Distinct Molecular Phenotype of Sporadic Colorectal Cancers Among Young Patients Based on Multiomics Analysis

Differential Expression of miRNAs Between Young-Onset and Late-Onset Indian Colorectal Carcinoma Patients

Reports indicate a worldwide increase in the incidence of Early-Onset Colorectal Carcinoma (EOCRC) (<50 years old). In an effort to understand the different modes of pathogenesis in early-onset CRC, colorectal tumors from EOCRC (<50 years old) and Late-Onset patients (LOCRC; >50 years old) were screened to eliminate microsatellite instability (MSI), nuclear β-catenin, and APC mutations, as these are known canonical factors in CRC pathogenesis. Small-RNA sequencing followed by comparative analysis revealed differential expression of 23 miRNAs (microRNAs) specific to EOCRC and 11 miRNAs specific to LOCRC. We validated the top 10 EOCRC DEMs in TCGA-COAD and TCGA-READ cohorts, followed by validation in additional EOCRC and LOCRC cohorts. Our integrated analysis revealed upregulation of hsa-miR-1247-3p and hsa-miR-148a-3p and downregulation of hsa-miR-326 between the two subsets. Experimentally validated targets of the above miRNAs were compared with differentially expressed genes in the TCGA dataset to identify targets with physiological significance in EOCRC development. Our analysis revealed metabolic reprogramming, downregulation of anoikis-regulating pathways, and changes in tissue morphogenesis, potentially leading to anchorage-independent growth and progression of epithelial-mesenchymal transition (EMT). Upregulated targets include proteins present in the basal part of intestinal epithelial cells and genes whose expression is known to correlate with invasion and poor prognosis.

DNA methylation profiling at base-pair resolution reveals unique epigenetic features of early-onset colorectal cancer in underrepresented populations

BACKGROUND

The incidence of early-onset colorectal cancer (EOCRC) has been rising at an alarming rate in the USA, and EOCRC disproportionately affects racial/ethnic minorities. Here, we construct comprehensive profiles of EOCRC DNA methylomes at base-pair resolution for a cohort of Hispanic and African American patients.

RESULTS

We show the epigenetic landscape of these EOCRC patients differs from that of late-onset colorectal cancer patients, and methylation canyons in EOCRC tumor tissue preferentially overlapped genes in cancer-related pathways. Furthermore, we identify epigenetic alterations in metabolic genes that are specific to our racial/ethnic minority EOCRC cohort but not Caucasian patients from TCGA. Top genes differentially methylated between these cohorts included the obesity-protective MFAP2 gene as well as cancer risk susceptibility genes APOL3 and RNASEL.

CONCLUSIONS

In this study, we provide to the scientific community high-resolution DNA methylomes for a cohort of EOCRC patients from underrepresented populations. Our exploratory findings in this cohort highlight epigenetic mechanisms underlying the pathogenesis of EOCRC and nominate novel biomarkers for EOCRC in underrepresented populations.

Serum biomarkers REG1A and REG3A combined with the traditional CEA represent a novel nomogram for the screening and risk stratification of colorectal cancer

BACKGROUND

To develop and validate a serum protein nomogram for colorectal cancer (CRC) screening.

METHODS

The serum protein characteristics were extracted from an independent sample containing 30 colorectal cancer and 12 polyp tissues along with their paired samples, and different serum protein expression profiles were validated using RNA microarrays. The prediction model was developed in a training cohort that included 1345 patients clinicopathologically confirmed CRC and 518 normal participants, and data were gathered from November 2011 to January 2017. The lasso logistic regression model was employed for features selection and serum nomogram building. An internal validation cohort containing 576 CRC patients and 222 normal participants was assessed.

RESULTS

Serum signatures containing 27 secreted proteins were significantly differentially expressed in polyps and CRC compared to paired normal tissue, and REG family proteins were selected as potential predictors. The C-index of the nomogram1 (based on Lasso logistic regression model) which contains REG1A, REG3A, CEA and age was 0.913 (95% CI, 0.899 to 0.928) and was well calibrated. Addition of CA199 to the nomogram failed to show incremental prognostic value, as shown in nomogram2 (based on logistic regression model). Application of the nomogram1 in the independent validation cohort had similar discrimination (C-index, 0.912 [95% CI, 0.890 to 0.934]) and good calibration. The decision curve (DCA) and clinical impact curve (ICI) analysis demonstrated that nomogram1 was clinically useful.

CONCLUSIONS

This study presents a serum nomogram that included REG1A, REG3A, CEA and age, which can be convenient for screening of colorectal cancer.

Early Onset Colorectal Cancer: Molecular Underpinnings Accelerating Occurrence

The onset of colorectal cancer (CRC) in patients younger than 50 continues to rapidly increase. This study highlights the epidemiologic changes, risk factors, clinical characteristics, and molecular profiles prevalent in early onset CRC patients, and identifies key areas for future research. It has been noted that only a small fraction of early onset CRC cases is attributed to known hereditary mutations and fit the canonical pathway of late-onset colorectal cancer development. To highlight this, we review the genetic and epigenetic modifications specific to early onset CRC. We also discuss the synergetic effect of single-nucleotide polymorphisms and environmental factors on the early onset of CRC. Additionally, we discuss the potential of noninvasive biomarker assays to enhance early detection, screening, diagnosis, and prognostic outcome predictions.

Two Decades of Progress in Personalized Medicine of Colorectal Cancer in Serbia-Insights from the Institute for Oncology and Radiology of Serbia

BACKGROUND

It is projected that, by 2040, the number of new cases of colorectal cancer (CRC) will increase to 3.2 million, and the number of deaths to 1.6 million, highlighting the need for prevention strategies, early detection and adequate follow-up. In this study, we aimed to provide an overview of the progress in personalized medicine of CRC in Serbia, with results and insights from the Institute for Oncology and Radiology of Serbia (IORS), and to propose guidance for tackling observed challenges in the future.

METHODS

Epidemiological data were derived from official global and national cancer registries and IORS electronic medical records. Germline genetic testing for Lynch syndrome was performed by Next Generation Sequencing. RAS and BRAF mutation analyses were performed using qPCR diagnostic kits.

RESULTS

Epidemiology and risk factors, prevention and early detection programs, as well as treatment options and scientific advances have been described in detail. Out of 103 patients who underwent germline testing for Lynch syndrome, 19 (18.4%) showed a mutation in MMR genes with pathogenic or likely pathogenic significance and 8 (7.8%) in other CRC-associated genes (APC, CHEK2, MUTYH). Of 6369 tested patients, 50.43% had a mutation in KRAS or NRAS genes, while 9.54% had the V600 mutation in the BRAF gene.

CONCLUSIONS

Although significant improvements in CRC management have occurred globally in recent years, a strategic approach leading to population-based systemic solutions is required. The high incidence of young-onset CRC and the growing elderly population due to a rise in life expectancy will be especially important factors for countries with limited healthcare resources like Serbia.

Early onset colorectal cancer: Cancer promotion in young tissue

The incidence of colorectal cancer (CRC) in patients under 50 has been increasing over the past several decades. The factors underlying the increase in early onset colorectal cancer (EOCRC) are not entirely clear, although several genetic and clinical differences with late onset colorectal cancer (LOCRC) have been noted. EOCRC cases are often diagnosed at a more advanced stage, raising the possibility that these cancers progress more rapidly than LOCRC cases. The impact of age on cancer progression is an intriguing topic and numerous lines of research have found that a young tissue environment is often more promotional. In fact, a less hospitable promotional tissue environment in older individuals may offset the increased cancer risk associated with the increased mutational load associated with age. Here we address how youthful aspects of angiogenesis, the tumor immune response, and the oxidative stress response may contribute to the rapid progression of EOCRC. Understanding the factors promoting EOCRC may provide insight into why EOCRC cases are increasing.

Molecular characteristics of early-onset compared with late-onset colorectal cancer: a case controlled study

BACKGROUND

Early-onset colorectal cancer (EOCRC) is associated with a poorer prognosis relative to late-onset colorectal cancer (LOCRC), and its incidence has witnessed a gradual escalation in recent years. This necessitates a comprehensive examination of the underlying pathogenesis and the identification of therapeutic targets specific to EOCRC patients. The present study aimed to delineate the distinct molecular landscape of EOCRC by juxtaposing it with that of LOCRC.

METHODS

A total of 11 344 colorectal cancer patients, diagnosed between 2003 and 2022, were enrolled in this study, comprising 578 EOCRC cases and 10 766 LOCRC cases. Next-generation sequencing technology was employed to assess the tumor-related mutation and tumor mutation burden (TMB) in these patients. PD-L1 expression was quantified using immunohistochemistry. Microsatellite instability (MSI) was determined via capillary electrophoresis (2B3D NCI Panel).

RESULTS

Upon comparing LOCRC with EOCRC patients, the latter group demonstrated a tendency towards advanced TNM stage, lower tumor differentiation, and less favorable histological types. Among LOCRC patients, those with MSI-H status were found to have an earlier TNM stage compared to those with MSI-L/MSS status. Significantly, the incidence of MSI-H was notably higher in EOCRC (10.2%) compared to LOCRC (2.2%). Mutations in the 7-gene panel (ARID1A, FANCI, CASP8, DGFRA, DPYD, TSHR, and PRKCI) were more prevalent in LOCRC. Within the EOCRC cohort, patients with the MSI-H subtype displayed an earlier TNM stage but concurrently exhibited poorer tissue differentiation and a higher frequency of mucinous adenocarcinoma. Among EOCRC patients, FBXW7, FAT1, ATM, ARID1A, and KMT2B mutations were significantly enriched in the MSI-H subgroup. A comparative analysis of MSI-H patients revealed heightened mutation frequencies of FGFBR2, PBRM1, RNF43, LRP1B, FBXW7, ATM, and ARID1A in the EOCRC group. Furthermore, EOCRC patients demonstrated a higher overall TMB, particularly in the MSI-H subtype. PD-L1 expression was elevated in EOCRC and positively associated with MSI status.

CONCLUSIONS

This study revealed a significantly higher MSI-H distribution rate in EOCRC, and EOCRC exhibits a distinct mutational signature coupled with higher PD-L1 expression. These findings hold promise in guiding personalized therapeutic strategies for improved disease management in EOCRC patients.

Machine Learning-Based Integrated Multiomics Characterization of Colorectal Cancer Reveals Distinctive Metabolic Signatures

The metabolic signature identification of colorectal cancer is critical for its early diagnosis and therapeutic approaches that will significantly block cancer progression and improve patient survival. Here, we combined an untargeted metabolic analysis strategy based on internal extractive electrospray ionization mass spectrometry and the machine learning approach to analyze metabolites in 173 pairs of cancer samples and matched normal tissue samples to build robust metabolic signature models for diagnostic purposes. Screening and independent validation of metabolic signatures from colorectal cancers via machine learning methods (Logistic Regression_L1 for feature selection and eXtreme Gradient Boosting for classification) was performed to generate a panel of seven signatures with good diagnostic performance (the accuracy of 87.74%, sensitivity of 85.82%, and specificity of 89.66%). Moreover, seven signatures were evaluated according to their ability to distinguish between cancer and normal tissues, with the metabolic molecule PC (30:0) showing good diagnostic performance. In addition, genes associated with PC (30:0) were identified by multiomics analysis (combining metabolic data with transcriptomic data analysis) and our results showed that PC (30:0) could promote the proliferation of colorectal cancer cell SW480, revealing the correlation between genetic changes and metabolic dysregulation in cancer. Overall, our results reveal potential determinants affecting metabolite dysregulation, paving the way for a mechanistic understanding of altered tissue metabolites in colorectal cancer and design interventions for manipulating the levels of circulating metabolites.

Molecular Landscape and Therapeutic Strategies against Colorectal Cancer

Colorectal cancer (CRC) is the second leading cause of cancer deaths worldwide. Although the overall incidence of CRC is decreasing, the incidence of young-onset CRC, characterized by a diagnosis of CRC before age 50, is increasing. Outcomes for CRC patients are improving, partly due to comprehensive molecular characterization of tumors and novel therapeutic strategies. Advances in genomic and transcriptomic analyses using blood- and tumor-tissue-based sequencing have facilitated identification of distinct tumor subtypes harboring unique biological characteristics and therapeutic vulnerabilities. These insights have led to the development and incorporation of targeted therapies and immunotherapy in CRC treatment. In this review, we discuss the molecular landscape and key oncogenes/tumor suppressors contributing to CRC tumorigenesis, metastasis, and therapeutic resistance. We also discuss personalized therapeutic strategies for subsets of CRC patients and provide an overview of evolving novel treatments being evaluated in clinical trials.

Distinct plasma molecular profiles between early-onset and late-onset colorectal cancer patients revealed by metabolic and lipidomic analyses

Colorectal cancer (CRC) incidence in younger adults has been steadily rising, warranting an in-depth investigation into the distinctions between early-onset CRC (EOCRC, < 50 years) and late-onset CRC (LOCRC, ≥ 50 years). Despite extensive study of clinical, pathological, and molecular traits, differentiating EOCRC from LOCRC and identifying potential biomarkers remain elusive. We analyzed plasma samples from healthy individuals, EOCRC, and LOCRC patients using liquid-chromatography mass spectrometry (LC/MS)-based metabolomics and lipidomics. Distinct polar metabolite and lipid profiles with significant metabolites altered in CRC group (e.g., choline and DG 40:4) were identified. Notably, EOCRC exhibited distinct polar metabolomic and differential lipidomic profiles compared to LOCRC, with polar metabolites like aminoadipate and uridine contributing significantly to the difference, and originating from pathways such as lysine biosynthesis and nucleotide metabolism. Furthermore, gene set enrichment analysis (GSEA) using independent TCGA gene expression data identified pathways significantly enriched in either EOCRC or LOCRC. Integrating gene expression and metabolomics data revealed numerous associations differentiating EOCRC and LOCRC. Our multi-omics integration underscores critical molecular distinctions, offers insights into the EOCRC development mechanisms and potential plasma biomarkers for diagnosis.

Identification of differentially expressed genes and splicing events in early-onset colorectal cancer

Background

The incidence of colorectal cancer (CRC) has been steadily increasing in younger individuals over the past several decades for reasons that are incompletely defined. Identifying differences in gene expression profiles, or transcriptomes, in early-onset colorectal cancer (EOCRC, < 50 years old) patients versus later-onset colorectal cancer (LOCRC, > 50 years old) patients is one approach to understanding molecular and genetic features that distinguish EOCRC.

Methods

We performed RNA-sequencing (RNA-seq) to characterize the transcriptomes of patient-matched tumors and adjacent, uninvolved (normal) colonic segments from EOCRC (n=21) and LOCRC (n=22) patients. The EOCRC and LOCRC cohorts were matched for demographic and clinical characteristics. We used The Cancer Genome Atlas Colon Adenocarcinoma (TCGA-COAD) database for validation. We used a series of computational and bioinformatic tools to identify EOCRC-specific differentially expressed genes, molecular pathways, predicted cell populations, differential gene splicing events, and predicted neoantigens.

Results

We identified an eight-gene signature in EOCRC comprised of ALDOB, FBXL16, IL1RN, MSLN, RAC3, SLC38A11, WBSCR27 and WNT11, from which we developed a score predictive of overall CRC patient survival. On the entire set of genes identified in normal tissues and tumors, cell type deconvolution analysis predicted a differential abundance of immune and non-immune populations in EOCRC versus LOCRC. Gene set enrichment analysis identified increased expression of splicing machinery in EOCRC. We further found differences in alternative splicing (AS) events, including one within the long non-coding RNA, HOTAIRM1. Additional analysis of AS found seven events specific to EOCRC that encode potential neoantigens.

Conclusion

Our transcriptome analyses identified genetic and molecular features specific to EOCRC which may inform future screening, development of prognostic indicators, and novel drug targets.

Plasma metabolomic differences in early-onset compared to average-onset colorectal cancer

Deleterious effects of environmental exposures may contribute to the rising incidence of early-onset colorectal cancer (eoCRC). We assessed the metabolomic differences between patients with eoCRC, average-onset CRC (aoCRC), and non-CRC controls, to understand pathogenic mechanisms. Patients with stage I-IV CRC and non-CRC controls were categorized based on age ≤ 50 years (eoCRC or young non-CRC controls) or  ≥ 60 years (aoCRC or older non-CRC controls). Differential metabolite abundance and metabolic pathway analyses were performed on plasma samples. Multivariate Cox proportional hazards modeling was used for survival analyses. All P values were adjusted for multiple testing (false discovery rate, FDR P < 0.15 considered significant). The study population comprised 170 patients with CRC (66 eoCRC and 104 aoCRC) and 49 non-CRC controls (34 young and 15 older). Citrate was differentially abundant in aoCRC vs. eoCRC in adjusted analysis (Odds Ratio = 21.8, FDR P = 0.04). Metabolic pathways altered in patients with aoCRC versus eoCRC included arginine biosynthesis, FDR P = 0.02; glyoxylate and dicarboxylate metabolism, FDR P = 0.005; citrate cycle, FDR P = 0.04; alanine, aspartate, and glutamate metabolism, FDR P = 0.01; glycine, serine, and threonine metabolism, FDR P = 0.14; and amino-acid t-RNA biosynthesis, FDR P = 0.01. 4-hydroxyhippuric acid was significantly associated with overall survival in all patients with CRC (Hazards ratio, HR = 0.4, 95% CI 0.3-0.7, FDR P = 0.05). We identified several unique metabolic alterations, particularly the significant differential abundance of citrate in aoCRC versus eoCRC. Arginine biosynthesis was the most enriched by the differentially altered metabolites. The findings hold promise in developing strategies for early detection and novel therapies.

Metabolomics analyses of cancer tissue from patients with colorectal cancer

The alteration of metabolism is essential for the initiation and progression of numerous types of cancer, including colorectal cancer (CRC). Metabolomics has been used to study CRC. At present, the reprogramming of the metabolism in CRC remains to be fully elucidated. In the present study, comprehensive untargeted metabolomics analysis was performed on the paired CRC tissues and adjacent normal tissues from patients with CRC (n=35) using ultra‑high‑performance liquid chromatography‑mass spectrometry. Subsequently, bioinformatic analysis was performed on the differentially expressed metabolites. The changes in these differential metabolites were compared among groups of patients based on sex, anatomical tumor location, grade of tumor differentiation and stage of disease. A total of 927 metabolites were detected in the tissue samples, and 24 metabolites in the CRC tissue were significantly different compared with the adjacent normal tissue. The present study revealed that the levels of three amino acid metabolites were increased in the CRC tissue, specifically, N‑α‑acetyl‑ε‑(2‑propenal)‑Lys, cyclo(Glu‑Glu) and cyclo(Phe‑Glu). The metabolites with decreased levels in the CRC tissue included quinaldic acid (also referred to as quinoline‑2‑carboxilic acid), 17α‑ and 17β‑estradiol, which are associated with tumor suppression activities, as well as other metabolites such as, anhydro‑β‑glucose, Asp‑Arg, lysophosphatidylcholine, lysophosphatidylethanolamine (lysoPE), lysophosphatidylinositol, carnitine, 5'‑deoxy‑5'‑(methylthio) adenosine, 2'‑deoxyinosine‑5'‑monophosphate and thiamine monophosphate. There was no difference in the levels of the differential metabolites between male and female patients. The differentiation of CRC also showed no impact on the levels of the differential metabolites. The levels of lysoPE were increased in the right side of the colon compared with the left side of the colon and rectum. Analysis of the different tumor stages indicated that 2‑aminobenzenesulfonic acid, P‑sulfanilic acid and quinoline‑4‑carboxylic acid were decreased in stage I CRC tissue compared with stage II, III and IV CRC tissue. The levels of N‑α‑acetyl‑ε‑(2‑propenal)‑Lys, methylcysteine and 5'‑deoxy‑5'‑(methylthio) adenosine varied at different stages of tumorigenesis. These differential metabolites were implicated in multiple metabolism pathways, including carbohydrate, amino acid, lipid, nucleotide and hormone. In conclusion, the present study demonstrated that CRC tumors had altered metabolites compared with normal tissue. The data from the metabolic profile of CRC tissues in the present study provided supportive evidence to understand tumorigenesis.

Lights and shadows in the early-onset colorectal cancer management and research: An integrative perspective - Physician scientist with patient advocates

Early-onset colorectal cancer (age under 50 years) (EOCRC) is an entity of undeniable importance, both because of its growing incidence, and the population it affects. Other current reviews emphasize the essential points regarding the clinical management and knowledge of its molecular bases. However, we intend to go one step further. With the increased significance of patient participation and disease experience in mind, we have integrated the voice of the patient to show the weaknesses and the needs, and next steps in the advancement of knowledge and management of EOCRC. This integrative review of the different perspectives, clinical, research and the patients themselves, can therefore be defined as an integrative needs assessment. Hence, this may be a first step in working towards an essential homogeneity of definitions and action.

A novel nomogram based on cell cycle-related genes for predicting overall survival in early-onset colorectal cancer

BACKGROUND

Although the incidence of late-onset colorectal cancer (LOCRC) has decreased, the incidence of early-onset colorectal cancer (EOCRC) is still rising dramatically. Heterogeneity in the genomic, biological, and clinicopathological characteristics between EOCRC and LOCRC has been revealed. Therefore, the previous prognostic models based on the total CRC patient population might not be suitable for EOCRC patients. Here, we constructed a prognostic classifier to enhance the precision of individualized treatment and management of EOCRC patients.

METHODS

EOCRC expression data were downloaded from the Gene Expression Omnibus (GEO) and The Cancer Genome Atlas (TCGA) databases. The regulatory pathways were explored by gene set enrichment analysis (GSEA). The prognostic model was developed by univariate Cox-LASSO-multivariate Cox regression analyses of GEO samples. TCGA samples were used to verify the model. The expression and mutation profiles and immune landscape of the high-risk and low-risk cohorts were analyzed and compared. Finally, the expression and prognostic value of the model genes were verified by immunohistochemistry and qRT‒PCR analysis.

RESULTS

The cell cycle was identified as the most significantly enriched oncological signature of EOCRC. Then, a 4-gene prognostic signature comprising MCM2, INHBA, CGREF1, and KLF9 was constructed. The risk score was an independent predictor of overall survival. The area under the curve values of the classifier for 1-, 3-, and 5-year survival were 0.856, 0.893, and 0.826, respectively, in the training set and 0.749, 0.858, and 0.865, respectively, in the validation set. Impaired DNA damage repair capability (p < 0.05) and frequent PIK3CA mutations (p < 0.05) were found in the high-risk cohort. CD8 T cells (p < 0.05), activated memory CD4 T cells (p < 0.01), and activated dendritic cells (p < 0.05) were clustered in the low-risk group. Finally, we verified the expression of MCM2, INHBA, CGREF1, and KLF9. Their prognostic value was closely related to age.

CONCLUSION

In this study, a robust prognostic classifier for EOCRC was established and validated. The findings may provide a reference for individualized treatment and medical decision-making for patients with EOCRC.

Comprehensive Insight into Colorectal Cancer Metabolites and Lipids for Human Serum: A Proof-of-Concept Study

Colorectal cancer (CRC) ranks as the third most frequently diagnosed cancer and the second leading cause of cancer-related deaths. The current endoscopic-based or stool-based diagnostic techniques are either highly invasive or lack sufficient sensitivity. Thus, there is a need for less invasive and more sensitive screening approaches. We, therefore, conducted a study on 64 human serum samples representing three different groups (adenocarcinoma, adenoma, and control) using cutting-edge GC×GC-LR/HR-TOFMS (comprehensive two-dimensional gas chromatography coupled with low/high-resolution time-of-flight mass spectrometry). We analyzed samples with two different specifically tailored sample preparation approaches for lipidomics (fatty acids) (25 μL serum) and metabolomics (50 μL serum). In-depth chemometric screening with supervised and unsupervised approaches and metabolic pathway analysis were applied to both datasets. A lipidomics study revealed that specific PUFA (ω-3) molecules are inversely associated with increased odds of CRC, while some PUFA (ω-6) analytes show a positive correlation. The metabolomics approach revealed downregulation of amino acids (alanine, glutamate, methionine, threonine, tyrosine, and valine) and myo-inositol in CRC, while 3-hydroxybutyrate levels were increased. This unique study provides comprehensive insight into molecular-level changes associated with CRC and allows for a comparison of the efficiency of two different analytical approaches for CRC screening using same serum samples and single instrumentation.

Early-Onset GI Cancers: Rising Trends, Genetic Risks, Novel Strategies, and Special Considerations

Cancers in young adults (commonly described as early-onset [EO] cancer) represent a group of malignancies that have unique and challenging biology and genetic, treatment, social, and psychological implications. Even more concerning is a rising trend of EO cancers in multiple tumor types. Research and investigation in EO cancers will help elucidate mechanisms of carcinogenesis, differences in biology and response to treatment, and the need for multidisciplinary care to ensure comprehensive treatment and support for young patients.

Age-stratified proteomic characteristics and identification of promising precise clinical treatment targets of colorectal cancer

Colorectal cancer (CRC) is an extremely lethal disease worldwide. However, the underlying pathogenesis remains unclear. This study aimed to reveal the distinct characteristics of age-stratified CRC at the protein level and explore precise treatment targets. Patients who underwent surgical removal with pathologically confirmed CRC at China-Japan Friendship Hospital from January 2020 to October 2021 were recruited, cancer and para-carcinoma tissues (> 5 cm) were detected by mass spectrometry. Ninety-six clinical samples were collected and divided into three groups according to age: young (≤ 50 years), middle-aged (51-69 years), and old (≥ 70 years). Quantitative proteomic analysis was performed, as well as comprehensive bioinformatic analysis based on the Human Protein Atlas, Clinical Proteomic Tumor Analysis Consortium and Connectivity Map databases. The numbers of upregulated and downregulated proteins were 1315 and 560 in the young group, 757 and 311 in the old group, and 1052 and 468 in the middle-aged group, respectively. Bioinformatic analysis showed that these differentially expressed proteins had different molecular functions and participated in extensive signaling pathways. We also revealed ADH1B, ARRDC1, GATM, GTF2H4, MGME1, and LILRB2 as possible cancer-promoting molecules, which might serve as potential prognostic biomarkers and precise therapeutic targets for CRC. SIGNIFICANCE: This study comprehensively characterized the proteomic profiles of age-stratified colorectal cancer patients, focusing on the differentially expressed proteins between cancer and paracancerous tissues in different age groups, in an effort to find corresponding potential prognostic biomarkers and therapeutic targets. In addition, this study provides potentially valuable clinical small molecule inhibitory agents.

Molecular genetics of early-onset colorectal cancer

Early-onset colorectal cancer (EOCRC) has been rising in global prevalence and incidence over the past several decades. Environmental influences, including generational lifestyle changes and rising obesity, contribute to these increased rates. While the rise in EOCRC is best documented in western countries, it is seen throughout the world, although EOCRC may have distinct genetic mutations in patients of different ethnic backgrounds. Pathological and molecular characterizations show that EOCRC has a distinct presentation compared with later-onset colorectal cancer (LOCRC). Recent studies have identified DNA, RNA, and protein-level alterations unique to EOCRC, revealing much-needed biomarkers and potential novel therapeutic targets. Many molecular EOCRC studies have been performed with Caucasian and Asian EOCRC cohorts, however, studies of other ethnic backgrounds are limited. In addition, certain molecular characterizations that have been conducted for LOCRC have not yet been repeated in EOCRC, including high-throughput analyses of histone modifications, mRNA splicing, and proteomics on large cohorts. We propose that the complex relationship between cancer and aging should be considered when studying the molecular underpinnings of EOCRC. In this review, we summarize current EOCRC literature, focusing on sporadic molecular alterations in tumors, and their clinical implications. We conclude by discussing current challenges and future directions of EOCRC research efforts.

Racial/Ethnic and Sex Differences in Somatic Cancer Gene Mutations among Patients with Early-Onset Colorectal Cancer

Molecular features underlying colorectal cancer disparities remain uncharacterized. Here, we investigated somatic mutation patterns by race/ethnicity and sex among 5,856 non-Hispanic white (NHW), 535 non-Hispanic Black (NHB), and 512 Asian/Pacific Islander (API) patients with colorectal cancer (2,016 early-onset colorectal cancer patients: sequencing age <50 years). NHB patients with early-onset nonhypermutated colorectal cancer, but not API patients, had higher adjusted tumor mutation rates than NHW patients. There were significant differences for LRP1B, FLT4, FBXW7, RNF43, ATRX, APC, and PIK3CA mutation frequencies in early-onset nonhypermutated colorectal cancers between racial/ethnic groups. Heterogeneities by race/ethnicity were observed for the effect of APC, FLT4, and FAT1 between early-onset and late-onset nonhypermutated colorectal cancer. By sex, heterogeneity was observed for the effect of EP300, BRAF, WRN, KRAS, AXIN2, and SMAD2. Males and females with nonhypermutated colorectal cancer had different trends in EP300 mutations by age group. These findings define genomic patterns of early-onset nonhypermutated colorectal cancer by race/ethnicity and sex, which yields novel biological clues into early-onset colorectal cancer disparities.

SIGNIFICANCE

NHBs, but not APIs, with early-onset nonhypermutated colorectal cancer had higher adjusted tumor mutation rates versus NHWs. Differences for FLT4, FBXW7, RNF43, LRP1B, APC, PIK3CA, and ATRX mutation rates between racial/ethnic groups and EP300, KRAS, AXIN2, WRN, BRAF, and LRP1B mutation rates by sex were observed in tumors of young patients. See related commentary by Shen et al., p. 530 . This article is highlighted in the In This Issue feature, p. 517.

Reduced expression of alanyl aminopeptidase is a robust biomarker of non-familial adenomatous polyposis and non-hereditary nonpolyposis colorectal cancer syndrome early-onset colorectal cancer

BACKGROUND

Early-onset colorectal cancer (EOCRC) has been increasing in incidence worldwide but its genomic pathogenesis is mostly undetermined. This study aimed to identify robust EOCRC-specific gene expression patterns in non-familial adenomatous polyposis (FAP) and non-hereditary nonpolyposis colorectal cancer syndrome (HNPCC) EOCRC.

METHOD

We first performed gene expression profiling analysis using RNA sequencing of discovery cohort comprised of 49 EOCRC (age <50) and 50 late-onset colorectal cancer (LOCRC) (age >70) specimens. To obtain robust gene expression data from this analysis, we validated differentially expressed genes (DEGs) through TCGA cohort (EOCRC:59 samples, LOCRC:229 samples) and our validation cohort (EOCRC:72 samples, LOCRC:43 samples) using real-time RT-PCR. After the validation of DEGs, we validated the selected gene at protein levels using Western blotting. To identify whether genomic methylation regulates the expression of a particular gene, we selected methylation sites using The Cancer Genome Atlas (TCGA) datasets and validated them by pyrosequencing in our validation cohort.

RESULTS

The EOCRC patients included in this study had significantly more prominent family history of cancer than the LOCRC patients (23 [46.9%] vs. 13 [26%], p = 0.050). Alanyl aminopeptidase (ANPEP) was significantly downregulated in the EOCRC tissues (FC = 1.78, p = 0.0007) and was also commonly downregulated in the TCGA cohort (FC = -1.08, p = 0.0021). Moreover, the ANPEP mRNA and protein expression levels were significantly downregulated in the EOCRC tissues of our validation cohort (p = 0.037 and 0.027). In comparisons of the normal and tumor tissues in public datasets, the ANPEP level was significantly lower in the tumor tissue in the TCGA dataset (p < 2.2 × 10^-16 ) and GSE196006 dataset (p = 0.0005). Furthermore, the ANPEP expression level did not show a decreasing tendency at a young age in the normal colon tissue of the GTEx dataset. Lastly, the hypermethylation of cg26222247 in ANPEP was identified to be weakly associated with reduced ANPEP expression in our EOCRC cohort.

CONCLUSION

The reduced expression of ANPEP was identified as a novel biomarker of non-FAP and non-HNPCC EOCRC.

Microbial metabolites in colorectal tumorigenesis and cancer therapy

Trillions of microbes are indigenous to the human gastrointestinal tract, together forming an ecological community known as the gut microbiota. The gut microbiota is involved in dietary digestion to produce various metabolites. In healthy condition, microbial metabolites have unneglectable roles in regulating host physiology and intestinal homeostasis. However, increasing studies have reported the correlation between metabolites and the development of colorectal cancer (CRC), with the identification of oncometabolites. Meanwhile, metabolites can also influence the efficacy of cancer treatments. In this review, metabolites derived from microbes-mediated metabolism of dietary carbohydrates, proteins, and cholesterol, are introduced. The roles of pro-tumorigenic (secondary bile acids and polyamines) and anti-tumorigenic (short-chain fatty acids and indole derivatives) metabolites in CRC development are then discussed. The impacts of metabolites on chemotherapy and immunotherapy are further elucidated. Collectively, given the importance of microbial metabolites in CRC, therapeutic approaches that target metabolites may be promising to improve patient outcome.

Early onset colorectal cancer: Challenges across the cancer care continuum

Early Onset Colorectal cancer (EOCRC) incidence is increasing at an alarming pace. An increase of 90% in colon cancer and 124% in rectal cancer is expected by 2030. Patients with EOCRC are not receiving additional attention compared to older patients despite having a unique molecular pattern, majority of cases are sporadic, and related short- and long-term treatment and disease complications. The current management and screening guidelines have been constructed from studies on late onset CRC. Plethora of studies are ongoing to understand this disease entity in order to construct a tailored prevention, detection and management plans. While waiting for a better understanding of the disease, efforts should be directed toward improving the quality of care across the cancer continuum. Here we aim to address the challenges faced by EOCRC patients across the cancer continuum. This will facilitate directing future efforts and research toward construction of a personalized and precise guidelines.

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Studies showed that Ealy onset colorectal cancer is caused by an accumulative risk exposure.

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Indirect cost of premature death and reduced productivity due to EOCRC exceeds direct costs.

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Patients, system and physicians related diagnosis delays should be improved.

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Young cancer patients have unique survivorship concerns different from old patients.

Recurrent NOMO1 Gene Deletion Is a Potential Clinical Marker in Early-Onset Colorectal Cancer and Is Involved in the Regulation of Cell Migration

Simple Summary

The incidence of EOCRC (age < 50 years at diagnosis) with unknown causes is rising worldwide, necessitating the mechanistical analysis of its molecular basis. The NOMO1 gene is deleted in a high number of EOCRC tumors compared to LOCRC. In this work, we aimed to test the NOMO1 gene mutational profile in EOCRC tumors and to characterize the effect of NOMO1 loss in different CRISPR/cas9-edited cell lines, as well as in murine models. Here, we show that the NOMO1 gene can be inactivated not only by deletion but also by pathogenic mutations in EOCRC. Our results indicate that NOMO1 loss could be a passenger mutation in the development of EOCRC, although it contributes significantly to colon cancer cell migration.

Abstract

The incidence of early-onset colorectal cancer (EOCRC; age younger than 50 years) has been progressively increasing over the last decades globally, with causes unexplained. A distinct molecular feature of EOCRC is that compared with cases of late-onset colorectal cancer, in EOCRC cases, there is a higher incidence of Nodal Modulator 1 (NOMO1) somatic deletions. However, the mechanisms of NOMO1 in early-onset colorectal carcinogenesis are currently unknown. In this study, we show that in 30% of EOCRCs with heterozygous deletion of NOMO1, there were pathogenic mutations in this gene, suggesting that NOMO1 can be inactivated by deletion or mutation in EOCRC. To study the role of NOMO1 in EOCRC, CRISPR/cas9 technology was employed to generate NOMO1 knockout HCT-116 (EOCRC) and HS-5 (bone marrow) cell lines. NOMO1 loss in these cell lines did not perturb Nodal pathway signaling nor cell proliferation. Expression microarrays, RNA sequencing, and protein expression analysis by LC–IMS/MS showed that NOMO1 inactivation deregulates other signaling pathways independent of the Nodal pathway, such as epithelial–mesenchymal transition and cell migration. Significantly, NOMO1 loss increased the migration capacity of CRC cells. Additionally, a gut-specific conditional NOMO1 KO mouse model revealed no subsequent tumor development in mice. Overall, these findings suggest that NOMO1 could play a secondary role in early-onset colorectal carcinogenesis because its loss increases the migration capacity of CRC cells. Therefore, further study is warranted to explore other signalling pathways deregulated by NOMO1 loss that may play a significant role in the pathogenesis of the disease.

Comparison of some biochemical markers between early‐onset and late‐onset colorectal precancerous lesions: A single‐center retrospective study

Objective

Given that the onset of diseases including colorectal cancer precursors is affecting younger individuals and that obesity is an important risk factor for early‐onset, we conducted a study to explore the biochemical profile of differences in serum between early‐onset patients and late‐onset colorectal precancerous lesions.

Methods

A total of 1447 patients, including 469 early‐onset patients and 978 late‐onset patients, were enrolled from the First Affiliated Hospital of Nanchang University (FAHNU), of which there were 311 sessile serrated adenoma/polyps (SSA/P) and 1136 normal adenomas. The distribution of the included categorical variables was compared via Pearson's chi‐squared test, whereas continuous variables were compared by using the nonparametric Kruskal–Wallis test and anova.

Results

Compared with late‐onset patients, the levels of total bilirubin and HDL‐C were lower (p < 0.05), whereas triglyceride and uric acid levels were higher, in early‐onset patients. Interestingly, in the subgroup analysis, triglyceride and uric acid levels remained at higher levels, whereas HDL‐C remained at lower levels, in early‐onset patients than in late‐onset patients. Other characteristics, such as LDL‐C, drinking, γ‐GT, and the N/L ratio, were similar between the two groups. An additional analysis of the association of tumor size with markers showed that lower levels of HDL‐C and higher levels of uric acid were associated with increased tumor size (p < 0.05).

Conclusions

Early‐onset CRC precursor cases exhibit higher levels of triglycerides and lower levels of HDL‐C than late‐onset cases. Additionally, levels of HDL‐C are negatively associated with tumor size, whereas uric acid was positively correlated with tumor size.

Presurgery Adhesion Molecules and Angiogenesis Biomarkers Are Differently Associated with Outcomes in Colon and Rectal Cancer: Results from the ColoCare Study

BACKGROUND

Cell-to-cell adhesion and angiogenesis are hallmarks of cancer. No studies have examined associations of adhesion molecules and angiogenesis biomarkers with clinical outcomes in colorectal cancer.

METHODS

In presurgery serum from n = 426 patients with colorectal cancer (stage I-III), we investigated associations of CRP, SAA, adhesion molecules (sICAM-1, sVCAM-1), and angiogenesis markers (VEGF-A and VEGF-D) with overall survival (OS), disease-free survival (DFS), and risk of recurrence. We computed HRs and 95% confidence intervals; adjusted for age, sex, BMI, stage, site, and study site, stratified by tumor site in exploratory analyses.

RESULTS

N = 65 (15%) were deceased, and 39 patients (14%) had a recurrence after a median follow-up of 31 months. We observed significant associations of biomarkers with OS, DFS, and risk of recurrence on a continuous scale and comparing top to bottom tertile, with HRs ranging between 1.19 and 13.92. CRP was associated with risk of death and recurrence in patients in the top tertile compared with patients in the bottom tertile, for example, risk of recurrence HRQ3-Q1: 13.92 (1.72-112.56). Significant heterogeneity between biomarkers and clinical outcomes was observed in stratified analysis by tumor site for CRP, SAA, sICAM-1, sVCAM-1, and VEGF-D. VEGF-D was associated with a 3-fold increase in risk of death for rectal cancer (HRlog2: 3.26; 95% CI, 1.58-6.70) compared with no association for colon cancer (HRlog2: 0.78; 95% CI, 0.35-1.73; Pheterogenity = 0.01).

CONCLUSIONS

Adhesion molecules and angiogenesis biomarkers are independent prognostic markers for colorectal cancer, with differences by tumor site.

IMPACT

There is need for tailored treatment for colon and rectal cancer.

Early onset metastatic colorectal cancer in patients receiving panitumumab-based upfront strategy: Overall and sex-specific outcomes in the Valentino trial

Anti-EGFRs plus doublet chemotherapy is considered the optimal upfront option for RAS/BRAF wild-type left-sided metastatic colorectal cancer (mCRC). Early-onset (EO) mCRC has an increasing incidence and its prognostic/predictive role and management is debatable. We performed a post hoc analysis of Valentino study, that randomized RAS wild-type mCRC patients to two panitumumab-based maintenance regimens after FOLFOX/panitumumab induction. We assessed the safety and efficacy outcomes in patients stratified for age (<50/≥50 years old). We assessed progression-free survival (PFS), overall survival (OS), response rate (ORR), rate of treatment-related and panitumumab-related adverse events (AEs) and quality of life (QoL). In 229 patients enrolled, 35 (15%) had EO mCRC, with a higher rate of female sex (P = .020) and lower rate of primary tumor resection (P = .001). Median PFS and OS were 10.9 vs 10.8 months (P = .593) and 28.1 vs 27.5 months (P = .865) in patients <50 and ≥50 years old, respectively, with no significant impact of maintenance arm. ORR and disease control rate were 74% vs 65% (P = .337) and 97% vs 81% (P = .013) in patients <50 or ≥50 years old. In younger patients, a trend for increased chemotherapy-related AEs (peculiarly anemia) was shown, while significantly decreased EGFR-related hypomagnesemia and increased skin rash were reported. No significant differences in treatment intensity or QoL were observed. In patients with EO mCRC and RAS wild-type status, we found no differences in terms of survival outcomes based on age when selecting maintenance strategies. Management of treatment-related AEs should consider the differential toxicity profile of age and sex.

Epidemiology and biology of early onset colorectal cancer

Colorectal cancer (CRC) is the third leading cause of cancer-related mortality in men or women in the United States. Average-risk screening that begins at age 50 years has reduced incidence and mortality of CRC in those over 50 years of age, whereas CRC incidence in those under age 50 years (early onset colorectal cancer (eoCRC)) has recently and dramatically increased. In this review, we summarize the recent literature including risk factors for eoCRC, differences in clinicopathologic presentation and outcomes in eoCRC, and emerging evidence regarding the molecular pathways that are altered in eoCRC compared to later onset CRC (loCRC). Epidemiologic studies of eoCRC show predominance in distal colon and rectum, and association with several modifiable risk factors, including diabetes, obesity, diet, sedentary time, alcohol consumption and smoking. Data regarding potential risk factors of prior antibiotic exposure and microbiome alterations or direct carcinogen exposure are still emerging. Aggressive clinicopathologic features of eoCRC at presentation may be due to delay in diagnosis or more aggressive tumor biology. EoCRC outcomes are similar to loCRC when matched for stage, but overall mortality is greater due to higher frequency of advanced disease at a younger presentation, with more life-years lost. There are only few molecular evaluations of eoCRC to date, with findings of potential increase in TP53 and CTNNB1 somatic mutation and decrease in APC, KRAS and BRAF somatic mutation, compared to loCRC. Other findings include LINE-1 hypomethylation, absence of microsatellite instability (MSI-H), presence of chromosomal instability (CIN) or microsatellite and chromosomal stability (MACS). These studies are only now emerging and have not yet identified a specific molecular signature defining eoCRC. Further research evaluating genetic and molecular differences as well as environmental triggers for eoCRCs should provide a clearer understanding to inform targeted screening for pre-symptomatic at-risk younger individuals.

The Application of Metabolomics in Recent Colorectal Cancer Studies: A State-of-the-Art Review

Simple Summary

Colorectal Cancer (CRC) is one of the leading causes of cancer-related death in the United States. Current diagnosis techniques are either highly invasive or lack sensitivity, suggesting the need for alternative techniques for biomarker detection. Metabolomics represents one such technique with great promise in identifying CRC biomarkers with high sensitivity and specificity, but thus far is rarely employed in a clinical setting. In order to provide a framework for future clinical usage, we characterized dysregulated metabolites across recent literature, identifying metabolites dysregulated across a variety of biospecimens. We additionally put special focus on the interplay of the gut microbiome and perturbed metabolites in CRC. We were able to identify many metabolites showing consistent dysregulation in CRC, demonstrating the value of metabolomics as a promising diagnostic technique.

Abstract

Colorectal cancer (CRC) is a highly prevalent disease with poor prognostic outcomes if not diagnosed in early stages. Current diagnosis techniques are either highly invasive or lack sufficient sensitivity. Thus, identifying diagnostic biomarkers of CRC with high sensitivity and specificity is desirable. Metabolomics represents an analytical profiling technique with great promise in identifying such biomarkers and typically represents a close tie with the phenotype of a specific disease. We thus conducted a systematic review of studies reported from January 2012 to July 2021 relating to the detection of CRC biomarkers through metabolomics to provide a collection of knowledge for future diagnostic development. We identified thirty-seven metabolomics studies characterizing CRC, many of which provided metabolites/metabolic profile-based diagnostic models with high sensitivity and specificity. These studies demonstrated that a great number of metabolites can be differentially regulated in CRC patients compared to healthy controls, adenomatous polyps, or across stages of CRC. Among these metabolite biomarkers, especially dysregulated were certain amino acids, fatty acids, and lysophosphatidylcholines. Additionally, we discussed the contribution of the gut bacterial population to pathogenesis of CRC through their modulation to fecal metabolite pools and summarized the established links in the literature between certain microbial genera and altered metabolite levels in CRC patients. Taken together, we conclude that metabolomics presents itself as a promising and effective method of CRC biomarker detection.

A comprehensive framework for early-onset colorectal cancer research

Sporadic colorectal cancer has traditionally been viewed as a malignancy of older individuals. However, as the global prevalence of the disease diagnosed in younger individuals (<50 years) is expected to increase within the next decade, greater recognition is now being given to early-onset colorectal cancer. The cause of the predicted rise in prevalence is largely unknown and probably multifactorial. In this Series paper, we discuss the potential underlying causes of early-onset colorectal cancer, the role of energy balance, biological and genomic mechanisms (including microbiome aspects), and the treatment of early-onset colorectal cancer. We have specifically considered the psychosocial challenges of being diagnosed with colorectal cancer at younger age and the potential financial toxicity that might ensue. This Series paper brings a comprehensive review based on the existing data in the hopes of optimising the overall outcomes for patients with early-onset colorectal cancer.

Cohort profile: the Spanish Early-onset Colorectal Cancer (SECOC) cohort: a multicentre cohort study on the molecular basis of colorectal cancer among young individuals in Spain

Purpose

The Spanish Early-onset Colorectal Cancer (SECOC) study is a multicentre prospective cohort established in Spain to investigate the molecular basis of early-onset colorectal cancer (EOCRC), including metabolic alterations.

Participants

220 patients with EOCRC have been enrolled since January 2019 through 18 centres across Spain. Individual-level data were collected by questionnaire, including lifestyle and other colorectal cancer-related factors. Medical record review was performed to capture clinical, histopathological and familial cancer history data. Biospecimen collection (blood, stool, tissue) at diagnosis and at various time points across treatment, as applicable, is also completed.

Findings to date

Participants had a median age of 44 years (range 14–49), and the majority are men (60%), with individuals age 40–49 years at EOCRC diagnosis being over-represented. Forty-three per cent of participants were diagnosed with a tumour in the rectosigmoid junction/rectum. Nearly two-thirds of EOCRC cases (64%) were diagnosed with advanced stage (III–IV) disease, and 28% of cases had no reported familial history of cancer.

Future plans

We are actively recruiting and observing participants; we plan to administer follow-up questionnaires and perform additional biospecimen collection. This prospective cohort offers a unique, rich resource for research on EOCRC aetiologies and will contribute to larger international efforts to disentangle the rising disease burden.

The Use of Human Serum Samples to Study Malignant Transformation: A Pilot Study

Obesity and excess adiposity account for approximately 20% of all cancer cases; however, biomarkers of risk remain to be elucidated. While fibroblast growth factor-2 (FGF2) is emerging as an attractive candidate biomarker for visceral adipose tissue mass, the role of circulating FGF2 in malignant transformation remains unknown. Moreover, functional assays for biomarker discovery are limited. We sought to determine if human serum could stimulate the 3D growth of a non-tumorigenic cell line. This type of anchorage-independent 3D growth in soft agar is a surrogate marker for acquired tumorigenicity of cell lines. We found that human serum from cancer-free men and women has the potential to stimulate growth in soft agar of non-tumorigenic epithelial JB6 P+ cells. We examined circulating levels of FGF2 in humans in malignant transformation in vitro in a pilot study of n = 33 men and women. Serum FGF2 levels were not associated with colony formation in epithelial cells (r = 0.05, p = 0.80); however, a fibroblast growth factor receptor-1 (FGFR1) selective inhibitor significantly blocked serum-stimulated transformation, suggesting that FGF2 activation of FGFR1 may be necessary, but not sufficient for the transforming effects of human serum. This pilot study indicates that the FGF2/FGFR1 axis plays a role in JB6 P+ malignant transformation and describes an assay to determine critical serum factors that have the potential to promote tumorigenesis.

Clinical Characteristics and Outcomes of Colorectal Cancer in the ColoCare Study: Differences by Age of Onset

Early-onset colorectal cancer has been on the rise in Western populations. Here, we compare patient characteristics between those with early- (<50 years) vs. late-onset (≥50 years) disease in a large multinational cohort of colorectal cancer patients (n = 2193). We calculated descriptive statistics and assessed associations of clinicodemographic factors with age of onset using mutually-adjusted logistic regression models. Patients were on average 60 years old, with BMI of 29 kg/m², 52% colon cancers, 21% early-onset, and presented with stage II or III (60%) disease. Early-onset patients presented with more advanced disease (stages III-IV: 63% vs. 51%, respectively), and received more neo and adjuvant treatment compared to late-onset patients, after controlling for stage (odds ratio (OR) (95% confidence interval (CI)) = 2.30 (1.82-3.83) and 2.00 (1.43-2.81), respectively). Early-onset rectal cancer patients across all stages more commonly received neoadjuvant treatment, even when not indicated as the standard of care, e.g., during stage I disease. The odds of early-onset disease were higher among never smokers and lower among overweight patients (1.55 (1.21-1.98) and 0.56 (0.41-0.76), respectively). Patients with early-onset colorectal cancer were more likely to be diagnosed with advanced stage disease, to have received systemic treatments regardless of stage at diagnosis, and were less likely to be ever smokers or overweight.

Colorectal Cancer Study of Austria (CORSA): A Population-Based Multicenter Study

The Colorectal cancer Study of Austria (CORSA) is comprised more than 13,500 newly diagnosed colorectal cancer (CRC) patients, patients with high- and low-risk adenomas as well as population-based controls. The recruitment for the CORSA biobank is performed in close cooperation with the invited two-stage CRC screening project "Burgenland PREvention trial of colorectal Disease with ImmunologiCal Testing" (B-PREDICT). Annually, more than 150,000 inhabitants of the Austrian federal state Burgenland aged between 40 and 80 are invited to participate using FIT-tests as an initial screening. FIT-positive tested participants are offered a diagnostic colonoscopy and are asked to take part in CORSA, sign a written informed consent, complete questionnaires concerning dietary and lifestyle habits and provide an ethylenediaminetetraacetic acid (EDTA) blood sample as well as a stool sample. Additional CRC cases have been recruited at four hospitals in Vienna and a hospital in lower Austria. A major strength of CORSA is the population-based controls who are FIT-positive and colonoscopy-confirmed to be free of polyps and/or CRC.

Surgical resection and survival outcomes in metastatic young adult colorectal cancer patients

Background

The incidence of colorectal cancer in adults younger than age 50 has increased with rates expected to continue to increase over the next decade. The objective of this study is to examine the survival benefit of surgical resection (primary and/or metastatic) versus palliative therapy in this patient population.

Methods

We identified 6708 young adults aged 18–45 years diagnosed with metastatic colorectal cancer (mCRC) from 2004 to 2015 from the SEER database. Overall survival (OS) was analyzed using Kaplan–Meier estimation, log rank test, and multivariate Cox proportional hazards model.

Results

Sixty‐three percent of patients in our study underwent primary tumor resection (PTR), with 40% undergoing PTR alone and 23% undergoing both resection of primary disease and metastasectomy. The median OS for patients who underwent both PTR and metastasectomy was 36 months, compared to 13 months for those who did not receive any surgical intervention. The multivariate analysis showed significant OS benefit of receiving both PTR and metastasectomy (HR 0.34, 95% CI: 0.31–0.37, p < 0.001) compared to palliative therapy. Undergoing PTR only and metastasectomy only were also associated with improved OS (HR 0.46, 95% CI: 0.43–0.49, p < 0.001 and HR 0.64, 95% CI: 0.55–0.76, p < 0.001, respectively).

Conclusion

This is the largest observational study to evaluate survival outcomes in young‐onset mCRC patients and the role of surgical intervention of the primary and/or metastatic site. Our study provides evidence of statistically significant increase in OS for young mCRC patients who undergo surgical intervention of the primary and/or metastatic site.

Gut instinct: a call to study the biology of early-onset colorectal cancer disparities

Colorectal cancer (CRC) incidence among individuals age younger than 50 years continues to rise with etiologies unknown. Synchronously, early-onset CRC disparities have grown more pronounced. As translational research across diverse populations has been limited, we advocate for mechanistic studies that address this challenge to mitigate CRC disparities among young adults.

Metabolic syndrome, metabolic comorbid conditions and risk of early-onset colorectal cancer

OBJECTIVE

Factors that lead to metabolic dysregulation are associated with increased risk of early-onset colorectal cancer (CRC diagnosed under age 50). However, the association between metabolic syndrome (MetS) and early-onset CRC remains unexamined.

DESIGN

We conducted a nested case-control study among participants aged 18-64 in the IBM MarketScan Commercial Database (2006-2015). Incident CRC was identified using pathologist-coded International Classification of Diseases, Ninth Revision, Clinical Modification (ICD-9-CM) codes, and controls were frequency matched. MetS was defined as presence of ≥3 conditions among obesity, hypertension, hyperlipidaemia and hyperglycaemia/type 2 diabetes, based on ICD-9-CM and use of medications. Multivariable logistic regressions were used to estimate ORs and 95% CIs.

RESULTS

MetS was associated with increased risk of early-onset CRC (n=4673; multivariable adjusted OR 1.25; 95% CI 1.09 to 1.43), similar to CRC diagnosed at age 50-64 (n=14 928; OR 1.21; 95% CI 1.15 to 1.27). Compared with individuals without a metabolic comorbid condition, those with 1, 2 or ≥3 conditions had a 9% (1.09; 95% CI 1.00 to 1.17), 12% (1.12; 95% CI 1.01 to 1.24) and 31% (1.31; 95% CI 1.13 to 1.51) higher risk of early-onset CRC (p_trend <0.001). No associations were observed for one or two metabolic comorbid conditions and CRC diagnosed at age 50-64. These positive associations were driven by proximal (OR per condition 1.14; 95% CI 1.06 to 1.23) and distal colon cancer (OR 1.09; 95% CI 1.00 to 1.18), but not rectal cancer (OR 1.03; 95% CI 0.97 to 1.09).

CONCLUSIONS

Metabolic dysregulation was associated with increased risk of early-onset CRC, driven by proximal and distal colon cancer, thus at least in part contribute to the rising incidence of early-onset CRC.

Disparities in Early-Onset Colorectal Cancer

The incidence and mortality of early-onset colorectal cancer (CRC) are increasing in the United States (US) and worldwide. In the US, there are notable disparities in early-onset CRC burden by race/ethnicity and geography. African Americans, Hispanic/Latinos, and populations residing in specific regions of the Southern U.S. are disproportionately affected with CRC diagnosed at younger ages, while less is known about disparities in other countries. Reasons for these disparities are likely multi-factorial and potentially implicate differences in health determinants including biology/genetics, diet/environment, individual health behaviors, and access to high-quality health services, as well as social and policy factors. This review summarizes current understanding of early-onset CRC disparities and identifies specific research areas that will inform evidence-based interventions at individual, practice, and policy levels to reduce the global burden of this disease.

Diabetes, Body Fatness, and Insulin Prescription Among Adolescents and Young Adults with Cancer

Purpose: Rates of obesity and obesity-related health consequences, including type 2 diabetes (T2D) and cancer, continue to rise. While cancer patients are at an increased risk of developing T2D, the prevalence of T2D and insulin prescription among young patients with cancer remains unknown. Methods: Using the Total Cancer Care Study cohort at Huntsman Cancer Institute (Salt Lake City, UT), we identified individuals age 18-39 years at cancer diagnosis between 2009 and 2019. Multivariable logistic regression was used to investigate associations between body mass index (BMI) with insulin prescription within 1 year of cancer diagnosis. Results: In total, 344 adolescents and young adults (AYAs) were diagnosed with primary invasive cancer. Within this cohort, 19 patients (5.5%) were ever diagnosed with T2D, 48 AYAs ever received an insulin prescription (14.0%), and 197 were overweight or obese (BMI: 25+ kg/m2) at cancer diagnosis. Each kg/m2 unit increase in BMI was associated with 6% increased odds of first insulin prescription within 1 year of cancer diagnosis among AYAs, even after adjustment for age, sex, smoking history, marital status, glucocorticoid prescription, and cancer treatments (odds ratio = 1.06, 95% confidence interval 1.02-1.11; p = 0.005). Conclusion: One in every 18 AYAs with cancer ever had T2D, 1 in 7 AYA patients with cancer ever received an insulin prescription, and higher BMI was associated with increased risk of insulin prescription within a year of cancer diagnosis among AYAs. Understanding the incidence of T2D and insulin prescription/use is critical for short-term and long-term clinical management of AYAs with cancer.

An Update on the Epidemiology, Molecular Characterization, Diagnosis, and Screening Strategies for Early-Onset Colorectal Cancer

Rising trends in the incidence and mortality of early-onset colorectal cancer (CRC) in those who are younger than 50 years have been well established. These trends have spurred intense investigation focused on elucidating the epidemiology and characteristics of early-onset CRC, as well as on identifying strategies for early detection and prevention. In this review, we provide a contemporary update on early-onset CRC with a particular focus on epidemiology, molecular characterization, red flag signs and symptoms, and screening for early-onset CRC.

Spectrum of Somatic Cancer Gene Variations Among Adults With Appendiceal Cancer by Age at Disease Onset

Importance

The incidence of appendiceal cancer (AC) is rising, particularly among individuals younger than 50 years (early-onset AC), with unexplained etiologies. The unique spectrum of somatic cancer gene variations among patients with early-onset AC is largely undetermined.

Objective

To characterize the frequency of somatic variations and genomic patterns among patients with early-onset (age <50 years) vs late-onset (age ≥50 years) AC.

Design, Setting, and Participants

This cohort study included individuals aged 18 years and older diagnosed with pathologically verified AC. Cases with clinical-grade targeted sequencing data from January 1, 2011, to December 31, 2019, were identified from the international clinicogenomic data-sharing consortium American Association for Cancer Research Project Genomics Evidence Neoplasia Information Exchange (GENIE). Data analysis was conducted from May to September 2020.

Exposures

Age at disease onset.

Main Outcomes and Measures

Somatic variation prevalence and spectrum in AC patients was determined. Variation comparisons between early-onset and late-onset AC were evaluated using multivariable logistic regression with adjustment for sex, race/ethnicity, histological subtype, sequencing center, and sample type.

Results

In total 385 individuals (mean [SD] age at diagnosis, 56.0 [12.4] years; 187 [48.6%] men; 306 [79.5%] non-Hispanic White individuals) with AC were included in this study, and 109 patients (28.3%) were diagnosed with early-onset AC. Race/ethnicity differed by age at disease onset; non-Hispanic Black individuals accounted for a larger proportion of early-onset vs late-onset cases (9 of 109 [8.3%] vs 11 of 276 [4.0%]; P = 0.04). Compared with patients aged 50 years or older at diagnosis, patients with early-onset AC had significantly higher odds of presenting with nonsilent variations in PIK3CA, SMAD3, and TSC2 (PIK3CA: odds ratio [OR], 4.58; 95% CI, 1.72-12.21; P = .002; SMAD3: OR, 7.37; 95% CI, 1.24-43.87; P = .03; TSC2: OR, 12.43; 95% CI, 1.03-149.59; P = .047). In contrast, patients with early-onset AC had a 60% decreased odds of presenting with GNAS nonsilent variations compared with patients with late-onset AC (OR, 0.40; 95% CI, 0.21-0.76, P = .006). By histological subtype, young patients with mucinous adenocarcinomas of the appendix had 65% decreased odds of variations in GNAS compared with late-onset cases in adjusted models (OR, 0.35; 95% CI, 0.15-0.79; P = .01). Similarly, patients with early-onset nonmucinous appendiceal adenocarcinomas had 72% decreased odds of presenting with GNAS variations vs late-onset cases, although these findings did not reach significance (OR, 0.28; 95% CI, 0.07-1.14; P = .08). GNAS and TP53 variations were mutually exclusive in ACs among early-onset and late-onset cases (P < .05).

Conclusions and Relevance

In the study, AC diagnosed among younger individuals harbored a distinct genomic landscape compared with AC diagnosed among older individuals. Development of therapeutic modalities that target these unique molecular features may yield clinical implications specifically for younger patients.

Diet-Associated Inflammation Modulates Inflammation and WNT Signaling in the Rectal Mucosa, and the Response to Supplementation with Dietary Fiber

Inflammation drives colorectal cancer development, and colorectal cancer risk is influenced by dietary factors, including dietary fiber. Hyperactive WNT signaling occurs in colorectal cancer and may regulate inflammation. This study investigated (i) relationships between the inflammatory potential of diet, assessed using the Energy-adjusted Dietary Inflammatory Index (E-DII), and markers of WNT signaling, and (ii) whether DII status modulated the response to supplementation with two types of dietary fiber. Seventy-five healthy participants were supplemented with resistant starch and/or polydextrose (PD) or placebo for 50 days. Rectal biopsies were collected before and after intervention and used to assess WNT pathway gene expression and crypt cell proliferation. E-DII scores were calculated from food frequency questionnaire data. High-sensitivity C-reactive protein (hsCRP) and fecal calprotectin concentrations were quantified. hsCRP concentration was significantly greater in participants with higher E-DII scores [least square means (LSM) 4.7 vs. 2.4 mg/L, P = 0.03]. Baseline E-DII score correlated with FOSL1 (β = 0.503, P = 0.003) and WNT11 (β = 0.472, P = 0.006) expression, after adjusting for age, gender, body mass index, endoscopy procedure, and smoking status. WNT11 expression was more than 2-fold greater in individuals with higher E-DII scores (LSM 0.131 vs. 0.059, P = 0.002). Baseline E-DII modulated the effects of PD supplementation on FOSL1 expression (P = 0.04). More proinflammatory diets were associated with altered WNT signaling and appeared to modulate the effects of PD supplementation on expression of FOSL1 This is the first study to investigate relationships between the E-DII and molecular markers of WNT signaling in rectal tissue of healthy individuals.Prevention Relevance: Our finding that more inflammatory dietary components may impact large bowel health through effects on a well-recognized pathway involved in cancer development will strengthen the evidence base for dietary advice to help prevent bowel cancer.

Patterns of Early-Onset Colorectal Cancer Among Nigerians and African Americans

PURPOSE

Colorectal cancer (CRC) incidence rates are increasing among individuals < 50 years of age (early-onset CRC) globally with causes unknown. Racial/ethnic disparities in early-onset CRC have also grown more pronounced, because Black individuals have higher early-onset CRC incidence and poorer survival compared with White individuals. We describe the prevalence and burden of early-onset CRC among Africans in Nigeria and African Americans (AAs) in the United States.

PATIENTS AND METHODS

We identified Black individuals diagnosed with a first primary CRC ages 18 to 49 years between 1989 and 2017 at Ahmadu Bello University Teaching Hospital in Zaria, Nigeria (Nigerians), and in the United States (AAs) using the National Institutes of Health/National Cancer Institute's SEER program of cancer registries. Multivariable logistic regression models were used to investigate clinical and demographic differences between Nigerians and AAs with early-onset CRC, adjusted for age, sex, tumor site, and histology.

RESULTS

A total of 5,019 Black individuals were diagnosed with early-onset CRC over the study period (379 Nigerians; 4,640 AAs). Overall, approximately one third of young Black patients were diagnosed with rectal tumors (35.8%). Nigerian individuals with early-onset CRC were eight-fold more likely to be diagnosed with rectal tumors (odds ratio [OR], 8.14; 95% CI, 6.23 to 10.62; P < .0001) and more likely to be diagnosed at younger ages (OR, 0.87; 95% CI, 0.86 to 0.89; P < .0001) compared with young African Americans in adjusted models.

CONCLUSION

Compared with AA individuals diagnosed with early-onset CRC, Nigerian individuals harbor distinct features of early-onset CRC. Additional investigation of the histopathologic and biologic heterogeneity of early-onset CRCs among Black individuals is critical for understanding racial disparities in susceptibility and outcomes, which may have implications for tailored early-onset CRC prevention, detection, and treatment strategies.

Multi-omics Analysis Reveals Adipose-tumor Crosstalk in Patients with Colorectal Cancer

Obesity and obesity-driven cancer rates are continuing to rise worldwide. We hypothesize that adipocyte-colonocyte interactions are a key driver of obesity-associated cancers. To understand the clinical relevance of visceral adipose tissue in advancing tumor growth, we analyzed paired tumor-adjacent visceral adipose, normal mucosa, and colorectal tumor tissues as well as presurgery blood samples from patients with sporadic colorectal cancer. We report that high peroxisome proliferator-activated receptor gamma (PPARG) visceral adipose tissue expression is associated with glycoprotein VI (GPVI) signaling-the major signaling receptor for collagen-as well as fibrosis and adipogenesis pathway signaling in colorectal tumors. These associations were supported by correlations between PPARG visceral adipose tissue expression and circulating levels of plasma 4-hydroxyproline and serum intercellular adhesion molecule 1 (ICAM1), as well as gene set enrichment analysis and joint gene-metabolite pathway results integration that yielded significant enrichment of genes defining epithelial-to-mesenchymal transition-as in fibrosis and metastasis-and genes involved in glycolytic metabolism, confirmed this association. We also reveal that elevated prostaglandin-endoperoxide synthase 2 (PTGS2) colorectal tumor expression is associated with a fibrotic signature in adipose-tumor crosstalk via GPVI signaling and dendritic cell maturation in visceral adipose tissue. Systemic metabolite and biomarker profiling confirmed that high PTGS2 expression in colorectal tumors is significantly associated with higher concentrations of serum amyloid A and glycine, and lower concentrations of sphingomyelin, in patients with colorectal cancer. This multi-omics study suggests that adipose-tumor crosstalk in patients with colorectal cancer is a critical microenvironment interaction that could be therapeutically targeted.See related spotlight by Colacino et al., p. 803.

Early-onset colorectal cancer research: gaps and opportunities

The incidence rates of sporadic early-onset colorectal cancer (EO-CRC) are increasing rapidly in the USA and globally. Birth cohort analyses strongly suggest that changes in early life exposures to known or unknown risk factors for CRC may be driving EO disease, but the etiology of EO-CRC remains poorly understood. To address the alarming rise in sporadic EO-CRC, the National Cancer Institute and National Institute of Environmental Health Sciences convened a virtual meeting that featured presentations and critical discussions from EO-CRC experts that examined emerging evidence on potential EO-CRC risk factors, mechanisms and translational opportunities in screening and treatment.

Metabolic dysfunction and early-onset colorectal cancer - how macrophages build the bridge

Background

The incidence of colorectal cancer (CRC) among patients <50 years of age has increased dramatically over the last decades. At the same time, the growing proportion of obese children and adolescents and the increasing proportion of young and obese patients with CRC suggests an association between metabolic dysfunction and carcinogenesis. Tumor‐associated macrophages (TAMs) are able to orchestrate tumor promoting and suppressing mechanisms in CRC. The aim of this review was to discuss the different roles of TAMs in CRC and their phenotype‐specific metabolic pathways to identify potential new targets for CRC treatment.

Methods

A literature search was performed using PubMed, Cochrane and Embase to identify studies on TAMs and their metabolism in CRC. The following search terms were used in various combinations: (obesity OR adiposity OR obese) AND (macrophage OR polarization OR macrophage metabolism) AND ((colon cancer*) OR (colon carcinoma) OR (colonic tumor*) OR (colonic neoplasm[MeSH]) OR (rectal cancer*) OR (rectal carcinoma) OR (rectal tumor*) OR (rectal neoplasm[MeSH]) OR (colorectal cancer*) OR (colorectal carcinoma) OR (colorectal tumor*) OR (colorectal neoplasm[MeSH])). Studies including data on the phenotype and metabolism of TAMs in CRC were analyzed.

Results

Evidence for the prognostic utility of macrophage markers in CRC is currently evolving, with a particular role of stage‐dependent cellular metabolism profiles of TAMs. Itaconate is one of the metabolites produced by proinflammatory subtypes of TAMs and it is known to have tumor promoting effects. Metabolic pathways that are involved in macrophage activation and reprogramming play a role in a chronic inflammatory setting, consequently affecting the onset and development of CRC.

Conclusions

Tumor‐promoting metabolites, such as itaconate, are directly regulating these mechanisms, thereby triggering carcinogenesis. Metabolic reprogramming in TAMs can build a bridge between metabolic dysfunction and the onset and progression of CRC through inflammatory pathways, particularly in younger patients with early‐onset CRC.

Impact of Pre-blood Collection Factors on Plasma Metabolomic Profiles

Demographic, lifestyle and biospecimen-related factors at the time of blood collection can influence metabolite levels in epidemiological studies. Identifying the major influences on metabolite concentrations is critical to designing appropriate sample collection protocols and considering covariate adjustment in metabolomics analyses. We examined the association of age, sex, and other short-term pre-blood collection factors (time of day, season, fasting duration, physical activity, NSAID use, smoking and alcohol consumption in the days prior to collection) with 133 targeted plasma metabolites (acylcarnitines, amino acids, biogenic amines, sphingolipids, glycerophospholipids, and hexoses) among 108 individuals that reported exposures within 48 h before collection. The differences in mean metabolite concentrations were assessed between groups based on pre-collection factors using two-sided t-tests and ANOVA with FDR correction. Percent differences in metabolite concentrations were negligible across season, time of day of collection, fasting status or lifestyle behaviors at the time of collection, including physical activity or the use of tobacco, alcohol or NSAIDs. The metabolites differed in concentration between the age and sex categories for 21.8% and 14.3% metabolites, respectively. In conclusion, extrinsic factors in the short period prior to collection were not meaningfully associated with concentrations of selected endogenous metabolites in a cross-sectional sample, though metabolite concentrations differed by age and sex. Larger studies with more coverage of the human metabolome are warranted.

A 10-year review of survival among patients with metastatic gastrointestinal cancers: a population-based study

BACKGROUND

This study assesses survival improvement across a decade (2004-2013) among patients with metastatic gastrointestinal cancers in a real-world setting.

METHODS

Surveillance, Epidemiology and End Results (SEER) database was accessed and patients with metastatic gastrointestinal carcinomas who have received any form of systemic therapy were included. Patients were grouped into three cohorts based on the year of diagnosis (cohort-1: 2004-2006; cohort-2: 2008-2010; cohort-3: 2012-2013). Overall survival was compared among the three cohorts for each disease site using Kaplan-Meier survival estimates.

RESULTS

A total of 54,992 patients with metastatic gastrointestinal cancers were included in the current analysis. Using Kaplan-Meier survival comparison for the three temporal cohorts, the following survival observations were noted: for patients with metastatic esophageal adenocarcinoma: median survival for cohort-1: 8 months, cohort-2: 9 months, cohort-3: 9 months; P < 0.001; for patients with metastatic esophageal squamous cell carcinoma: median survival cohort-1: 8 months, cohort-2: 8 months, cohort-3: 8 months; P = 0.689; for patients with metastatic gastric adenocarcinoma: median survival for cohort-1: 8 months, for cohort-2: 9 months, for cohort-3: 9 months; P < 0.001; for patients with metastatic colorectal carcinoma: median overall survival for each of the three cohorts: 21 months; P = 0.131; for patients with metastatic pancreatic carcinoma: median survival for cohort-1: 5 months, cohort-2: 5 months, cohort-3: 6 months; P < 0.001; for patients with metastatic hepatocellular carcinoma: median survival of 5 months for each of the three cohorts; P = 0.534); and for patients with metastatic biliary carcinomas: median survival for cohort-1: 7 months, cohort-2: 7 months, cohort-3: 8 months; P = 0.031).

CONCLUSION

Limited (if any) survival improvement has been observed among patients with metastatic gastrointestinal carcinomas treated with systemic therapy in the decade from 2004 to 2013.

Examining factors underlying geographic disparities in early-onset colorectal cancer survival among men in the United States

Background: Despite overall incidence reduction in colorectal cancer (CRC) the past 32 years, unexplained incidence and mortality rates have increased significantly in younger adults ages 20-49. To improve understanding of sex-specific differences among this population, we aimed to determine the variance in early-onset CRC (EOCRC) survival among US men diagnosed with CRC before age 50, while considering individual- and county-level CRC outcome determinants. Methods: Hotspots (i.e., counties with high EOCRC mortality rates) were derived from Centers for Disease Control and Prevention data from 1999-2017, and linked to SEER data for men aged 15-49 years with CRC. Cox proportional hazards models were used to compare CRC-specific survival probability and hazard in hotspots versus non-significant counties. A generalized R2 was used to estimate the total variance in EOCRC survival explained by clinicodemographic and county-level determinants. Results: We identified 232 hotspot counties for EOCRC-214 (92%) of which were in the South. In hotspots, 1,009 men were diagnosed with EOCRC and 31,438 in non-significant counties. After adjusting for age, race, tumor stage and grade, surgery, chemotherapy, radiation therapy, and marital status, men residing in hotspot counties had higher hazard of CRC-specific death (HR 1.24, 95% CI, 1.12-1.36). Individual/county-level factors explained nearly 35% of the variation in survival, and adult smoking served as the strongest county-level determinant of EOCRC survival. Conclusion: Distinct geographic patterns of EOCRC were predominantly located in the southern US. Survival after EOCRC diagnosis was significantly worse among men residing in hotspot counties.