Leiden University Medical Center, Leiden, the Netherlands
| | - Hein W. Verspaget
- Department of Gastroenterology and Hepatology, Leiden University Medical Center, Leiden, the Netherlands
| | - Lin Chang
- Gail and Gerard Oppenheimer Family Center for Neurobiology of Stress, David Geffen School of Medicine at UCLA, Los Angeles, California
| | - Charalabos Pothoulakis
- IBD Center, Division of Digestive Diseases, David Geffen School of Medicine at the University of California–Los Angeles (UCLA), Los Angeles, California
| | - Stavroula Baritaki
- IBD Center, Division of Digestive Diseases, David Geffen School of Medicine at the University of California–Los Angeles (UCLA), Los Angeles, California,Unidad de Investigacion en Enfermedades Oncologicas, Hospital Infantil de México Federico Gomez, Mexico City, Mexico,Division of Surgery, School of Medicine, University of Crete, Heraklion, Crete, Greece,Correspondence Address correspondence to: Stavroula Baritaki, PhD, IBD Center, Division of Digestive Diseases, David Geffen School of Medicine, UCLA, 675 Charles E. Young Drive, South MRL Building 1240, Los Angeles, California 90095.IBD CenterDivision of Digestive DiseasesDavid Geffen School of MedicineUCLA, 675 Charles E. Young Drive, South MRL Building 1240Los AngelesCalifornia 90095
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Corticotropin-Releasing Hormone (CRH) Promotes Macrophage Foam Cell Formation via Reduced Expression of ATP Binding Cassette Transporter-1 (ABCA1). PLoS One 2015; 10:e0130587. [PMID: 26110874 PMCID: PMC4481410 DOI: 10.1371/journal.pone.0130587] [Citation(s) in RCA: 12] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 10/21/2014] [Accepted: 05/22/2015] [Indexed: 02/03/2023] Open
Abstract
Atherosclerosis, the major pathology of cardiovascular disease, is caused by multiple factors involving psychological stress. Corticotropin-releasing hormone (CRH), which is released by neurosecretory cells in the hypothalamus, peripheral nerve terminals and epithelial cells, regulates various stress-related responses. Our current study aimed to verify the role of CRH in macrophage foam cell formation, the initial critical stage of atherosclerosis. Our quantitative real-time reverse transcriptase PCR (qRT-PCR), semi-quantitative reverse transcriptase PCR, and Western blot results indicate that CRH down-regulates ATP-binding cassette transporter-1 (ABCA1) and liver X receptor (LXR)-α, a transcription factor for ABCA1, in murine peritoneal macrophages and human monocyte-derived macrophages. Oil-red O (ORO) staining and intracellular cholesterol measurement of macrophages treated with or without oxidized LDL (oxLDL) and with or without CRH (10 nM) in the presence of apolipoprotein A1 (apoA1) revealed that CRH treatment promotes macrophage foam cell formation. The boron-dipyrromethene (BODIPY)-conjugated cholesterol efflux assay showed that CRH treatment reduces macrophage cholesterol efflux. Western blot analysis showed that CRH-induced down-regulation of ABCA1 is dependent on phosphorylation of Akt (Ser473) induced by interaction between CRH and CRH receptor 1(CRHR1). We conclude that activation of this pathway by CRH accelerates macrophage foam cell formation and may promote stress-related atherosclerosis.
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P7, a novel antagonist of corticotropin releasing factor receptor type 1 (CRFR1) screened from phage display library. Biochem Biophys Res Commun 2015; 463:200-4. [PMID: 25998380 DOI: 10.1016/j.bbrc.2015.05.021] [Citation(s) in RCA: 1] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.1] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 04/29/2015] [Accepted: 05/08/2015] [Indexed: 11/23/2022]
Abstract
The corticotropin releasing factor (CRF) plays a central role in regulating the activities of hypothalamic-pituitary-adrenal (HPA) axis in the presence of a variety of stressful stimuli via binding to its type 1 receptors (CRFR1). Despite that many peptidic or non-peptidic antagonists of CRFR1 have been developed to serve as therapeutic tools to CRF-related pathologies, none of them have been utilized clinically. Targeting the extracellular domain 1 (EC1) of CRFR1, the CRF-binding site, represents a new strategy to inhibit the function of the receptor. However, no such agents have been identified up to now. Herein, by using an 87-amino acid fragment corresponding to the EC1 region as the bait, we screened the binding polypeptides from a phage display (Ph.D.-12) peptide library. After 3-round biopanning, positive clones were selected and the polypeptides carried by them were identified. 5 polypeptides were found to bind with the target specifically. Among them, the P7 exhibited the highest affinity. By evaluating the cAMP accumulation in the CRFR1 or CRFR2-expressing HEK293 cells, we demonstrated that P7 blocking the function of CRFR1, but not CRFR2. In addition, we also found that P7 and CRF act on CRFR1 competitively. Taken together, we reveal that P7, a novel polypeptide identified from phage display library, inhibits the function of CRFR1 effectively and specifically by binding at its EC1 domain. The new polypeptide might provide a promising agent for diagnostic or therapeutic utilities in CRF-related disorders.
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Akiba Y, Kaunitz JD, Million M. Peripheral corticotropin-releasing factor receptor type 2 activation increases colonic blood flow through nitric oxide pathway in rats. Dig Dis Sci 2015; 60:858-67. [PMID: 25701320 PMCID: PMC4501405 DOI: 10.1007/s10620-015-3579-y] [Citation(s) in RCA: 5] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Submit a Manuscript] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 11/18/2014] [Accepted: 02/04/2015] [Indexed: 12/30/2022]
Abstract
BACKGROUND Corticotropin-releasing factor (CRF) peptides exert profound effects on the secretomotor function of the gastrointestinal tract. Nevertheless, despite the presence of CRF peptides and receptors in colonic tissue, their influence on colonic blood flow (CBF) is unknown. AIM To determine the effect and mechanism of members of the CRF peptide family on CBF in isoflurane-anesthetized rats. METHODS Proximal CBF was measured with laser-Doppler flowmetry simultaneously with mean arterial blood pressure (MABP) measurement. Rats were injected with intravenous human/rat CRF (CRF1 > CRF2 affinity), mouse urocortin 2 (mUcn2, selective CRF2 agonist), or sauvagine (SVG, CRF2 > CRF1 affinity) at 1-30 µg/kg. The nitric oxide (NO) synthase inhibitor, L-NAME (3 mg/kg, iv), the cyclooxygenase inhibitor, indomethacin (Indo, 5 mg/kg, ip), or selective CRF2 antagonist, astressin2-B (Ast2B, 50 µg/kg, iv) was given before SVG injection (10 µg/kg, iv). RESULTS SVG and mUcn2 dose-dependently increased CBF while decreasing MABP and colonic vascular resistance (CVR). CRF had no effect on CBF, but increased CVR. The hyperemic effect of SVG was inhibited by L-NAME but not by Indo, whereas hypotension was partially reduced by L-NAME. Sensory denervation had no effect on SVG-induced changes. Ast2B inhibited SVG-induced hyperemia and decreased CVR, and partially reduced the hypotension. CONCLUSIONS Peripheral CRF2 activation induces colonic hyperemia through NO synthesis, without involving prostaglandin synthesis or sensory nerve activation, suggesting a direct action on the endothelium and myenteric neurons. Members of the CRF peptide family may protect the colonic mucosa via the activation of the CRF2 receptor.
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Affiliation(s)
- Yasutada Akiba
- CURE: Digestive Diseases Research Center; Oppenheimer Family Center for Neurobiology of Stress, David Geffen School of Medicine, University of California Los Angeles, Los Angeles, CA, USA,
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Im E. Multi-facets of Corticotropin-releasing Factor in Modulating Inflammation and Angiogenesis. J Neurogastroenterol Motil 2015; 21:25-32. [PMID: 25540945 PMCID: PMC4288099 DOI: 10.5056/jnm14076] [Citation(s) in RCA: 9] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Submit a Manuscript] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 07/02/2014] [Revised: 10/02/2014] [Accepted: 10/04/2014] [Indexed: 12/20/2022] Open
Abstract
The family of corticotropin-releasing factor (CRF) composed of 4 ligands including CRF, urocortin (Ucn) 1, Ucn2, and Ucn3 is expressed both in the central nervous system and the periphery including the gastrointestinal tract. Two different forms of G protein coupled receptors, CRF1 and CRF2, differentially recognize CRF family members, mediating various biological functions. A large body of evidence suggests that the CRF family plays an important role in regulating inflammation and angiogenesis. Of particular interest is a contrasting role of the CRF family during inflammatory processes. The CRF family can exert both pro-and anti-inflammatory functions depending on the type of receptors, the tissues, and the disease phases. In addition, there has been a growing interest in a possible role of the CRF family in angiogenesis. Regulation of angiogenesis by the CRF family has been shown to modulate endogenous blood vessel formation, inflammatory neovascularization and cardiovascular function. This review outlines the effect of the CRF family and its receptors on 2 major biological events: inflammation and angiogenesis, and provides a possibility of their application for the treatment of inflammatory vascular diseases.
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Affiliation(s)
- Eunok Im
- College of Pharmacy, Pusan National University, Busan, Korea
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Maternal exposure to low levels of corticosterone during lactation protects against experimental inflammatory colitis-induced damage in adult rat offspring. PLoS One 2014; 9:e113389. [PMID: 25405993 PMCID: PMC4236199 DOI: 10.1371/journal.pone.0113389] [Citation(s) in RCA: 8] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 08/10/2014] [Accepted: 10/25/2014] [Indexed: 12/24/2022] Open
Abstract
Opposing emotional events (negative/trauma or positive/maternal care) during the postnatal period may differentially influence vulnerability to the effects of stress later in life. The development and course of intestinal disorders such as inflammatory bowel disease are negatively affected by persistent stress, but to date the role of positive life events on these pathologies has been entirely unknown. In the present study, the effect of early life beneficial experiences in the development of intestinal dysfunctions, where inflammation and stress stimuli play a primary role, was investigated. As a “positive” experimental model we used adult male rat progeny nursed by mothers whose drinking water was supplemented with moderate doses of corticosterone (CORT) (0.2 mg/ml) during the lactation period. Such animals have been generally shown to cope better with different environmental situations during life. The susceptibility to inflammatory experimental colitis induced by intracolonic infusion of TNBS (2,4,6-trinitrobenzenesulphonic acid) was investigated in CORT-nursed rats in comparison with control rats. This mild increase in maternal corticosterone during lactation induced, in CORT-nursed rats, a long lasting protective effect on TNBS-colitis, characterized by improvements in some indices of the disease (increased colonic myeloperoxidase activity, loss of body weight and food intake) and by the involvement of endogenous peripheral pathways known to participate in intestinal disorder development (lower plasma corticosterone levels and colonic mast cell degranulation, alterations in the colonic expression of both corticotrophin releasing factor/CRF and its receptor/CRH-1R). All these findings contribute to suggesting that the reduced vulnerability to TNBS-colitis in CORT-nursed rats is due to recovery from the colonic mucosal barrier dysfunction. Such long lasting changes induced by mild hormonal manipulation during lactation, making the adult also better adapted to colonic inflammatory stress, constitute a useful experimental model to investigate the etiopathogenetic mechanisms and therapeutic treatments of some gastrointestinal diseases.
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Liu Y, Fang X, Yuan J, Sun Z, Li C, Li R, Li L, Zhu C, Wan R, Guo R, Jin L, Li S. The role of corticotropin-releasing hormone receptor 1 in the development of colitis-associated cancer in mouse model. Endocr Relat Cancer 2014; 21:639-51. [PMID: 25015995 DOI: 10.1530/erc-14-0239] [Citation(s) in RCA: 21] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.1] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Submit a Manuscript] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/15/2022]
Abstract
Patients with ulcerative colitis are at a very high risk of developing colorectal cancer. Corticotrophin-releasing hormone (CRH) family peptides and their receptors (CRHRs) are found to modulate inflammation and tumor cell growth. However, the role of CRH family peptides and their receptors in the inflammation-related colon cancer is still unknown. The aim of this study was to investigate the functions of CRHR1 signaling on the development of colitis-associated cancer (CAC). Crhr1-deficient (Crhr1(-/-)) mice were used to explore the role of CRHR1 in the development of azoxymethane (AOM) and dextran sodium sulfate (DSS)-induced CAC. WT (Crhr1(+/+)) littermates were set as control. We found that the expression of CRHR1 and its endogenous ligands: urocortin and CRH were enhanced in the colon of Crhr1(+/+) mice during treatment with AOM and DSS. Tumorigenesis was significantly reduced in Crhr1(-/-) mice, determined by analysis of survival rate (increased by 20%), weight loss (decreased by 10%), tumor formation (decreased by 60% in tumor number), histological scores (decreased by 58%), and cytokine production. During early CAC tumorigenesis, Crhr1(-/-) mice exhibited much less tumorigenesis, accompanied by lower inflammatory response, including decreased IL1β, IL6 and TNFα expression and macrophage infiltration and increased IL10 expression. Moreover, Crhr1(-/-) mice displayed a reduced activation of NFκB and STAT3 phosphorylation with decreased proliferating and enhanced apoptotic cells in the colon. In conclusion, CRHR1 has a proinflammatory and therefore a protumorigenesis effect in terms of CAC, which may be helpful to develop new therapeutic approaches for inflammation and cancer prevention and treatment.
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Affiliation(s)
- Yunxin Liu
- Key Laboratory of Cardiovascular and Molecular InterventionDepartment of Pharmacology, Nanjing Medical University, Nanjing 210029, People's Republic of China
| | - Xianjun Fang
- Key Laboratory of Cardiovascular and Molecular InterventionDepartment of Pharmacology, Nanjing Medical University, Nanjing 210029, People's Republic of China
| | - Jie Yuan
- Key Laboratory of Cardiovascular and Molecular InterventionDepartment of Pharmacology, Nanjing Medical University, Nanjing 210029, People's Republic of China
| | - Zongxing Sun
- Key Laboratory of Cardiovascular and Molecular InterventionDepartment of Pharmacology, Nanjing Medical University, Nanjing 210029, People's Republic of China
| | - Chuanhua Li
- Key Laboratory of Cardiovascular and Molecular InterventionDepartment of Pharmacology, Nanjing Medical University, Nanjing 210029, People's Republic of China
| | - Rong Li
- Key Laboratory of Cardiovascular and Molecular InterventionDepartment of Pharmacology, Nanjing Medical University, Nanjing 210029, People's Republic of China
| | - Li Li
- Key Laboratory of Cardiovascular and Molecular InterventionDepartment of Pharmacology, Nanjing Medical University, Nanjing 210029, People's Republic of China
| | - Chao Zhu
- Key Laboratory of Cardiovascular and Molecular InterventionDepartment of Pharmacology, Nanjing Medical University, Nanjing 210029, People's Republic of China
| | - Rong Wan
- Key Laboratory of Cardiovascular and Molecular InterventionDepartment of Pharmacology, Nanjing Medical University, Nanjing 210029, People's Republic of China
| | - Rui Guo
- Key Laboratory of Cardiovascular and Molecular InterventionDepartment of Pharmacology, Nanjing Medical University, Nanjing 210029, People's Republic of China
| | - Lai Jin
- Key Laboratory of Cardiovascular and Molecular InterventionDepartment of Pharmacology, Nanjing Medical University, Nanjing 210029, People's Republic of China
| | - Shengnan Li
- Key Laboratory of Cardiovascular and Molecular InterventionDepartment of Pharmacology, Nanjing Medical University, Nanjing 210029, People's Republic of China
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Jin L, Li C, Li R, Sun Z, Fang X, Li S. Corticotropin-releasing hormone receptors mediate apoptosis via cytosolic calcium-dependent phospholipase A₂ and migration in prostate cancer cell RM-1. J Mol Endocrinol 2014; 52:255-67. [PMID: 24776847 DOI: 10.1530/jme-13-0270] [Citation(s) in RCA: 15] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Submit a Manuscript] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/08/2022]
Abstract
Peripheral corticotropin-releasing hormone receptors (CRHRs) are G protein-coupled receptors that play different roles depending on tissue types. Previously, we discovered the mechanism of CRHR-mediated apoptosis of mouse prostate cancer cell line (RM-1) to be a change of Bcl-2:Bax ratio, and CRH was found to inhibit transforming growth factor β migration of breast cancer cells via CRHRs. In the present study, we investigated cytosolic calcium-dependent phospholipase A2 (cPLA2) bridging CRHR activations and Bcl-2:Bax ratio and the effect of CRHR activation on cell migration. Silencing of cPLA2 attenuated a CRHR1 agonist, CRH-induced apoptosis, and the decrease of the Bcl-2:Bax ratio, whereas silencing of cPLA2 aggravated CRHR2 agonist, Urocortin 2 (Ucn2)-inhibited apoptosis, and the increase of the Bcl-2:Bax ratio. CRH in a time- and concentration-dependent manner increased cPLA2 expression mainly through interleukin 1β (IL1β) upregulation. Ucn2 decreased cPLA2 expression through neither tumor necrosis factor α nor IL1β. CRH-suppressed decay of cPLA2 mRNA and Ucn2 merely suppressed its production. Overexpression of CRHR1 or CRHR2 in HEK293 cells correspondingly upregulated or downregulated cPLA2 expression after CRH or Ucn2 stimulation respectively. In addition, both CRH and Ucn2 induced migration of RM-1 cells. Our observation not only established a relationship between CRHRs and cell migration but also for the first time, to our knowledge, demonstrated that cPLA2 participates in CRHR1-induced apoptosis and CRHR2-inhibited apoptosis.
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Affiliation(s)
- Lai Jin
- Jiangsu Provincial Key Lab of Cardiovascular Diseases and Molecular Intervention, Department of Pharmacology, Nanjing Medical University, Nanjing 210029, China
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Im E. Corticotropin-releasing Hormone and Its Biological Diversity toward Angiogenesis. Intest Res 2014; 12:96-102. [PMID: 25349575 PMCID: PMC4204709 DOI: 10.5217/ir.2014.12.2.96] [Citation(s) in RCA: 12] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Submit a Manuscript] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 02/07/2014] [Revised: 02/12/2014] [Accepted: 02/13/2014] [Indexed: 12/13/2022] Open
Abstract
Angiogenesis is the formation of new blood vessels from existing ones and an underlying cause of numerous human diseases, including cancer and inflammation. A large body of evidence indicates that angiogenic inhibitors have therapeutic potential in the treatment of vascular diseases. However, detrimental side effects and low efficacy hinder their use in clinical practice. Members of the corticotropin-releasing hormone (CRH) family, which comprises CRH, urocortin I-III, and CRH receptors (CRHR) 1 and 2, are broadly expressed in the brain and peripheral tissues, including the intestine and cardiovascular system. The CRH family regulates stress-related responses through the hypothalamic-pituitary-adrenal axis. Therapeutic agents that target CRH family members offer a new approach to the treatment of various gastrointestinal disorders, including irritable bowel syndrome (IBS), inflammatory bowel disease (IBD), and colorectal cancer. Since the discovery that CRHR 2 has anti-angiogenic activity during postnatal development in mice, studies have focused on the role of the CRH system in the modulation of blood vessel formation and cardiovascular function. This review will outline the basic biological functions of the CRH family members and the implications for the development of novel anti-angiogenic therapies.
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Affiliation(s)
- Eunok Im
- Department of Pharmacy, Pusan National University College of Pharmacy, Busan, Korea
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Mahajan S, Liao M, Barkan P, Takahashi K, Bhargava A. Urocortin 3 expression at baseline and during inflammation in the colon: corticotropin releasing factor receptors cross-talk. Peptides 2014; 54:58-66. [PMID: 24462512 PMCID: PMC4006935 DOI: 10.1016/j.peptides.2014.01.007] [Citation(s) in RCA: 18] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Submit a Manuscript] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 12/13/2013] [Revised: 01/11/2014] [Accepted: 01/13/2014] [Indexed: 02/07/2023]
Abstract
Urocortins (Ucn1-3), members of the corticotropin-releasing factor (CRF) family of neuropeptides, are emerging as potent immunomodulators. Localized, cellular expression of Ucn1 and Ucn2, but not Ucn3, has been demonstrated during inflammation. Here, we investigated the role of Ucn3 in a rat model of Crohn's colitis and the relative contribution of CRF receptors (CRF1 and CRF2) in regulating Ucn3 expression at baseline and during inflammation. Ucn3 mRNA and peptide were ubiquitously expressed throughout the GI tract in naïve rats. Ucn3 immunoreactivity was seen in epithelial cells and myenteric neurons. On day 1 of colitis, Ucn3 mRNA levels decreased by 80% and did not recover to baseline even by day 9. Next, we ascertained pro- or anti-inflammatory actions of Ucn3 during colitis. Surprisingly, unlike observed anti-inflammatory actions of Ucn1, exogenous Ucn3 did not alter histopathological outcomes during colitis and neither did it alter levels of pro-inflammatory cytokines IL-6 and TNF-α. At baseline, colon-specific knockdown of CRF1, but not CRF2 decreased Ucn3 mRNA by 78%, whereas during colitis, Ucn3 mRNA levels increased after CRF1 knockdown. In cultured cells, co-expression of CRF1+CRF2 attenuated Ucn3-stimulated intracellular Ca(2+) peak by 48% as compared to cells expressing CRF2 alone. Phosphorylation of p38 kinase increased by 250% during colitis and was significantly attenuated after Ucn3 administration. Thus, our results suggest that a balanced and coordinated expression of CRF receptors is required for proper regulation of Ucn3 at baseline and during inflammation.
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Affiliation(s)
- Shilpi Mahajan
- Department of Surgery, University of California, San Francisco, 513 Parnassus Avenue, San Francisco, CA 94143, USA
| | - Min Liao
- Department of Surgery, University of California, San Francisco, 513 Parnassus Avenue, San Francisco, CA 94143, USA
| | - Paris Barkan
- Department of Surgery, University of California, San Francisco, 513 Parnassus Avenue, San Francisco, CA 94143, USA; Jefferson Medical College, 1025 Walnut Street, Philadelphia, PA 19107, USA(1)
| | - Kazuhiro Takahashi
- Department of Endocrinology and Applied Medical Science, Tohoku University Graduate School of Medicine, 2-1 Seiryo-machi, Aoba-ku, Sendai, Miyagi 980-8575, Japan
| | - Aditi Bhargava
- Department of Surgery, University of California, San Francisco, 513 Parnassus Avenue, San Francisco, CA 94143, USA.
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Slominski AT, Zmijewski MA, Zbytek B, Tobin DJ, Theoharides TC, Rivier J. Key role of CRF in the skin stress response system. Endocr Rev 2013; 34:827-84. [PMID: 23939821 PMCID: PMC3857130 DOI: 10.1210/er.2012-1092] [Citation(s) in RCA: 280] [Impact Index Per Article: 25.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Submit a Manuscript] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 11/30/2012] [Accepted: 08/02/2013] [Indexed: 02/08/2023]
Abstract
The discovery of corticotropin-releasing factor (CRF) or CRH defining the upper regulatory arm of the hypothalamic-pituitary-adrenal (HPA) axis, along with the identification of the corresponding receptors (CRFRs 1 and 2), represents a milestone in our understanding of central mechanisms regulating body and local homeostasis. We focused on the CRF-led signaling systems in the skin and offer a model for regulation of peripheral homeostasis based on the interaction of CRF and the structurally related urocortins with corresponding receptors and the resulting direct or indirect phenotypic effects that include regulation of epidermal barrier function, skin immune, pigmentary, adnexal, and dermal functions necessary to maintain local and systemic homeostasis. The regulatory modes of action include the classical CRF-led cutaneous equivalent of the central HPA axis, the expression and function of CRF and related peptides, and the stimulation of pro-opiomelanocortin peptides or cytokines. The key regulatory role is assigned to the CRFR-1α receptor, with other isoforms having modulatory effects. CRF can be released from sensory nerves and immune cells in response to emotional and environmental stressors. The expression sequence of peptides includes urocortin/CRF→pro-opiomelanocortin→ACTH, MSH, and β-endorphin. Expression of these peptides and of CRFR-1α is environmentally regulated, and their dysfunction can lead to skin and systemic diseases. Environmentally stressed skin can activate both the central and local HPA axis through either sensory nerves or humoral factors to turn on homeostatic responses counteracting cutaneous and systemic environmental damage. CRF and CRFR-1 may constitute novel targets through the use of specific agonists or antagonists, especially for therapy of skin diseases that worsen with stress, such as atopic dermatitis and psoriasis.
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Affiliation(s)
- Andrzej T Slominski
- MD, PhD, Department of Pathology and Laboratory Medicine, University of Tennessee Health Science Center; 930 Madison Avenue, Suite 500, Memphis, Tennessee 38163.
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Kubat E, Mahajan S, Liao M, Ackerman L, Ohara PT, Grady EF, Bhargava A. Corticotropin-releasing factor receptor 2 mediates sex-specific cellular stress responses. Mol Med 2013; 19:212-22. [PMID: 23835907 DOI: 10.2119/molmed.2013.00036] [Citation(s) in RCA: 20] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 06/19/2013] [Accepted: 07/01/2013] [Indexed: 01/11/2023] Open
Abstract
Although females suffer twice as much as males from stress-related disorders, sex-specific participating and pathogenic cellular stress mechanisms remain uncharacterized. Using corticotropin-releasing factor receptor 2-deficient (Crhr2-/-) and wild-type (WT) mice, we show that CRF receptor type 2 (CRF2) and its high-affinity ligand, urocortin 1 (Ucn1), are key mediators of the endoplasmic reticulum (ER) stress response in a murine model of acute pancreatic inflammation. Ucn1 was expressed de novo in acinar cells of male, but not female WT mice during acute inflammation. Upon insult, acinar Ucn1 induction was markedly attenuated in male but not female Crhr2-/- mice. Crhr2-/- mice of both sexes show exacerbated acinar cell inflammation and necrosis. Electron microscopy showed mild ER damage in WT male mice and markedly distorted ER structure in Crhr2-/- male mice during pancreatitis. WT and Crhr2-/- female mice showed similarly distorted ER ultrastructure that was less severe than distortion seen in Crhr2-/- male mice. Damage in ER structure was accompanied by increased ubiquitination, peIF2, and mistargeted localization of vimentin in WT mice that was further exacerbated in Crhr2-/- mice of both sexes during pancreatitis. Exogenous Ucn1 rescued many aspects of histological damage and cellular stress response, including restoration of ER structure in male WT and Crhr2-/- mice, but not in females. Instead, females often showed increased damage. Thus, specific cellular pathways involved in coping and resolution seem to be distinct to each sex. Our results demonstrate the importance of identifying sex-specific pathogenic mechanisms and their value in designing effective therapeutics.
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Affiliation(s)
- Eric Kubat
- Department of Surgery, University of California San Francisco, San Francisco, California 94143, USA
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48
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Bonaz BL, Bernstein CN. Brain-gut interactions in inflammatory bowel disease. Gastroenterology 2013; 144:36-49. [PMID: 23063970 DOI: 10.1053/j.gastro.2012.10.003] [Citation(s) in RCA: 440] [Impact Index Per Article: 40.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Submit a Manuscript] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 07/26/2012] [Revised: 09/23/2012] [Accepted: 10/01/2012] [Indexed: 12/13/2022]
Abstract
Psycho-neuro-endocrine-immune modulation through the brain-gut axis likely has a key role in the pathogenesis of inflammatory bowel disease (IBD). The brain-gut axis involves interactions among the neural components, including (1) the autonomic nervous system, (2) the central nervous system, (3) the stress system (hypothalamic-pituitary-adrenal axis), (4) the (gastrointestinal) corticotropin-releasing factor system, and (5) the intestinal response (including the intestinal barrier, the luminal microbiota, and the intestinal immune response). Animal models suggest that the cholinergic anti-inflammatory pathway through an anti-tumor necrosis factor effect of the efferent vagus nerve could be a therapeutic target in IBD through a pharmacologic, nutritional, or neurostimulation approach. In addition, the psychophysiological vulnerability of patients with IBD, secondary to the potential presence of any mood disorders, distress, increased perceived stress, or maladaptive coping strategies, underscores the psychological needs of patients with IBD. Clinicians need to address these issues with patients because there is emerging evidence that stress or other negative psychological attributes may have an effect on the disease course. Future research may include exploration of markers of brain-gut interactions, including serum/salivary cortisol (as a marker of the hypothalamic-pituitary-adrenal axis), heart rate variability (as a marker of the sympathovagal balance), or brain imaging studies. The widespread use and potential impact of complementary and alternative medicine and the positive response to placebo (in clinical trials) is further evidence that exploring other psycho-interventions may be important therapeutic adjuncts to the conventional therapeutic approach in IBD.
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Affiliation(s)
- Bruno L Bonaz
- Stress et Interactions Neuro-Digestives, Grenoble Institut des Neurosciences, Centre de Recherche INSERM 836 UJF-CEA-CHU, Grenoble, France.
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Chang J, Adams MR, Clifton MS, Liao M, Brooks JH, Hasdemir B, Bhargava A. Urocortin 1 modulates immunosignaling in a rat model of colitis via corticotropin-releasing factor receptor 2. Am J Physiol Gastrointest Liver Physiol 2011; 300:G884-94. [PMID: 21330446 PMCID: PMC3094137 DOI: 10.1152/ajpgi.00319.2010] [Citation(s) in RCA: 28] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Submit a Manuscript] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 01/31/2023]
Abstract
Urocortins (UCNs) and their receptors are potent immunoregulators in the gastrointestinal (GI) tract, where they can exert both pro- and anti-inflammatory effects. We examined the contribution of Ucn1 and its receptors to the pathogenesis, progression, and resolution of colitis. Trinitrobenzene sulfonic acid was used to induce colitis in rats. Ucn1 mRNA and immunoreactivity (IR) were ubiquitously expressed throughout the GI tract under basal conditions. During colitis, Ucn1 mRNA levels fell below basal levels on day 1 then increased again by day 6, in association with an increase in the number of Ucn1-IR inflammatory cells. Ucn1-IR cells were also numerous in proliferating granulation tissue. In contrast to Ucn1 expression, average phosphorylated ERK1/2 (pERK1/2) expression rose above controls levels on day 1 and was very low on day 6 of colitis. Knockdown of corticotropin-releasing factor 2 (CRF(2)) but not CRF(1) by RNA interference during colitis significantly decreased the macroscopic lateral spread of ulceration compared with uninjected controls or animals with CRF(1) knockdown. After knockdown of CRF(2), but not of CRF(1) during colitis, edema resolution assessed microscopically was slowed, and myeloperoxidase activity remained elevated even at day 6. Ucn1 and TNF-α mRNA peaked earlier, whereas pERK1/2 activation was attenuated after CRF(2) knockdown. Thus we conclude that local CRF(2) and pERK1/2 activation is pivotal for macroscopic spread of colitis and resolution of edema. Elimination of CRF(2), but not CRF(1), results in uncoordinated immune and pERK1/2 signaling responses.
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Affiliation(s)
- Jen Chang
- Department of Surgery, University of California, San Francisco, San Francisco, California
| | - Melanie R. Adams
- Department of Surgery, University of California, San Francisco, San Francisco, California
| | - Matthew S. Clifton
- Department of Surgery, University of California, San Francisco, San Francisco, California
| | - Min Liao
- Department of Surgery, University of California, San Francisco, San Francisco, California
| | - Julia H. Brooks
- Department of Surgery, University of California, San Francisco, San Francisco, California
| | - Burcu Hasdemir
- Department of Surgery, University of California, San Francisco, San Francisco, California
| | - Aditi Bhargava
- Department of Surgery, University of California, San Francisco, San Francisco, California
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Gourcerol G, Wu SV, Yuan PQ, Pham H, Miampamba M, Larauche M, Sanders P, Amano T, Mulak A, Im E, Pothoulakis C, Rivier J, Taché Y, Million M. Activation of corticotropin-releasing factor receptor 2 mediates the colonic motor coping response to acute stress in rodents. Gastroenterology 2011; 140:1586-96.e6. [PMID: 21277852 PMCID: PMC3150547 DOI: 10.1053/j.gastro.2011.01.039] [Citation(s) in RCA: 52] [Impact Index Per Article: 4.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Submit a Manuscript] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 04/06/2010] [Revised: 01/01/2011] [Accepted: 01/13/2011] [Indexed: 12/19/2022]
Abstract
BACKGROUND & AIMS Corticotropin-releasing factor receptor-1 (CRF(1)) mediates the stress-induced colonic motor activity. Less is known about the role of CRF(2) in the colonic response to stress. METHODS We studied colonic contractile activity in rats and CRF(2)-/-, CRF-overexpressing, and wild-type mice using still manometry; we analyzed defecation induced by acute partial-restraint stress (PRS), and/or intraperitoneal injection of CRF ligands. In rats, we monitored activation of the colonic longitudinal muscle myenteric plexus (LMMP) neurons and localization of CRF(1) and CRF(2) using immunohistochemical and immunoblot analyses. We measured phosphorylation of extracellular signal-regulated kinase 1/2 by CRF ligands in primary cultures of LMMP neurons (PC-LMMPn) and cyclic adenosine monophosphate (cAMP) production in human embryonic kidney-293 cells transfected with CRF(1) and/or CRF(2). RESULTS In rats, a selective agonist of CRF(2) (urocortin 2) reduced CRF-induced defecation (>50%), colonic contractile activity, and Fos expression in the colonic LMMP. A selective antagonist of CRF(2) (astressin(2)-B) increased these responses. Urocortin 2 reduced PRS-induced colonic contractile activity in wild-type and CRF-overexpressing mice, whereas disruption of CRF(2) increased PRS-induced colonic contractile activity and CRF-induced defecation. CRF(2) colocalized with CRF(1) and neuronal nitric oxide synthase in the rat colon, LMMP, and PC-LMMPn. CRF-induced phosphorylation of extracellular signal-regulated kinase in PC-LMMPn; this was inhibited or increased by a selective antagonist of CRF(1) (NBI35965) or astressin(2)-B, respectively. The half maximal effective concentration, EC(50), for the CRF-induced cAMP response was 8.6 nmol/L in human embryonic kidney-293 cells that express only CRF(1); this response was suppressed 10-fold in cells that express CRF(1) and CRF(2). CONCLUSIONS In colon tissues of rodents, CRF(2) activation inhibits CRF(1) signaling in myenteric neurons and the stress-induced colonic motor responses. Disruption of CRF(2) function impairs colonic coping responses to stress.
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Affiliation(s)
- Guillaume Gourcerol
- CURE/Digestive Diseases Research Center, and Center for Neurobiology of Stress, Department of Medicine, Division of Digestive Diseases, University of California Los Angeles, VA Greater Los Angeles Healthcare System, Los Angeles, California, USA.
,Department of Physiology and ADEN EA 4311/IFRMP23, Rouen University Hospital, University of Rouen, France.
| | - S. Vincent Wu
- CURE/Digestive Diseases Research Center, and Center for Neurobiology of Stress, Department of Medicine, Division of Digestive Diseases, University of California Los Angeles, VA Greater Los Angeles Healthcare System, Los Angeles, California, USA.
| | - Pu-Qing Yuan
- CURE/Digestive Diseases Research Center, and Center for Neurobiology of Stress, Department of Medicine, Division of Digestive Diseases, University of California Los Angeles, VA Greater Los Angeles Healthcare System, Los Angeles, California, USA.
| | - Hung Pham
- CURE/Digestive Diseases Research Center, and Center for Neurobiology of Stress, Department of Medicine, Division of Digestive Diseases, University of California Los Angeles, VA Greater Los Angeles Healthcare System, Los Angeles, California, USA.
| | - Marcel Miampamba
- CURE/Digestive Diseases Research Center, and Center for Neurobiology of Stress, Department of Medicine, Division of Digestive Diseases, University of California Los Angeles, VA Greater Los Angeles Healthcare System, Los Angeles, California, USA.
| | - Muriel Larauche
- CURE/Digestive Diseases Research Center, and Center for Neurobiology of Stress, Department of Medicine, Division of Digestive Diseases, University of California Los Angeles, VA Greater Los Angeles Healthcare System, Los Angeles, California, USA.
| | - Paul Sanders
- CURE/Digestive Diseases Research Center, and Center for Neurobiology of Stress, Department of Medicine, Division of Digestive Diseases, University of California Los Angeles, VA Greater Los Angeles Healthcare System, Los Angeles, California, USA.
| | - Tomofumi Amano
- CURE/Digestive Diseases Research Center, and Center for Neurobiology of Stress, Department of Medicine, Division of Digestive Diseases, University of California Los Angeles, VA Greater Los Angeles Healthcare System, Los Angeles, California, USA.
| | - Agata Mulak
- CURE/Digestive Diseases Research Center, and Center for Neurobiology of Stress, Department of Medicine, Division of Digestive Diseases, University of California Los Angeles, VA Greater Los Angeles Healthcare System, Los Angeles, California, USA.
| | - Eunok Im
- CURE/Digestive Diseases Research Center, and Center for Neurobiology of Stress, Department of Medicine, Division of Digestive Diseases, University of California Los Angeles, VA Greater Los Angeles Healthcare System, Los Angeles, California, USA.
| | - Charalabos Pothoulakis
- CURE/Digestive Diseases Research Center, and Center for Neurobiology of Stress, Department of Medicine, Division of Digestive Diseases, University of California Los Angeles, VA Greater Los Angeles Healthcare System, Los Angeles, California, USA.
| | - Jean Rivier
- The Clayton Foundation Laboratories for Peptide Biology, The Salk Institute for Biological Studies, 10010 N. Torrey Pines Rd., La Jolla, CA 92037, USA.
| | - Yvette Taché
- CURE/Digestive Diseases Research Center, and Center for Neurobiology of Stress, Department of Medicine, Division of Digestive Diseases, University of California Los Angeles, VA Greater Los Angeles Healthcare System, Los Angeles, California, USA.
| | - Mulugeta Million
- CURE/Digestive Diseases Research Center, and Center for Neurobiology of Stress, Department of Medicine, Division of Digestive Diseases, University of California Los Angeles, VA Greater Los Angeles Healthcare System, Los Angeles, California, USA.
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