Toxic leukoencephalopathies, including drug, medication, environmental, and radiation-induced encephalopathic syndromes

Atypical Demyelinating Disorders: MR Imaging Features, Atypical Triggers, and Etiopathogenesis

Atypical demyelinating lesions (ADLs) can be idiopathic, occurring as isolated and self-limited events, or can appear in different stages of relapsing demyelinating diseases. Not infrequently, ADLs occur in inflammatory syndromes associated with exogenous or endogenous toxic factors, metabolic imbalance, or infectious agents. It is important to recognize imaging patterns that indicate an inflammatory/demyelinating substrate in central nervous system lesions and to investigate potential triggers or complicating factors that might be associated. The prognostic and treatment strategies of ADLs are influenced by the underlying etiopathogenesis.

Toxic and Drug-Related White Matter Diseases of the Brain and Spine

Toxic leukoencephalopathy and myelopathy are common neurologic complications of a wide range of chemotherapeutic and substance abuse agents. During the last decade, there has been a significant change in the profile of white matter toxins, primarily driven by the development and usage of new chemotherapeutic and immunotherapeutic agents and by the continuous increase in illicit drug abuse with contaminants. Neuroimaging in the form of MR imaging forms the cornerstone in the diagnosis of these entities, many of which are reversible and amenable to rapid correction. Chronic white matter changes are also seen with these toxins with gradually progressive clinicoradiological findings.

Tacrolimus Induced Leukoencephalopathy and Stroke-Like Symptoms: Case Report

A 17-year-old female with sickle cell disease status post a recent stem cell transplant and on tacrolimus developed an acute expressive aphasia, dysphagia, and drooling. Brain MRI revealed diffuse restricted diffusion involving the bilateral corona radiata and areas of white matter in the right cerebral hemisphere most consistent with toxic leukoencephalopathy. Tacrolimus serum concentration was high at 19.3 ng/ml (ref 9-12 ng/ml) for which tacrolimus was discontinued. She was neurologically back at baseline 2 days later with the tacrolimus level improving to 8.2 ng/mL. Following discontinuation and the declining trend of her tacrolimus levels the patient returned to her neurologic baseline and was subsequently switched to mycophenolate mofetil for GVHD immunosuppression.

Central Nervous System Systemic Lupus Erythematosus: Pathophysiologic, Clinical, and Imaging Features

Systemic lupus erythematosus (SLE) is a systemic autoimmune disease characterized by multiple immunologic abnormalities and has the potential to involve the central nervous system (CNS). The prevalence of SLE seems to be growing, possibly because of earlier diagnosis and improved survival; however, the associated mortality is still high. The mortality is associated with disease-related risk factors such as lupus disease activity, young age, and organ damage or with antiphospholipid syndrome (APS). Neuropsychiatric SLE (NPSLE), which is caused by SLE-related CNS involvement, comprises a broad range of neurologic and psychiatric manifestations with varying severity, which can make this disease indistinguishable from other conditions that are unrelated to SLE. No unifying pathophysiology has been found in the etiology of NPSLE, suggesting that this condition has multiple contributors such as various immune effectors and the brain-intrinsic neuroimmune interfaces that are breached by the immune effectors. The postulated neuroimmune interfaces include the blood-brain barrier, blood-cerebrospinal fluid barrier, meningeal barrier, and glymphatic system. On the basis of the immunologic, pathologic, and imaging features of NPSLE, the underlying pathophysiology can be classified as vasculitis and vasculopathy, APS, demyelinating syndrome, or autoimmune antibody-mediated encephalitis. Each pathophysiology has different imaging characteristics, although the imaging and pathophysiologic features may overlap. Moreover, there are complications due to the immunocompromised status caused by SLE per se or by SLE treatment. Radiologists and clinicians should become familiar with the underlying mechanisms, radiologic findings, and complications of NPSLE, as this information may aid in the diagnosis and treatment of NPSLE. Online supplemental material is available for this article. ^©RSNA, 2022.

Drug-related demyelinating syndromes: understanding risk factors, pathophysiological mechanisms and magnetic resonance imaging findings

Some drugs and medications can precipitate immune system deregulations, which might be confused with recurrent demyelinating diseases, such as multiple sclerosis (MS) and neuromyelitis optica spectrum disorders (NMO), exacerbations of an existing disease, neoplastic lesions or other conditions. In this narrative review we describe some of the most relevant drugs and medications associated with iatrogenic demyelination. The anthelminthic agent levamisole is a frequent cocaine adulterant and can precipitate an exacerbated immune response attacking the central nervous system (CNS). High-efficacy multiple sclerosis (MS) drugs might induce a selective CNS immunosuppression, making it susceptible for opportunistic infections that course with demyelination, such as progressive multifocal leukoencephalopathy. Sometimes, the interruption of a high-efficacy drug to treat MS can induce a rapid CNS reentry of lymphocytes, exacerbating demyelinating processes and triggering rebound syndromes. Furthermore, selective cytokines inhibition, such as anti-TNFα agents, might induce an imbalance between cell death and proliferation inducing a paradoxical increase of CNS tumor necrosis factor (TNF), affecting the activity of lymphocytes, microglia and macrophages, triggering aberrant inflammation and demyelination. Immune checkpoint inhibitors are a new class of antineoplastic drugs that enhance the immune response against tumor cells by an upregulation of T-cell activity. However, this hyperactivation of the immune system might be associated with induction of unwanted autoimmune responses. In this paper we review the risk factors, the possible pathological mechanisms and the magnetic resonance imaging (MRI) findings of these drug-related demyelinating syndromes.

Intracranial long-term complications of radiation therapy: an image-based review

BACKGROUND AND PURPOSE

Radiation therapy is commonly utilized in the majority of solid cancers and many hematologic malignancies and other disorders. While it has an undeniably major role in improving cancer survival, radiation therapy has long been recognized to have various negative effects, ranging from mild to severe. In this manuscript, we review several intracranial manifestations of therapeutic radiation, with particular attention to those that may be encountered by radiologists.

METHODS

We conducted an extensive literature review of known complications of intracranial radiation therapy. Based on this review, we selected complications that had salient, recognizable imaging findings. We searched our imaging database for illustrative examples of these complications, focusing only on patients who had a history of intracranial radiation therapy. We then selected cases that best exemplified expected imaging findings in these entities.

RESULTS

Based on our initial literature search and imaging database review, we selected cases of radiation-induced meningioma, radiation-induced glioma, cavernous malformation, enlarging perivascular spaces, leukoencephalopathy, stroke-like migraine after radiation therapy, Moyamoya syndrome, radiation necrosis, radiation-induced labyrinthitis, optic neuropathy, and retinopathy. Although retinopathy is not typically apparent on imaging, it has been included given its clinical overlap with optic neuropathy.

CONCLUSIONS

We describe the clinical and imaging features of selected sequelae of intracranial radiation therapy, with a focus on those most relevant to practicing radiologists. Knowledge of these complications and their imaging findings is important, because radiologists play a key role in early detection of these entities.

Pediatric Acute Toxic Leukoencephalopathy: Prediction of the Clinical Outcome by FLAIR and DWI for Various Etiologies

BACKGROUND AND PURPOSE

Pediatric acute toxic leukoencephalopathy is a clinicoradiologic entity comprising various etiologies. This study aimed to identify the MR imaging appearance of pediatric acute toxic leukoencephalopathy from various etiologies and determine whether the etiology correlates with clinical outcome.

MATERIALS AND METHODS

We retrospectively reviewed the electronic records of patients with pediatric acute toxic leukoencephalopathy younger than 19 years of age who had MR imaging within <2 weeks of presentation, including DWI and FLAIR sequences. Two neuroradiologists scored the DWI and FLAIR severity and measured the percentage ADC reduction within the visibly affected regions and normal-appearing WM. The percentage ADC reduction and DWI and FLAIR severity were correlated with clinical outcome using the Spearman correlation.

RESULTS

Of 22 children, 3 were excluded due to a nontoxic cause or incomplete examination. Regarding the included 19 children (mean age, 13 years), the etiologies of pediatric acute toxic leukoencephalopathy were the following: methotrexate (n = 6), bone marrow transplantation (n = 4), fludarabine (n = 3), cytarabine (n = 1), carboplatin (n = 1), vincristine (n = 1), cyclosporine (n = 1), uremia (n = 1), and bevacizumab (n = 1). Three subgroups were analyzed (chemotherapy, n = 12; immunosuppression, n = 5; others, n = 2). There was a strong correlation of FLAIR (r  = 0.773, P < .001) and DWI (r = 0.851, P < .001) severity with clinical outcome, and patients treated with fludarabine had the worst outcomes. High percentage ADC reduction values were associated with adverse outcomes, and lower percentage ADC reduction values were associated with favorable outcomes (r = 0.570, P = .011).

CONCLUSIONS

The DWI and FLAIR severity scores appear highly prognostic, whereas percentage ADC reduction is moderately prognostic for clinical outcomes in pediatric acute toxic leukoencephalopathy. Immunosuppressive pediatric acute toxic leukoencephalopathy tends toward favorable outcomes, and fludarabine tends toward worse outcomes.

Full Recovery From Cocaine-Induced Toxic Leukoencephalopathy: Emphasizing the Role of Neuroinflammation and Brain Edema

Toxic leukoencephalopathy (TL) is characterized by white matter disease on magnetic resonance imaging (MRI) and evidence of exposure to a neurotoxic agent. We describe a case of cocaine-induced TL in which extensive white matter disease did not preclude full recovery. A 57-year-old man with substance abuse disorder presented with a 5-day history of strange behavior. On admission, he was alert but had difficulty concentrating, psychomotor retardation, and diffuse hyperreflexia. Brain MRI revealed confluent subcortical white matter hyperintensities with restricted diffusion in some but not in other areas. Electroencephalography (EEG) showed mild diffuse slowing. Blood tests were normal except for mild hyperammonemia. Urine screen was positive for cocaine and benzodiazepine but quantitative analysis was significant only for cocaine. Prednisone 60-mg qd was initiated on day 4, tapered over a 5-day period, and discontinued on day 9. He was discharged after 3 weeks. Cognitive function returned to normal 2 weeks after discharge. Five months later, neurologic exam and EEG were normal and MRI showed near-100% resolution of white matter lesions. TL has been attributed to white matter ischemia/hypoxia resulting in demyelination/axonal injury. The clinical, EEG, and MRI findings and time course of recovery of our patient suggest that cocaine-induced inflammation/edema resulted in TL but not in ischemic/hypoxic injury. While inflammation/edema may have regressed when cocaine was discontinued, we cannot exclude a role for prednisone in protecting the patient from the ischemic/hypoxic sequelae of inflammation/edema. MRI is indispensable for diagnosing TL but EEG may provide additional useful diagnostic and prognostic information.

Diffusion-Weighted MR Imaging in a Prospective Cohort of Children with Cerebral Malaria Offers Insights into Pathophysiology and Prognosis

BACKGROUND AND PURPOSE

Validation of diffusion-weighted images obtained on 0.35T MR imaging in Malawi has facilitated meaningful review of previously unreported findings in cerebral malaria. Malawian children with acute cerebral malaria demonstrated restricted diffusion on brain MR imaging, including an unusual pattern of restriction isolated to the subcortical white matter. We describe the patterns of diffusion restriction in cerebral malaria and further evaluate risk factors for and outcomes associated with an isolated subcortical white matter diffusion restriction.

MATERIALS AND METHODS

Between 2009 and 2014, comatose Malawian children admitted to the hospital with cerebral malaria underwent admission brain MR imaging. Imaging data were compiled via NeuroInterp, a RedCap data base. Clinical information obtained included coma score, serum studies, and coma duration. Electroencephalograms were obtained between 2009 and 2011. Outcomes captured included death, neurologic sequelae, or full recovery.

RESULTS

One hundred ninety-four/269 (72.1%) children with cerebral malaria demonstrated at least 1 area of diffusion restriction. The most common pattern was bilateral subcortical white matter involvement (41.6%), followed by corpus callosum (37.5%), deep gray matter (36.8%), cortical gray matter (17.8%), and posterior fossa (8.9%) involvement. Sixty-one (22.7%) demonstrated isolated subcortical white matter diffusion restriction. These children had lower whole-blood lactate levels (OR, 0.9; 95% CI, 0.85-0.98), were less likely to require anticonvulsants (OR, 0.6; 95% CI, 0.30-0.98), had higher average electroencephalogram voltage (OR, 1.01; 95% CI, 1.00-1.02), were less likely to die (OR, 0.09; 95% CI, 0.01-0.67), and were more likely to recover without neurologic sequelae (OR, 3.7; 95% CI, 1.5-9.1).

CONCLUSIONS

Restricted diffusion is common in pediatric cerebral malaria. Isolated subcortical white matter diffusion restriction is a unique imaging pattern associated with less severe disease and a good prognosis for full recovery. The underlying pathophysiology may be related to selective white matter vulnerability.

Cytotoxic Lesions of the Corpus Callosum Caused by Thermogenic Dietary Supplements

Consumption of over-the-counter dietary supplements to reduce body weight is common among the population. Thermogenics are herbal combinations that claim to produce a fat-burning process through an increase in the cellular metabolic rate and greater cellular energy consumption, having a high risk for patients developing toxic leukoencephalopathy. We present a series of 6 patients with acute neurologic symptoms and MR imaging showing restricted diffusion and decreased apparent diffusion coefficient values (mean value, 400 mm²/s × 10^-6) in the entire corpus callosum compatible with a cytotoxic lesion of the corpus callosum. Although patients responded favorably to the product discontinuation with rapid recovery of neurologic symptoms, there was a more prolonged resolution on imaging alterations. Because of the widespread availability and unregulated nature of thermogenic dietary supplements, physicians must be aware of the clinical and radiologic characteristics of these potential complications of their use.

"CHOICES": An acronym to aid in delineating potential causes of non-metabolic, non-infectious acute toxic leukoencephalopathy

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Recognition the etiologies of ATL is important due to its potentially reversible nature after treatment or removal of the toxin.

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“CHOICES” is useful to memorize etiologies associated with PVWM injury in non-metabolic and non-infectious ATL patients.

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Reduced diffusion is an early and important imaging finding to evaluate patients with non-metabolic and non-infectious ATL patients.

Purpose

To describe non-metabolic, non-infectious etiologies of acute toxic leukoencephalopathy (ATL) on DWI MRI, and provide a useful acronym to remember them.

Material and Methods

Our PACS archive was reviewed, yielding 185 patients with suspected ATL per MRI reports and clinical follow up; infectious or metabolic causes were excluded.

Result/Discussion

The 87 included non-infectious, non-metabolic ATL patients' etiologies are represented by the acronym 'CHOICES': chemotherapy ('C',n = 34); heroin-induced ('H',n = 6), opioid analogues ('O',n = 14); immunosuppressant ('I',n = 11) or imidazole (n = 2); cocaine ('C',n = 1); environmental or ethanol abuse ('E',n = 5), splenial lesions ('S',n = 9), and 'other' (n = 5).

Conclusion

The "CHOICES" acronym delineates various toxic etiologies of ATL.

Acute Toxic Leukoencephalopathy: Etiologies, Imaging Findings, and Outcomes in 101 Patients

BACKGROUND AND PURPOSE

Prior studies regarding acute toxic leukoencephalopathy (ATL) are either small, or preliminary. Our aim was to evaluate etiologies of and differences in imaging severity and outcomes among various etiologies of ATL.

MATERIALS AND METHODS

MRIs of patients with suspected ATL over 15 years were retrospectively reviewed; inclusion criteria were: MRI <3 weeks of presentation with both DWI and FLAIR. These were jointly graded by two neuroradiologists via a previously described score of severity. Clinical outcome was evaluated via both modified Rankin (mRS) and ATL outcome (ATLOS) scores, each being correlated with the DWI and FLAIR scores. Etiologic subgroups of n > 6 patients were statistically compared.

RESULTS

Of 101 included patients, the 4 subgroups of n > 6 were the following: chemotherapy (n = 35), opiates (n = 19), acute hepatic encephalopathy (n = 14), and immunosuppressants (n = 11). Other causes (n = 22 total) notably included carbon monoxide (n = 3) metronidazole (n = 2), and uremia (n = 1). The mean DWI/FLAIR severity scores were 2.6/2.3, 3.3/3.3, 2.1/2.1 and 2.0/2.5 for chemotherapeutics, opiates, AHE and immunosuppressants, respectively, with significant differences in both imaging severity and outcome (P = .003-.032) among subgroups, particularly immunosuppressant versus chemotherapy-related ATL and immunosuppressants versus opiates (P = .004-.032) related ATL. DWI and FLAIR severity weakly correlated with outcome (ρ = 0.289-.349, P < .005) but correlated stronger in the chemotherapy (ρ = 0.460-.586, P < .010) and opiate (ρ =.472-.608, P < .05) subgroups, which had the worst outcomes. ATL clinically resolved in 36%, with severe outcomes in 23% (coma or death, 9/16 deaths from fludarabine). Notable laboratory results were elevated CSF myelin basic protein levels in 8/9 patients and serum blood urea nitrogen levels in 24/91.

CONCLUSIONS

Clinical outcomes of ATL vary on the basis of etiology, being worse in chemotherapeutic- and opiate-related ATL. Uremia may be a predisposing or exacerbating factor.

Concomitant Acute Toxic Leukoencephalopathy and Posterior Reversible Encephalopathy Syndrome

BACKGROUND AND PURPOSE

Posterior reversible encephalopathy syndrome (PRES) and acute toxic leukoencephalopathy (ATL) are both potentially reversible clinicoradiologic entities. Although their magnetic resonance imaging (MRI) findings differ, rarely both may occur simultaneously in acutely encephalopathic patients. Our aim was to determine the incidence and causes of concomitant "ATL-PRES."

METHODS

Retrospective search of suspected acutely encephalopathic adults since 1998 throughout our picture archiving and communication system revealed 167 patients with PRES and 106 patients with ATL. Images of these patients were retrospectively evaluated by two neuroradiologists and a fellow to identify the cases which carry both features of PRES and ATL. Imaging findings were scored based on previously reported scoring system as mild, moderate, and severe. The clinical outcome of the patients was determined according to the modified Rankin scale.

RESULTS

Our search revealed a series of 6 patients (%2.2) in 273 patients who presented acutely with either encephalopathy or seizures, caused by various etiologies, including immunosuppression following transplantation (n = 2), hypertensive crisis (n = 2), chemotherapy (n = 1), and sepsis (n = 1). MRI demonstrated findings consistent with both PRES and ATL simultaneously on FLAIR and diffusion weighted imaging. Severity of imaging findings of concomitant "ATL-PRES" was concordant with each other (rho ≈ 1.0, P < .00001), and each patient eventually returned to clinical baseline. This finding, along with their similar etiologies, raises the possibility of an underlying common pathophysiologic thread, perhaps being endothelial toxicity.

CONCLUSIONS

Concomitant "ATL-PRES" was found in 2.2% of the patients in a large cohort of ATL and PRES. Etiologies varied. Clinical symptoms and MRI findings were potentially reversible.

White Matter Diseases with Radiologic-Pathologic Correlation

White matter diseases include a wide spectrum of disorders that have in common impairment of normal myelination, either by secondary destruction of previously myelinated structures (demyelinating processes) or by primary abnormalities of myelin formation (dysmyelinating processes). The pathogenesis of many white matter diseases remains poorly understood. Demyelinating disorders are the object of this review and will be further divided into autoimmune, infectious, vascular, and toxic-metabolic processes. Autoimmune processes include multiple sclerosis and related diseases: tumefactive demyelinating lesions, Balo concentric sclerosis, Marburg and Schilder variants, neuromyelitis optica (Devic disease), acute disseminated encephalomyelitis, and acute hemorrhagic leukoencephalopathy (Hurst disease). Infectious processes include Lyme disease (neuroborreliosis), progressive multifocal leukoencephalopathy, and human immunodeficiency virus (HIV) encephalopathy. Vascular processes include different types of small-vessel disease: arteriolosclerosis, cerebral amyloid angiopathy, cerebral autosomal-dominant arteriopathy with subcortical infarcts and leukoencephalopathy (CADASIL), primary angiitis of the central nervous system, Susac syndrome, and neurolupus. Toxic-metabolic processes include osmotic myelinolysis, methotrexate leukoencephalopathy, and posterior reversible encephalopathy syndrome. The imaging spectrum can vary widely from small multifocal white matter lesions to confluent or extensive white matter involvement. Understanding the pathologic substrate is fundamental for understanding the radiologic manifestations, and a systematic approach to the radiologic findings, in correlation with clinical and laboratory data, is crucial for narrowing the differential diagnosis. (©)RSNA, 2016.

Current Clinical Brain Tumor Imaging

Neuroimaging plays an ever evolving role in the diagnosis, treatment planning, and post-therapy assessment of brain tumors. This review provides an overview of current magnetic resonance imaging (MRI) methods routinely employed in the care of the brain tumor patient. Specifically, we focus on advanced techniques including diffusion, perfusion, spectroscopy, tractography, and functional MRI as they pertain to noninvasive characterization of brain tumors and pretreatment evaluation. The utility of both structural and physiological MRI in the post-therapeutic brain evaluation is also reviewed with special attention to the challenges presented by pseudoprogression and pseudoresponse.

Acute toxic leukoencephalopathy associated with a non-prescription weight loss supplement: a report of two cases

Weight loss dietary supplements are used with some frequency by an increasingly overweight population. Some products are not adequately regulated and may pose potential health risks. We report two new cases of acute toxic leukoencephalopathy (ATL) due to the use of a supplement marketed as a thermogenic weight loss aid. ATL is a heterogeneous clinic-radiological entity that has been associated with various compounds, such as chemotherapeutic drugs and immunomodulators. It is characterized by an often reversible periventricular and infratentorial demyelination. The commercialization of non-regulated weight loss products continues to be a health risk in our population.

Chronic Graft-versus-host Disease Presenting with Multiple Punctate Intracranial Lesions on Contrast-enhanced Magnetic Resonance Imaging

Central nervous system graft-versus-host disease can present quite a diagnostic challenge. We herein present a case of histologically-confirmed chronic graft versus host disease (GVHD) involving the central nervous system that occurred at 19 months after peripheral blood stem cell transplantation. Cranial magnetic resonance imaging showed areas of confluent hyperintensity in the deep/subcortical white matter with multiple punctate and curvilinear gadolinium enhancements, suggesting the disruption of the blood-brain barrier. A brain biopsy revealed perivascular CD3-positive T cell infiltration around the small vessels. We propose that the detection of punctate-enhanced lesions by magnetic resonance imaging may be a useful finding that facilitates the early diagnosis of chronic GVHD involving the central nervous system.

Diagnosis and Treatment of Childhood Migraine

OPINION STATEMENT

While the diagnosis of migraine in children is generally straightforward, treatment can seem complex with a number of medication choices, many of which are used "off label." Patients with intermittent migraines can often be managed with ibuprofen or naproxen taken as needed. Unfortunately, by the time that children present to our practice, they have often tried these medications without improvement. Triptans are frequently prescribed to these patients with good success. It is important to make the patient aware of the possible associated serotonergic reactions. If the patient is having more than one headache per week or the headaches are prolonged, prophylactic treatment is indicated. In our practice, the overwhelming majority of these patients will be treated with amitriptyline or topiramate. We generally allow side effect tolerability to guide our choice of medication. Cyproheptadine is often used in younger patients as it comes in a liquid form. There is evidence supporting the use of propranolol, though the potential worsening of underlying asthma symptoms may limit its use, and sodium valproate, which must be used with caution in female patients of childbearing age due to significant teratogenicity risks. Other prophylactic treatments with less robust evidence include the antiepileptic drugs gabapentin, zonisamide, and levetiracetam; calcium channel blockers such as verapamil and amlodipine; and the angiotensin receptor blocking agent candasartin (not available in the USA). Almost all patients in our practice are advised to take magnesium supplementation. Magnesium is a supplement with relatively few adverse effects and good evidence for improvement of migraine symptoms. We evaluate lifestyle issues and comorbidities in all our patients. Ignoring these will make successful treatment near impossible. Good sleep, adequate hydration, appropriate diet, and exercise are vitally important. Finally, most of our patients benefit from a psychology evaluation with cognitive behavioral therapy. Stress management and biofeedback are tremendously helpful in improving quality of life in migraineurs.

Cognitive outcome after radiotherapy in brain tumor

PURPOSE OF REVIEW

Survival of brain tumor patients has increased with improvements in cancer treatments. However, treatments like radiotherapy can be neurotoxic and thus new end-points in clinical trials, as well as in individual management, have appeared. This article reviews the cognitive outcomes after radiotherapy in brain tumor patients, focusing on radiation-induced impairments, and then discusses actual cognitive assessment limitations.

RECENT FINDINGS

Although physiopathology of radiation-induced cognitive impairments remains elusive, a general course can be described as acute, early-delayed, and late-delayed effects corresponding to different processes. The last is of high interest because the related impairments are irreversible. In this context, a cognitive assessment should be performed as often as possible, but actual tools are unfortunately not developed. Nevertheless, with respect to neuro-oncologic specificities, new cognitive tools could be developed to overcome these limitations.

SUMMARY

Improvements in neuropsychologic assessment for brain tumor patients are urgently needed. A dynamic vision of radiation-induced cognitive impairments appears inevitable and should lead to a change in actual considerations about neurotoxicity follow-up.

Susceptibility-weighted imaging in stroke-like migraine attacks after radiation therapy syndrome

INTRODUCTION

Stroke-like migraine attacks after radiation therapy (SMART) syndrome has a characteristic clinical presentation and postcontrast T1WI MRI appearance. Susceptibility-weighted imaging (SWI) may help distinguish SMART from other disorders that may have a similar postcontrast MRI appearance.

METHODS

The MRI examinations of four patients with SMART syndrome are described herein, each of which included SWI, FLAIR, DWI, and postcontrast T1WI on the presenting and follow-up MRI examinations.

RESULTS

In each, the initial SWI MRI demonstrated numerous susceptibility hypointensities <5 mm in size throughout the cerebrum, particularly within the periventricular white matter (PVWM), presumably related to radiation-induced cavernous hemangiomas (RICHs). By follow-up MRI, each postcontrast examination had demonstrated resolution of the gyriform enhancement on T1WI, without susceptibility hypointensities on SWI within those previously enhancing regions.

CONCLUSION

These preliminary findings suggest that SWI may help identify SMART syndrome or at least help discriminate it from other disorders, by the findings of numerous susceptibility hypointensities on SWI likely representing RICHs, gyriform enhancement on T1WI, and postsurgical findings or appropriate clinical history.

Comprehensive diagnostics in a case of hereditary diffuse leukodystrophy with spheroids

Background

Hereditary diffuse leukodystrophy with spheroids is a rare type of leukoencephalopathy. Mutations in the colony stimulating factor 1 receptor have recently been identified to be the cause of this microgliopathy. Clinical and radiological presentation can often misguide physicians during the diagnosis of patients with this underdiagnosed disease.

Case presentation

We present a 29 year-old woman with a rapid course of hereditary diffuse leukodystrophy with spheroids. She mainly showed cognitive impairment and severe motor dysfunctions. Her MRI showed spotted and confluent hyperintensities of the white matter on T2-weighted images involving the corticospinal tract as well as the corpus callosum. Further, those lesions showed striking restricted diffusion. As this restricted diffusion in all areas showing signs of leukoencephalopathy was so impressive we searched Medline for these terms and got hereditary diffuse leukodystrophy with spheroids as one of the first results. After a comprehensive diagnostic workup and exclusion of other leukoencephalopathies, stereotactic biopsy and genetic testing confirmed the diagnosis.

Conclusion

This case points out at two important features of hereditary diffuse leukodystrophy with spheroids being spotted and/or confluent leukoencephalopathy with areas of restricted diffusion. This might help to identify more patients with this underdiagnosed disease. Moreover, the rapid clinical course in our patient raises the question whether the relatively pronounced areas of restricted diffusion are indicative of a more acute progression of the disease.