Achilles Tendon Open Surgical Treatment With Platelet-Rich Fibrin Matrix Augmentation: Biomechanical Evaluation

Surgical and Biological Treatment with a Platelet-Rich Fibrin Matrix for Patellar Tendinopathy: Clinical Outcomes and Return to Sport at 2-Year Follow-Up

BACKGROUND

Patellar tendinopathy (PT) involves anterior knee pain and functional. Platelet-rich fibrin matrix (PRFM) is a promising biological therapy for tendinopathies. We examined a cohort of PT patients treated with tendon debridement and autologous PRFM at the 24-month follow-up to assess whether the combined treatment facilitated return to sports and yielded satisfactory clinical and functional scores.

METHODS

Baseline and 24-month visual analogue scale (VAS), Victorian Institute of Sport Assessment Scale for Patellar Tendinopathy (VISA-P), Tegner Activity Scale (TAS), and Blazina scores were compared to evaluate treatment effectiveness. The Friedman test was used to compare repeated observations of VAS, VISA-P, TAS, and Blazina Score values. Return to sport rate, Tampa Scale of Kinesiophobia (TKS) score and patient satisfaction were collected at 24 months.

RESULTS

The postoperative clinical scores demonstrated significant improvement compared with their preoperative values (all p < 0.001). Specifically, the VISA-P score was 80.32 (±20.58), 92.10% of patients had resumed sports activities and patient satisfaction was 9.21 (±1.21) at 24 months.

CONCLUSIONS

Surgical debridement and autologous PRFM application in patients with chronic PT resulted in a higher rate of return to sports when compared to solely surgical treatment, significantly improved clinical outcomes and excellent patient satisfaction at 24 months.

Return to Sports and Functional Outcomes after Autologous Platelet-Rich Fibrin Matrix (PRFM) and Debridement in Midportion Achilles Tendinopathy: A Case Series with 24-Month Follow-Up

(1) Background: Achilles tendinopathy (AT) is characterized by load-induced tendon pain, stiffness, and functional impairment that may affect the tendon midportion or insertion. Platelet-rich fibrin matrix (PRFM) is a promising adjunctive therapy for AT. We analyzed 24-month pain and functional outcomes in a cohort of patients managed by tendon debridement and autologous PRFM application to determine whether the combined treatment ensured an early return to sports/work and satisfactory clinical outcomes and functional scores. (2) Methods: The 24-month outcomes of 32 sport-practicing patients with chronic midportion AT treated with debridement and autologous PRFM were evaluated in terms of time to return to sports/work. The AOFAS and VISA-A were computed preoperatively and at 6 and 24 months. Blazina scores were evaluated preoperatively and at 6 months; ankle range of motion was assessed at 1, 6, 12, 24 months; and patient satisfaction was assessed at 24 months. (3) Results: Altogether, all patients had resumed their sport(s) activity, at the same or higher level, after 25.41 days (±5.37). Regarding work, all patients were able to return to their jobs after 16.41 days (±2.43). Ankle dorsiflexion and plantarflexion increased significantly: the AOFAS rose from 54.56 (±6.47) to 97.06 (±4.06) and 98.88 (±2.21) at 6 and 12 months, respectively, and the mean VISA-A score rose from 69.16 (±7.35) preoperatively to 95.03 (±4.67) and 97.28 (±2.43) at 6 and 12 months, respectively, after treatment. There were no complications. Most (90.62%) patients were very satisfied. (4) Conclusions: In symptomatic midportion AT, surgical debridement and autologous PRFM ensured a fast return to sports/work (4 weeks), significantly improving AOFAS and VISA-A and Blazina scores already at 6 months and providing excellent clinical outcomes at 24 months.

Autologous Platelet and Extracellular Vesicle-Rich Plasma as Therapeutic Fluid: A Review

The preparation of autologous platelet and extracellular vesicle-rich plasma (PVRP) has been explored in many medical fields with the aim to benefit from its healing potential. In parallel, efforts are being invested to understand the function and dynamics of PVRP that is complex in its composition and interactions. Some clinical evidence reveals beneficial effects of PVRP, while some report that there were no effects. To optimize the preparation methods, functions and mechanisms of PVRP, its constituents should be better understood. With the intention to promote further studies of autologous therapeutic PVRP, we performed a review on some topics regarding PVRP composition, harvesting, assessment and preservation, and also on clinical experience following PVRP application in humans and animals. Besides the acknowledged actions of platelets, leukocytes and different molecules, we focus on extracellular vesicles that were found abundant in PVRP.

Advances in the Clinical Application of Platelet-Rich Plasma in the Foot and Ankle: A Review

Autologous and recombinant biologic substances have been generated as a result of the research into the cellular features of the healing process. Orthobiologics are increasingly being used in sports medicine and musculoskeletal surgery. Nevertheless, clinical data are limited; consequently, further studies are required, particularly in foot and ankle pathologies. This review aims to provide evidence of the most recent literature results and ignite the interest of orthopedic specialists eager for an update about the most current discussion on platelet-rich plasma (PRP) clinical applications in the foot and ankle fields. Previous studies have shown that platelet-rich plasma can be beneficial in treating various conditions, such as chronic foot ulcers, osteoarthritis, Achilles tendinopathy, etc. Despite the positive effects of PRP on various musculoskeletal conditions, more prospective studies are needed to confirm its effectiveness at treating ankle and foot pathologies. In addition to clinical trials, other factors, such as the quality of the research and the procedures involved, must be considered before they can be used in patients. More long-term evaluations are needed to support or oppose its application in treating foot and ankle disorders. We present the most extensive review of PRP's clinical applications in the foot and ankle field.

Evolution and Clinical Advances of Platelet-Rich Fibrin in Musculoskeletal Regeneration

Over the past few decades, various forms of platelet concentrates have evolved with significant clinical utility. The newer generation products, including leukocyte-platelet-rich fibrin (L-PRF) and advanced platelet-rich fibrin (A-PRF), have shown superior biological properties in musculoskeletal regeneration than the first-generation concentrates, such as platelet-rich plasma (PRP) and plasma rich in growth factors. These newer platelet concentrates have a complete matrix of physiological fibrin that acts as a scaffold with a three-dimensional (3D) architecture. Further, it facilitates intercellular signaling and migration, thereby promoting angiogenic, chondrogenic, and osteogenic activities. A-PRF with higher leukocyte inclusion possesses antimicrobial activity than the first generations. Due to the presence of enormous amounts of growth factors and anti-inflammatory cytokines that are released, A-PRF has the potential to replicate the various physiological and immunological factors of wound healing. In addition, there are more neutrophils, monocytes, and macrophages, all of which secrete essential chemotactic molecules. As a result, both L-PRF and A-PRF are used in the management of musculoskeletal conditions, such as chondral injuries, tendinopathies, tissue regeneration, and other sports-related injuries. In addition to this, its applications have been expanded to include the fields of reconstructive cosmetic surgery, wound healing in diabetic patients, and maxillofacial surgeries.

Platelet-Rich Plasma in acute Achilles tendon ruptures: A systematic review and meta-analysis

BACKGROUND

Platelet Rich Plasma (PRP) is known to exert multi-directional biological effects favouring tendon healing. However, conclusions drawn by numerous studies on its clinical efficacy for acute Achilles tendon rupture are limited. We performed a systematic review and meta-analysis to investigate this and to compare to those without PRP treatment.

METHODS

The Cochrane Controlled Register of Trials, Pubmed, Medline and Embase were used and assessed according to the PRISMA (Preferred Reporting Items for Systematic Reviews and Meta-Analyses) criteria with the following search terms: ('plasma' OR 'platelet-rich' OR 'platelet-rich plasma' or 'PRP') AND ('Achilles tendon rupture/tear' OR 'calcaneal tendon rupture/tear' OR 'tendo calcaneus rupture/tear'). Data pertaining to biomechanical outcomes (heel endurance test, isokinetic strength, calf-circumference and range of motion), patient-reported outcome measures (PROMs) and incidence of re-ruptures were extracted. Meta-analysis was performed for same outcomes measured in at least three studies. Pooled outcome data were analysed by random- and fixed-effects models.

RESULTS

After abstract and full-text screening, 6 studies were included. In total there were 510 patients of which 256 had local PRP injection and 254 without. The average age was 41.6 years, mean time from injury to treatment 5.9 days and mean follow-up at 61 weeks. Biomechanically, there was similar heel endurance, isokinetic strength, calf circumference and range of motion between both groups. In general, there were no differences in patient reported outcomes from all scoring systems used in the studies. Both groups returned to their pre-injured level at a similar time and there were no differences on the incidence of re-rupture (OR 1.13, 95% CI, 0.46-2.80, p = 0.79).

CONCLUSION

PRP injections for acute Achilles tendon ruptures do not improve medium to long-term biomechanical and clinical outcomes. However, future studies incorporating the ideal application and biological composition of PRP are required to investigate its true clinical efficacy.

Interest of platelet rich plasma in Achilles tendon rupture management: a systematic review

OBJECTIVES

Acute Achilles tendon rupture (ATR) is a disabling sport-related injury. Its management involves conservative treatment with early weight-bearing or surgical treatment. Platelet-rich plasma (PRP) has raised interest as an adjuvant for treatment, given its properties on tendon repair and its anti-inflammatory effect. We aimed to assess clinical impact of PRP use in surgical or non-surgical treatment of acute ATR: range of motion, muscle strength, function, return to sport and adverse events.

METHOD

A systematic literature research was performed using PubMed, ScienceDirect, and Google Scholar databases to collect studies reporting clinical outcomes after acute ATR treated with PRP.

RESULTS

Eight studies were eligible and included 543 acute ATR. Four were randomized comparative studies. A total of 128 patients were treated surgically and 415 were treated conservatively, 271 received PRP injection. Five studies described the type of PRP used, which was variable. Only one study including 12 patients found significant outcomes in favor of the PRP group, with a 4-week earlier recovery of a normal range of motion and a 7-week earlier return to running. No difference in clinical or morphological evaluations, strength measurement, and functional outcomes was found in other studies both at short and long-term. PRP did not seem to modify the frequency of adverse events.

CONCLUSIONS

Data are not clearly in favor of a significant effect of the PRP use for treatment of ATR. There might be a slight effect on evolution during the first months. Its interest should be assessed in future studies with strong methodology.

Supervised Physiotherapy Improves Three-Dimensional (3D) Gait Parameters in Patients after Surgical Suturing of the Achilles Tendon Using an Open Method (SSATOM)

BACKGROUND

The aim of this study was to assess the effectiveness of 38 supervised postoperative physiotherapy (SVPh) visits conducted between 1 and 20 weeks after SSATOM on the values of 3D gait parameters measured at 10 and 20 weeks after surgery.

MATERIAL

Group I comprised male patients (n = 22) after SSATOM (SVPh x = 38 visits) and Group II comprised male patients (n = 22) from the control group.

METHODS

A non-randomized, open-label, controlled clinical trial was performed in the two groups to obtain the following values: Step length (cm), stride length (cm), step width (cm), next stance phase (%), swing phase (%), double support (%), gait velocity (m/s), and walking frequency (step/min). The measurements were carried out using the BTS SMART system (Italy).

RESULTS

Orthopedic examination showed no pain, a negative result of Thompson and Matles tests, and proper healing of Achilles tendon (ultrasound image). In Group I, between 10 and 20 weeks after SSATOM, there was a statistically significant improvement in all tested gait parameter values (p ≤ 0.001 to 0.009).

CONCLUSIONS

Conducting 38 SVPh visits significantly improved the values of the analyzed kinematic and spatiotemporal gait parameters in patients in the twentieth week after SSATOM, which were mostly close to the non-operated side and the results of the control group. However, the gait speed and stride length were not close to the results of the control group.

Applications of the regenerative capacity of platelets in modern medicine

Platelets produce platelet growth factors such as PDGF, IGF-1, EGF-, HGF, TGFβ, bFGF, and VEGF, which are crucial in regulating all stages of the wound healing process. The source of these substances is platelet-rich plasma (PRP). Over the past five decades, the interest and use of the regenerative properties of platelets have increased significantly in many different fields of medicine around the world. PRP and PRF plate preparations are used in: 1. Dentistry (they reduce bleeding, facilitate and accelerate soft tissue healing and bone regeneration - FGF 2, IGF-1, IGF-2, TGF-β1, and PDGF); 2. Sports medicine - IGF-1, IGF-2, TGF-β, VEGF, PDGF and bFGF, EGF); 3. dermatology and cosmetology (treatment of alopecia, hair reconstruction - FGF-7, HGF, acne scars, skin rejuvenation and regeneration, treatment of chronic and poorly healing wounds, burns, and acquired vitiligo); 4. Gynecology and reproductive medicine (treatment of infertility, erectile dysfunction - PDGF-β, TGF-β, IGF-1, in sexual dysfunction - PDGF, in vaginal atrophy); 5 Ophthalmology (in the healing of corneal epithelial wounds, in the treatment of dormant corneal ulcers, dry eye syndrome and the reconstruction of the corneal surface; 6. Neurology (regeneration of neurons, pain alleviation, and clinical symptoms - TGF-β 1, IGF-1, PDGF, VEGF) and FGF). Platelet-rich plasma therapy is a very interesting alternative and complement to traditional methods of treatment. However, the potential for using platelets is still not fully understood. The composition of platelet-rich plasma depends on many factors that may affect its use's efficacy and clinical benefits. Further research is necessary to standardize PRP delivery's preparation procedures and methods for a specific disease entity or clinical case.

Is 2D SWE sufficient as clinical diagnosis in patients with plantar fasciitis?

BACKGROUND

The use of shear wave elastography (SWE) seems to be an important imaging method in the diagnosis of plantar fasciitis (PF).

PURPOSE

To compare patients diagnosed with PF with similar and young healthy control groups in terms of B-mode ultrasound (US) and SWE results and to evaluate the elasticity of the plantar fascia.

MATERIAL AND METHODS

A total of 140 feet of 70 participants were evaluated, including 30 patients and 40 healthy individuals as the control. Clinical, B-mode US, and SWE evaluations were performed for each patient. In addition, American Orthopedic Foot and Ankle Score (AOFAS) was calculated to evaluate pain and foot function in both groups.

RESULTS

Of the patients in the PF group, 40 (88%) were women and the healthy control groups had similar sex distributions (P = 0.23). The AOFAS score was lower in feet with PF compared to the other groups (P < 0.001). Of 30 patients with PF, 15 (50%) had bilateral PF and 15 (50%) unilateral PF. In addition, ≥4 mm thickness measurement, which was used as a diagnostic criterion for PF as a US finding, could be shown in 11 (73.3%) patients with unilateral PF and 6 (40%) patients with bilateral PF.

CONCLUSION

In conclusion, the evaluation of the diagnosis of PF with clinical findings and regular follow-up of measurements with SWE can provide measurement results with higher sensitivity in the diagnosis of PF.

Effects of Routine Antithrombotic-Adjusted Dose of Rivaroxaban and Nadroparin Calcium on Tendon Healing of Rats: An Experimental Study

Introduction Achilles tendon injury necessitates thromboembolism prophylaxis after repair. This study aimed to investigate the effects of antithrombotic-adjusted prophylactic doses of nadroparin calcium and rivaroxaban on Achilles tendon healing.

Materials and Methods Twenty-four young adult male Wistar Albino type rats were randomly divided into three groups. All rats underwent a full-thickness surgical incision of the Achilles tendon, followed by primary repair. After the procedure, group 1 was determined as the control group and received no medication. Group 2 received 2.03 mg/kg rivaroxaban daily via gastric lavage once daily, and group 3 was given subcutaneous 114 IU AXa nadroparin calcium once daily for 28 days. After euthanization, the degrees of inflammation, neovascularization, fibroblastic activity, and collagen fiber sequencing were examined and scored for histopathological evaluation. The Statistical Package for Social Science (SPSS) version 21.0 for Windows software (SPSS, Inc., Chicago, Illinois, United States) was used for all statistical analyses. The number of inflammatory cells, capillary vessels, and fibroblasts, which met the parametric tests’ assumptions, were compared between three independent groups by one-way analysis of variance. The significance level was set at p-value < 0.05.

Results Histological examination of the group 1 sample showed the presence of inflammatory cells, an increase in the number of fibroblasts, and sequencing of collagen fibers scattered. The presence of inflammatory cells, remarkable increases in the number of fibroblasts, the presence of mature collagen fibers, and regular sequencing of collagen fibers regular were shown in groups 2 and 3. There were statistically significant differences between the groups regarding the number of inflammatory cells and fibroblasts. In group 2, the number of inflammatory cells was lower than in groups 1 and 3. Elsewhere, the number of fibroblasts was higher in group 1 compared than in groups 2 and 3.

Conclusion Both rivaroxaban and nadroparin calcium in their daily dosage have a beneficial effect on Achilles tendon healing.

New Viscoelastic Hydrogel Hymovis MO.RE. Single Intra-articular Injection for the Treatment of Knee Osteoarthritis in Sportsmen: Safety and Efficacy Study Results

Viscosupplementation by hyaluronic acid (HA) is recommended for non-surgical management of knee osteoarthritis (OA). This study investigated the efficacy and safety of a single i.a. (32 mg/4 ml) Hymovis MO.RE. injection, a new HA derivative hydrogel, for the treatment of adult regular sports players affected by knee OA arising from overuse injuries. Patients were prospectively enrolled if regularly practicing sports and diagnosed with Kellgren-Lawrence grade I-III OA. They received a single Hymovis MO.RE. intra-articular (i.a.) injection and were evaluated 30, 90, 180, and 360 days thereafter. The assessment involved measuring changes in knee function, pain, the activity of daily living (ADL), and quality of life (QOL) by using the Knee injury and Osteoarthritis Outcome Score (KOOS), GAIT analysis, the Western Ontario and McMaster Universities Osteoarthritis Index (WOMAC) scores for knee pain (WOMAC A) and function (WOMAC C), and a visual analogue scale (VAS) pain score. The study involved thirty-one patients, 23 women and eight men, whose median age was 49. KOOS function subscore, as well as GAIT cadence and velocity, showed a statistically significant increase at each time-point after injection (p < 0.0001). WOMAC, KOOS pain, symptoms, ADL, and QOL scores also significantly improved at all control visits. No severe adverse events or treatment-related events were detected. A single Hymovis MO.RE. (32 mg/4 ml) intra-articular injection provides a rapid, lasting, and safe response in regular sports players affected by knee OA, possibly representing a viable therapeutic option for this demanding patient subgroup. Further investigations are necessary to confirm these findings.

Platelet-Rich Plasma Applications for Achilles Tendon Repair: A Bridge between Biology and Surgery

Achilles tendon ruptures are very common tendon ruptures and their incidence is increasing in modern society, resulting in work incapacity and months off sport, which generate a need for accelerated and successful therapeutic repair strategy. Platelet-rich plasma (PRP) is emerging as adjuvant human blood-derived constructs to assist Achilles tendon rupture treatment. However, myriad PRP preparation methods in conjunction with poor standardization in the modalities of their applications impinge on the consistent effectiveness of clinical and structural outcomes regarding their therapeutic efficacy. The purpose of this review is to provide some light on the application of PRP for Achilles tendon ruptures. PRP has many characteristics that make it an attractive treatment. Elements such as the inclusion of leukocytes and erythrocytes within PRP, the absence of activation and activation ex vivo or in vivo, the modality of application, and the adjustment of PRP pH can influence the biology of the applied product and result in misleading therapeutic conclusions. The weakest points in demonstrating their consistent effectiveness are primarily the result of myriad PRP preparation methods and the poor standardization of modalities for their application. Selecting the right biological scaffold and applying it correctly to restitutio ad integrum of ruptured Achilles tendons remains a daunting and complex task.

Shear Wave Elastographic Study of the Myotendinous Junction of the Medial Gastrocnemius: Normal Patterns and Dynamic Evaluation

OBJECTIVES

The myotendinous junction (MTJ) represents a specialized anatomic region through which the contractile strength is transmitted from the muscle to the tendon. The integrity of this region is essential to permit force transmission and to optimize energy expenditure during walking, running, and globally for human movement. We evaluated the MTJ with shear wave elastography to assess its elasticity variation during a functional test.

METHODS

Forty professional soccer players were enrolled in the study. Shear wave elastography was performed at the level of the medial gastrocnemius MTJ both in a resting position and during a standing calf rise position to assess functional contraction.

RESULTS

All 40 participants were male, aged between 18 and 38 years (mean age, 25 years). The results of the elastographic study showed mean stiffness values ± SD of 4.19 ± 0.86 m/s for the right medial gastrocnemius and 4.20 ± 0.87 m/s for the left medial gastrocnemius with the muscle relaxed. During contraction, the stiffness values were 8.33 ± 0.5 m/s for the right medial gastrocnemius and 8.30 ± 0.48 m/s for the left medial gastrocnemius.

CONCLUSIONS

Our study showed an increase of stiffness at the level of the MTJ during muscle contraction. This result is in line with the physiologic stiffening of the MTJ to resist the high level of force applied during muscle contraction. Shear wave elastography could be a useful method to assess the characteristics of the MTJ under both physiologic and pathologic conditions.

Construction of Microunits by Adipose-Derived Mesenchymal Stem Cells Laden with Porous Microcryogels for Repairing an Acute Achilles Tendon Rupture in a Rat Model

Objective

Tissue engineering approaches seem to be an attractive therapy for tendon rupture. Novel injectable porous gelatin microcryogels (GMs) can promote cell attachment and proliferation, thus facilitating the repair potential for target tissue regeneration. The research objectives of this study were to assess the efficacy of tissue-like microunits constructed by multiple GMs laden with adipose-derived mesenchymal stem cells (ASCs) in accelerated tendon regeneration in a rat model.

Methods

Through a series of experiments, such as isolation and identification of ASCs, scanning electron microscopy, mercury intrusion porosimetry (MIP), laser scanning confocal microscopy and the CCK-8 test, the biocompatibility of GMs was evaluated. In an in vivo study, 64 rat right transected Achilles tendons were randomly divided into four groups: the ASCs+GMs group (microunits aggregated by multiple ASC-laden GMs injected into the gap), the ASCs group (ASCs injected into the gap), the GMs group (GMs injected into the gap) and the blank defect group (non-treated). At 2 and 4 weeks postoperatively, the healing tissue was harvested to evaluate the gross observation and scoring, biomechanical testing, histological staining and quantitative scoring. Gait analysis was performed over time. The 64 rats were randomly assigned into 4 groups: (1) micro-unit group (ASCs+GMs) containing ASC (10⁵)-loaded 120 GMs in 60 μL DMEM; (2) cell control group (ASCs) containing 10⁶ ASCs in 60 μL DMEM; (3) GM control group (GMs) containing 120 blank GMs in 60 μL DMEM; (4) blank defect group (Defect) containing 60 μL DMEM, which were injected into the defect sites. All animals were sacrificed at 2 and 4 weeks postsurgery (Table 1).

Results

In an in vitro study, GMs (from 126 μm to 348 μm) showed good porosities and a three-dimensional void structure with a good interpore connectivity of the micropores and exhibited excellent biocompatibility with ASCs. As the culture time elapsed, the extracellular matrix (ECM) secreted by ASCs encased the GMs, bound multiple microspheres together, and then formed active tendon tissue-engineering microunits. In animal experiments, the ASCs+GMs group and the ASCs group showed stimulatory effects on Achilles tendon healing. Moreover, the ASCs+GMs group was the best at improving the macroscopic appearance, histological morphology, Achilles functional index (AFI), and biomechanical properties of repair tissue without causing adverse immune reactions.

Conclusion

Porous GMs were conducive to promoting cell proliferation and facilitating ECM secretion. The ASCs-GMs matrices showed an obvious therapeutic efficiency for Achilles tendon rupture in rats.

Evaluation of plantar fasciopathy shear wave elastography: a comparison between patients and healthy subjects

PURPOSE

The aim of this study is to compare elasticity features between patients with plantar fasciitis (PFis) and an asymptomatic healthy control group using shear wave elastography (SWE) and to correlate SWE values with clinical scores.

METHODS

Consecutive patients diagnosed with PFis and asymptomatic subjects were enrolled in the present study. Both groups underwent clinical, ultrasound (US), and SWE evaluation. A plantar fascia thickness > 4 mm was considered pathognomonic of PFis. SWE stiffness elasticity (Young's modulus in kPa and shear wave velocity in m/s) was measured 1 cm distally from the calcaneal insertion. Correlations with VAS and the 17-Italian Foot Function Index (17-FFI) were determined.

RESULTS

A total of 19 patients satisfied the inclusion criteria for the patient group and were enrolled in the study, and 21 healthy subjects were used as a control group. Statistically significant differences were found for shear wave velocity between the patient and the control group, with SWE findings of 3.8 (5.1; 1.5) m/s and 4.7 (4.07; 7.04) m/s, respectively (p = 0.006). Strong positive correlations were found between the SWE findings and both the pain and the functional scale (VAS: p = 0.001; FFI: p = 0.012).

CONCLUSION

SWE allows quantitative assessment of the stiffness of the plantar fascia and can show PFis alterations, increasing the diagnostic performance of B-mode US. In addition, SWE shows a strong correlation with clinical scores, improving patient assessment and follow-up.

Cytokine and Growth Factor Delivery from Implanted Platelet-Rich Fibrin Enhances Rabbit Achilles Tendon Healing

Tendons are hypocellular and hypovascular tissues, and thus, their natural healing capacity is low. In this study, we sought to evaluate the efficacy of platelet-rich fibrin (PRF) to serve as a bioactive scaffold in promoting the healing of rabbit Achilles tendon injury. For in vitro study, the essence portion of PRF was determined through bioluminescent assay. Furthermore, we analyzed the time-sequential cytokines-release kinetics of PRF and evaluated their effects on tenocytes proliferation and tenogenic gene expressions. In animal study, the rabbit Achilles tendon defect was left untreated or implanted with normal/heat-denatured PRF scaffolds. Six weeks postoperatively, the specimens were evaluated through sonographic imaging and histological analysis. The results revealed significantly more activated platelets on bottom half of the PRF scaffold. Cytokine concentrations released from PRF could be detected from the first hour to six days. For the in vitro study, PRF enhanced cell viability and collagen I, collagen III, tenomodulin, and tenascin gene expression compared to the standard culture medium. For in vivo study, sonographic images revealed significantly better tendon healing in the PRF group in terms of tissue echogenicity and homogeneity. The histological analysis showed that the healing tissues in the PRF group had more organized collagen fiber, less vascularity, and minimal cartilage formation. In conclusion, bioactive PRF promotes in vitro tenocytes viability and tenogenic phenotypic differentiation. Administration of a PRF scaffold at the tendon defect promotes tissue healing as evidenced by imaging and histological outcomes.

Defining Components of Early Functional Rehabilitation for Acute Achilles Tendon Rupture: A Systematic Review

Background:

Early functional rehabilitation is frequently discussed in treating Achilles tendon rupture. A consistent definition of what constitutes early functional rehabilitation has not been established across the literature, despite studies supporting its efficacy. A standardized definition would be helpful to pool data across studies, allow for between-study comparisons, and ultimately work toward developing clinical guidelines.

Purpose:

To define early functional rehabilitation (including when it is initiated and what it entails) when used to treat Achilles tendon rupture and to identify outcome measures for evaluating the effect of treatment.

Study Design:

Systematic review; Level of evidence, 4.

Methods:

Ovid MEDLINE, EMBASE, PEDro, CINAHL, and Cochrane databases were searched for relevant studies. Eligibility criteria for selecting studies consisted of randomized controlled trials, cohort studies, and case series (≥10 participants) including weightbearing or exercise-based interventions within 8 weeks after Achilles tendon rupture.

Results:

A total of 174 studies published between 1979 and 2018 were included. Studies were rated a median (interquartile range [IQR]) of 17 (15-20) on the Downs & Black checklist and included 9098 participants. Early functional rehabilitation incorporated weightbearing (95%), range of motion (73%), and isometric/strengthening exercises (50%). Weightbearing was initiated within the first week, whereas exercise (eg, ankle range of motion, strengthening, whole-body conditioning) was initiated in the second week. Initiation of exercises varied based on whether treatment was nonsurgical (mean, 3.0 weeks; IQR, 2.0-4.0 weeks) or simple (mean, 2.0 weeks; IQR, 0.0-2.3 weeks) or augmented surgical repair (mean, 0.5 weeks; IQR, 0.0-2.8 weeks) (P = .017). Functional outcomes including ankle range of motion (n = 84) and strength (n = 76) were reported in 130 studies. Other outcome domains included patient-reported outcomes (n = 89), survey-based functional outcomes (n = 50), and tendon properties (n = 53).

Conclusion:

Early functional rehabilitation includes weightbearing and a variety of exercise-based interventions initiated within the first 2 weeks after acute Achilles tendon rupture/repair. Because early functional rehabilitation has lacked a standardized definition, interventions and outcome measures are highly variable, and pooling data across studies should be done with attention paid to what was included in the intervention and how treatment was assessed.

Platelet-Rich Fibrin and its Emerging Therapeutic Benefits for Musculoskeletal Injury Treatment

New therapies that accelerate musculoskeletal tissue recovery are highly desirable. Platelet-rich fibrin (PRF) is a leukocyte- and platelet-rich fibrin biomaterial that acts as a binding site for both platelets and growth factors. Through increasing the local concentration of growth factors at specific tissues, PRF promotes tissue regeneration. PRF has been frequently used in combination with bone graft materials to reduce healing times and promote bone regeneration during maxillofacial surgery. However, its benefits during muscle repair and recovery are less well-documented. Here, we perform a narrative review on PRF therapies and muscle injuries to ascertain its beneficial effects. We reviewed the factors that contribute to the biological activity of PRF and the published pre-clinical and clinical evidence to support its emerging use in musculoskeletal therapy. We include in vitro studies, in vivo animal studies and clinical articles highlighting both the success and failures of PRF treatment. PRF can promote the healing process when used in a range of orthopaedic and sports-related injuries. These include cartilage repair, rotator cuff surgery and anterior cruciate ligament surgery. However, conflicting data for these benefits have been reported, most likely due to inconsistencies in both PRF preparation protocols and dosing regimens. Despite this, the literature generally supports the use of PRF as a beneficial adjuvant for a range of chronic muscle, tendon, bone or other soft tissue injuries. Further clinical trials to confirm these benefits require consistency in PRF preparation and the classification of a successful clinical outcome to fully harness its potential.

Platelet-Rich Fibrin Scaffolds for Cartilage and Tendon Regenerative Medicine: From Bench to Bedside

Nowadays, research in Tissue Engineering and Regenerative Medicine is focusing on the identification of instructive scaffolds to address the requirements of both clinicians and patients to achieve prompt and adequate healing in case of injury. Among biomaterials, hemocomponents, and in particular Platelet-rich Fibrin matrices, have aroused widespread interest, acting as delivery platforms for growth factors, cytokines and immune/stem-like cells for immunomodulation; their autologous origin and ready availability are also noteworthy aspects, as safety- and cost-related factors and practical aspects make it possible to shorten surgical interventions. In fact, several authors have focused on the use of Platelet-rich Fibrin in cartilage and tendon tissue engineering, reporting an increasing number of in vitro, pre-clinical and clinical studies. This narrative review attempts to compare the relevant advances in the field, with particular reference being made to the regenerative role of platelet-derived growth factors, as well as the main pre-clinical and clinical research on Platelet-rich Fibrin in chondrogenesis and tenogenesis, thereby providing a basis for critical revision of the topic.

Management of acute Achilles tendon ruptures: A review

Objectives

The incidence of acute Achilles tendon rupture appears to be increasing. The aim of this study was to summarize various therapies for acute Achilles tendon rupture and discuss their relative merits.

Methods

A PubMed search about the management of acute Achilles tendon rupture was performed. The search was open for original manuscripts and review papers limited to publication from January 2006 to July 2017. A total of 489 papers were identified initially and finally 323 articles were suitable for this review.

Results

The treatments of acute Achilles tendon rupture include operative and nonoperative treatments. Operative treatments mainly consist of open repair, percutaneous repair, mini-open repair, and augmentative repair. Traditional open repair has lower re-rupture rates with higher risks of complications. Percutaneous repair and mini-open repair show similar re-rupture rates but lower overall complication rates when compared with open repair. Percutaneous repair requires vigilance against nerve damage. Functional rehabilitation combining protected weight-bearing and early controlled motion can effectively reduce re-rupture rates with satisfactory outcomes. Biological adjuncts help accelerating tendon healing by adhering rupture ends or releasing highly complex pools of signalling factors.

Conclusion

The optimum treatment for complete rupture remains controversial. Both mini-open repair and functional protocols are attractive alternatives, while biotherapy is a potential future development.

Cite this article: X. Yang, H. Meng, Q. Quan, J. Peng, S. Lu, A. Wang. Management of acute Achilles tendon ruptures: A review. Bone Joint Res 2018;7:561–569. DOI: 10.1302/2046-3758.710.BJR-2018-0004.R2.