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Tandavanitj R, Setthapramote C, De Lorenzo G, Sanchez-Velazquez R, Clark JJ, Rocchi M, McInnes C, Kohl A, Patel AH. Virus-like particles of louping ill virus elicit potent neutralizing antibodies targeting multimers of viral envelope protein. Vaccine 2024; 42:2429-2437. [PMID: 38458875 DOI: 10.1016/j.vaccine.2024.03.008] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 11/21/2023] [Revised: 03/01/2024] [Accepted: 03/04/2024] [Indexed: 03/10/2024]
Abstract
Louping ill virus (LIV) is a tick-borne flavivirus that predominantly causes disease in livestock, especially sheep in the British Isles. A preventive vaccine, previously approved for veterinary use but now discontinued, was based on an inactivated whole virion that likely provided protection by induction of neutralizing antibodies recognizing the viral envelope (E) protein. A major disadvantage of the inactivated vaccine was the need for high containment facilities for the propagation of infectious virus, as mandated by the hazard group 3 status of the virus. This study aimed to develop high-efficacy non-infectious protein-based vaccine candidates. Specifically, soluble envelope protein (sE), and virus-like particles (VLPs), comprised of the precursor of membrane and envelope proteins, were generated, characterized, and studied for their immunogenicity in mice. Results showed that the VLPs induced more potent virus neutralizing response compared to sE, even though the total anti-envelope IgG content induced by the two antigens was similar. Depletion of anti-monomeric E protein antibodies from mouse immune sera suggested that the neutralizing antibodies elicited by the VLPs targeted epitopes spanning the highly organized structure of multimer of the E protein, whereas the antibody response induced by sE focused on E monomers. Thus, our results indicate that VLPs represent a promising LIV vaccine candidate.
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Affiliation(s)
- Rapeepat Tandavanitj
- MRC-University of Glasgow Centre for Virus Research, Glasgow G61 1QH, Scotland, United Kingdom; Biologicals Research Group, Research and Development Institute, The Government Pharmaceutical Organization, Bangkok 10400, Thailand
| | - Chayanee Setthapramote
- MRC-University of Glasgow Centre for Virus Research, Glasgow G61 1QH, Scotland, United Kingdom; Department of Clinical Pathology, Faculty of Medicine Vajira Hospital, Navamindradhiraj University, Bangkok 10300, Thailand
| | - Giuditta De Lorenzo
- MRC-University of Glasgow Centre for Virus Research, Glasgow G61 1QH, Scotland, United Kingdom
| | | | - Jordan J Clark
- MRC-University of Glasgow Centre for Virus Research, Glasgow G61 1QH, Scotland, United Kingdom
| | - Mara Rocchi
- Moredun Research Institute, Midlothian EH26 0PZ, Scotland, United Kingdom
| | - Colin McInnes
- Moredun Research Institute, Midlothian EH26 0PZ, Scotland, United Kingdom
| | - Alain Kohl
- MRC-University of Glasgow Centre for Virus Research, Glasgow G61 1QH, Scotland, United Kingdom; Departments of Vector Biology and Tropical Disease Biology, Liverpool School of Tropical Medicine, Pembroke Place, Liverpool, United Kingdom
| | - Arvind H Patel
- MRC-University of Glasgow Centre for Virus Research, Glasgow G61 1QH, Scotland, United Kingdom.
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Goats Naturally Infected with the Spanish Goat Encephalitis Virus (SGEV): Pathological Features and An Outbreak. Animals (Basel) 2022; 13:ani13010072. [PMID: 36611682 PMCID: PMC9817905 DOI: 10.3390/ani13010072] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 11/28/2022] [Revised: 12/13/2022] [Accepted: 12/22/2022] [Indexed: 12/28/2022] Open
Abstract
In autumn 2011, a disease outbreak caused by Spanish goat encephalitis virus (SGEV) was reported in a herd of goats from Asturias (north-western Spain), expanding the known geographic distribution of tick-borne encephalitis in Europe. The virus was classified as a new subtype (subspecies) within the Louping-ill virus species of the mammalian tick-borne flavivirus group. The aims of the present study were to describe the pathology in goats naturally infected with SGEV, as well as discuss the pathogenesis of the disease in that outbreak. A total of 22/85 (25.88%) goats (20 adults and 2 kids) died between October 2011 and June 2012, showing neurological clinical signs. Over three years, the mortality rate in the herd reached 100%. Neuropathological lesions caused by SGEV were severe and widespread throughout the central nervous system but were more severe and numerous in the proximal cervical spinal cord, medulla oblongata, pons and cerebellar cortex. They consisted of neuron necrosis, neuronophagia, mononuclear inflammatory cell perivascular cuffs (lymphocytes, plasma cells and macrophages) and gliosis. The distribution of viral antigens was restricted to the cytoplasm of neurons in several brain areas but not associated with inflammatory foci nor inflammatory cells. SGEV should be considered a significant pathogen of goats that results in severe neurological clinical disease and high mortality.
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Springer A, Glass A, Probst J, Strube C. Tick-borne zoonoses and commonly used diagnostic methods in human and veterinary medicine. Parasitol Res 2021; 120:4075-4090. [PMID: 33459849 PMCID: PMC8599405 DOI: 10.1007/s00436-020-07033-3] [Citation(s) in RCA: 10] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 10/30/2020] [Accepted: 12/21/2020] [Indexed: 12/20/2022]
Abstract
Around the world, human health and animal health are closely linked in terms of the One Health concept by ticks acting as vectors for zoonotic pathogens. Animals do not only maintain tick cycles but can either be clinically affected by the same tick-borne pathogens as humans and/or play a role as reservoirs or sentinel pathogen hosts. However, the relevance of different tick-borne diseases (TBDs) may vary in human vs. veterinary medicine, which is consequently reflected by the availability of human vs. veterinary diagnostic tests. Yet, as TBDs gain importance in both fields and rare zoonotic pathogens, such as Babesia spp., are increasingly identified as causes of human disease, a One Health approach regarding development of new diagnostic tools may lead to synergistic benefits. This review gives an overview on zoonotic protozoan, bacterial and viral tick-borne pathogens worldwide, discusses commonly used diagnostic techniques for TBDs, and compares commercial availability of diagnostic tests for humans vs. domestic animals, using Germany as an example, with the aim of highlighting existing gaps and opportunities for collaboration in a One Health framework.
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Affiliation(s)
- Andrea Springer
- Institute for Parasitology, Centre for Infection Medicine, University of Veterinary Medicine Hannover, Buenteweg 17, 30559, Hanover, Germany
| | - Antje Glass
- Institute for Parasitology, Centre for Infection Medicine, University of Veterinary Medicine Hannover, Buenteweg 17, 30559, Hanover, Germany
| | - Julia Probst
- Institute for Parasitology, Centre for Infection Medicine, University of Veterinary Medicine Hannover, Buenteweg 17, 30559, Hanover, Germany
| | - Christina Strube
- Institute for Parasitology, Centre for Infection Medicine, University of Veterinary Medicine Hannover, Buenteweg 17, 30559, Hanover, Germany.
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Martínez IZ, Pérez-Martínez C, Salinas LM, Juste RA, García Marín JF, Balseiro A. Phenotypic Characterization of Encephalitis and Immune Response in the Brains of Lambs Experimentally Infected with Spanish Goat Encephalitis Virus. Animals (Basel) 2020; 10:ani10081373. [PMID: 32784781 PMCID: PMC7459603 DOI: 10.3390/ani10081373] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 07/10/2020] [Revised: 07/30/2020] [Accepted: 08/05/2020] [Indexed: 11/20/2022] Open
Abstract
Simple Summary This article studies the local immune response in the central nervous system (CNS) in lambs experimentally infected with Spanish goat encephalitis virus. CNS sections were immunostained to detect microglia, astrocytes, T lymphocytes, and B lymphocytes. In glial foci and perivascular cuffing areas, microglia were the most abundant cell type (45.4% of immunostained cells), followed by T lymphocytes (18.6%) and B lymphocytes (4.4%). Reactive astrogliosis occurred to a greater extent in the lumbosacral spinal cord. Thalamus, hypothalamus, corpus callosum, and medulla oblongata cord contained the largest areas occupied by glial foci. Lesions were more severe in lambs than in goats. Abstract Spanish goat encephalitis virus (SGEV), a novel subtype of tick-borne flavivirus closely related to louping ill virus, causes a neurological disease in experimentally infected goats and lambs. Here, the distribution of microglia, T and B lymphocytes, and astrocytes was determined in the encephalon and spinal cord of eight Assaf lambs subcutaneously infected with SGEV. Cells were identified based on immunohistochemical staining against Iba1 (microglia), CD3 (T lymphocytes), CD20 (B lymphocytes), and glial fibrillary acidic protein (astrocytes). In glial foci and perivascular cuffing areas, microglia were the most abundant cell type (45.4% of immunostained cells), followed by T lymphocytes (18.6%) and B lymphocytes (4.4%). Thalamus, hypothalamus, corpus callosum, and medulla oblongata contained the largest areas occupied by glial foci. Reactive astrogliosis occurred to a greater extent in the lumbosacral spinal cord than in other regions of the central nervous system. Lesions were more frequent on the side of the animal experimentally infected with the virus. Lesions were more severe in lambs than in goats, suggesting that lambs may be more susceptible to SGEV, which may be due to species differences or to interindividual differences in the immune response, rather than to differences in the relative proportions of immune cells. Larger studies that monitor natural or experimental infections may help clarify local immune responses to this flavivirus subtype in the central nervous system.
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Affiliation(s)
- Ileana Z. Martínez
- Departamento de Sanidad Animal, Facultad de Veterinaria, Universidad de León, 24006 León, Spain; (I.Z.M.); (C.P.-M.); (L.M.S.); (J.F.G.M.)
- Universidad Popular Autónoma del Estado de Puebla, UPAEP Universidad, Puebla 72410, Mexico
| | - Claudia Pérez-Martínez
- Departamento de Sanidad Animal, Facultad de Veterinaria, Universidad de León, 24006 León, Spain; (I.Z.M.); (C.P.-M.); (L.M.S.); (J.F.G.M.)
| | - Luis M. Salinas
- Departamento de Sanidad Animal, Facultad de Veterinaria, Universidad de León, 24006 León, Spain; (I.Z.M.); (C.P.-M.); (L.M.S.); (J.F.G.M.)
- Universidad Internacional Antonio de Valdivieso, UNIAV, 47000 Rivas, Nicaragua
| | - Ramón A. Juste
- Animal Health Department, NEIKER-Instituto Vasco de Investigación y Desarrollo Agrario, 48160 Derio, Bizkaia, Spain;
| | - Juan F. García Marín
- Departamento de Sanidad Animal, Facultad de Veterinaria, Universidad de León, 24006 León, Spain; (I.Z.M.); (C.P.-M.); (L.M.S.); (J.F.G.M.)
- Departamento de Sanidad Animal, Instituto de Ganadería de Montaña, CSIC-Universidad de León, Finca Marzanas, Grulleros, 24346 León, Spain
| | - Ana Balseiro
- Departamento de Sanidad Animal, Facultad de Veterinaria, Universidad de León, 24006 León, Spain; (I.Z.M.); (C.P.-M.); (L.M.S.); (J.F.G.M.)
- Departamento de Sanidad Animal, Instituto de Ganadería de Montaña, CSIC-Universidad de León, Finca Marzanas, Grulleros, 24346 León, Spain
- Correspondence:
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5
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Gilbert L, Brülisauer F, Willoughby K, Cousens C. Identifying Environmental Risk Factors for Louping Ill Virus Seroprevalence in Sheep and the Potential to Inform Wildlife Management Policy. Front Vet Sci 2020; 7:377. [PMID: 32695800 PMCID: PMC7339109 DOI: 10.3389/fvets.2020.00377] [Citation(s) in RCA: 1] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 08/07/2019] [Accepted: 05/28/2020] [Indexed: 11/18/2022] Open
Abstract
Identifying the risk factors for disease is crucial for developing policy and strategies for controlling exposure to pathogens. However, this is often challenging, especially in complex disease systems, such as vector-borne diseases with multiple hosts and other environmental drivers. Here we combine seroprevalence data with GIS-based environmental variables to identify the environmental risk factors associated with an endemic tick-borne pathogen—louping ill virus—in sheep in Scotland. Higher seroprevalences were associated with (i) upland/moorland habitats, in accordance with what we predicted from the habitat preferences of alternative LIV transmission hosts (such as red grouse), (ii) areas of higher deer density, which supports predictions from previous theoretical models, since deer are the key Ixodes ricinus tick reproduction host in this system, and (iii) a warmer climate, concurring with our current knowledge of how temperature affects tick activity and development rates. The implications for policy include adopting increased disease management and awareness in high risk habitats and in the presence of alternative LIV hosts (e.g., grouse) and tick hosts (especially deer). These results can also inform deer management policy, especially where there may be conflict between contrasting upland management objectives, for example, revenue from deer hunting vs. sheep farmers.
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Affiliation(s)
- Lucy Gilbert
- Institute of Biodiversity, Animal Health and Comparative Medicine, University of Glasgow, Glasgow, United Kingdom
| | | | - Kim Willoughby
- Moredun Research Institute, Pentlands Science Park, Penicuik, United Kingdom
| | - Chris Cousens
- Moredun Research Institute, Pentlands Science Park, Penicuik, United Kingdom
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6
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Martínez IZ, Pérez-Martínez C, Salinas LM, García-Marín JF, Juste RA, Balseiro A. Phenotypic characterization of encephalitis in the brains of goats experimentally infected with Spanish Goat Encephalitis Virus. Vet Immunol Immunopathol 2019; 220:109978. [PMID: 31821945 DOI: 10.1016/j.vetimm.2019.109978] [Citation(s) in RCA: 1] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 06/04/2019] [Revised: 11/10/2019] [Accepted: 11/13/2019] [Indexed: 10/25/2022]
Abstract
Spanish goat encephalitis virus (SGEV) is a novel tick-borne flavivirus subtype, closely related to the flavivirus louping ill virus (LIV). SGEV caused a severe, acute and mortal neurological disease outbreak in northern Spain in a goat herd. In order to characterize the cell population in lesions and to determine the distribution of the inflammatory cells, central nervous system (CNS) samples of nine female Alpine goats challenged subcutaneously with SGEV over the right thorax behind the elbow were evaluated using immunohistochemistry (microglia-Iba1, T lymphocytes-CD3, B lymphocytes-CD20 and astrocytes-GFAP). The number of microglia (37.8 %) and T lymphocytes (21.5 %) was greater than the number of B lymphocytes (16.8 %). Goats were classified into clusters based on the severity of histological lesions in CNS (A-mild to moderate lesions and B-severe lesions). Microglia was significantly more abundant than T and B lymphocytes in cluster B (severe lesions). The total area occupied by glial foci revealed that medulla oblongata and spinal cord were the most affected tissues. Astrogliosis (GFAP+) was present in the majority of the CNS sections being near to the pial surface. The lesion predominance on the right side of the medulla oblongata, which could be associated to the site of challenge suggestive of neurotropic route was also statistically confirmed. Results suggest that the cellular immune response would be the most important response to the SGEV infection.
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Affiliation(s)
- Ileana Z Martínez
- Universidad de León, Campus de Vegazana, León, Spain; Universidad Popular Autónoma del Estado de Puebla, UPAEP Universidad, Puebla, Mexico.
| | | | - Luis M Salinas
- Universidad de León, Campus de Vegazana, León, Spain; Universidad Internacional Antonio de Valdivieso, UNIAV, Rivas, Nicaragua
| | | | - Ramón A Juste
- Centro de Biotecnología, Servicio Regional de Investigación y Desarrollo Agroalimentario, SERIDA, Gijón, Asturias, Spain
| | - Ana Balseiro
- Universidad de León, Campus de Vegazana, León, Spain; Centro de Biotecnología, Servicio Regional de Investigación y Desarrollo Agroalimentario, SERIDA, Gijón, Asturias, Spain
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7
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Buxton D, Reid H. 120 years of Louping-ill Research: an Historical Perspective from the Archive of the Journal of Comparative Pathology. J Comp Pathol 2017; 157:270-275. [DOI: 10.1016/j.jcpa.2017.09.002] [Citation(s) in RCA: 3] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 08/04/2017] [Accepted: 08/05/2017] [Indexed: 10/18/2022]
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8
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Vaccination against Louping Ill Virus Protects Goats from Experimental Challenge with Spanish Goat Encephalitis Virus. J Comp Pathol 2017; 156:409-418. [DOI: 10.1016/j.jcpa.2017.03.004] [Citation(s) in RCA: 10] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 01/17/2017] [Revised: 03/08/2017] [Accepted: 03/17/2017] [Indexed: 11/20/2022]
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9
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Salinas LM, Casais R, García Marín JF, Dalton KP, Royo LJ, Del Cerro A, Gayo E, Dagleish MP, Juste RA, Balseiro A. Lambs are Susceptible to Experimental Challenge with Spanish Goat Encephalitis Virus. J Comp Pathol 2017; 156:400-408. [PMID: 28433396 DOI: 10.1016/j.jcpa.2017.03.003] [Citation(s) in RCA: 6] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.9] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 01/17/2017] [Revised: 03/08/2017] [Accepted: 03/17/2017] [Indexed: 11/16/2022]
Abstract
Spanish goat encephalitis virus (SGEV) is a member of the genus Flavivirus, family Flaviviridae, and causes encephalomyelitis in goats. The aim of this study was to determine whether sheep are susceptible to experimental challenge with SGEV by two different routes. The results show that SGEV can infect sheep by both the subcutaneous and intravenous routes, resulting in neurological clinical disease with extensive and severe histological lesions in the central nervous system. Lambs challenged subcutaneously developed more severe lesions on the ipsilateral side of the brain, but the lesion morphology was similar irrespective of the route of challenge. The clinical presentation, pathogenesis, lesion morphology and distribution shows that SGEV is very similar to louping ill virus (LIV) and therefore any disease control plan must take into account any host species and SGEV vectors as potential reservoirs. Furthermore, discriminatory diagnostics need to be applied to any sheep or goat suspected of disease due to any flavivirus in areas where SGEV and LIV co-exist.
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Affiliation(s)
- L M Salinas
- Facultad de Veterinaria, Universidad de León, Campus de Vegazana, León, Spain
| | - R Casais
- SERIDA, Servicio Regional de Investigación y Desarrollo Agroalimentario, Centro de Biotecnología Animal, Gijón, Asturias, Spain
| | - J F García Marín
- Facultad de Veterinaria, Universidad de León, Campus de Vegazana, León, Spain
| | - K P Dalton
- Instituto Universitario de Biotecnología de Asturias, Departamento de Bioquímica y Biología Molecular, Universidad de Oviedo, Campus El Cristo, Oviedo, Asturias, Spain
| | - L J Royo
- SERIDA, Servicio Regional de Investigación y Desarrollo Agroalimentario, Centro de Biotecnología Animal, Gijón, Asturias, Spain
| | - A Del Cerro
- SERIDA, Servicio Regional de Investigación y Desarrollo Agroalimentario, Centro de Biotecnología Animal, Gijón, Asturias, Spain
| | - E Gayo
- Facultad de Veterinaria, Universidad de León, Campus de Vegazana, León, Spain
| | - M P Dagleish
- Moredun Research Institute, Pentlands Science Park, Bush Loan, Penicuik, Near Edinburgh, Scotland, UK.
| | - R A Juste
- SERIDA, Servicio Regional de Investigación y Desarrollo Agroalimentario, Centro de Biotecnología Animal, Gijón, Asturias, Spain
| | - A Balseiro
- SERIDA, Servicio Regional de Investigación y Desarrollo Agroalimentario, Centro de Biotecnología Animal, Gijón, Asturias, Spain
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10
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Gilbert L. Louping ill virus in the UK: a review of the hosts, transmission and ecological consequences of control. EXPERIMENTAL & APPLIED ACAROLOGY 2016; 68:363-374. [PMID: 26205612 DOI: 10.1007/s10493-015-9952-x] [Citation(s) in RCA: 31] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.9] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 05/29/2015] [Accepted: 07/14/2015] [Indexed: 05/26/2023]
Abstract
Louping ill virus (LIV) is a tick-borne flavivirus that is part of the tick-borne encephalitis complex of viruses (TBEV) and has economic and welfare importance by causing illness and death in livestock, especially sheep, Ovies aries, and red grouse, Lagopus lagopus scoticus, an economically valuable gamebird. Unlike Western TBEV which is found primarily in woodlands and is reservoired by small rodents, LIV is not generally transmitted by small rodents but instead by sheep, red grouse and mountain hares and, therefore, is associated with upland heather moorland and rough grazing land. Red grouse are a particularly interesting transmission host because they may acquire most of their LIV infections through eating ticks rather than being bitten by ticks. Furthermore, the main incentive for the application of LIV control methods is not to protect sheep, but to protect red grouse, which is an economically important gamebird. The widespread intensive culling of mountain hares which has been adopted in several areas of Scotland to try to control ticks and LIV has become an important issue in Scotland in recent years. This review outlines the reservoir hosts and transmission cycles of LIV in the UK, then describes the various control methods that have been tried or modelled, with far-reaching implications for conservation and public opinion.
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Affiliation(s)
- Lucy Gilbert
- James Hutton Institute, Craigiebuckler, Aberdeen, AB15 8QH, UK.
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11
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Innate and adaptive immune responses to tick-borne flavivirus infection in sheep. Vet Microbiol 2016; 185:20-8. [PMID: 26931387 DOI: 10.1016/j.vetmic.2016.01.015] [Citation(s) in RCA: 10] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 10/15/2015] [Revised: 01/08/2016] [Accepted: 01/20/2016] [Indexed: 02/07/2023]
Abstract
The flaviviruses tick-borne encephalitis virus (TBEV) and louping ill virus (LIV) are closely-related genetically and antigenically, have broadly similar host ranges that include rodents and other mammals (including sheep), and are both transmitted by the same tick species, Ixodes ricinus. Although human infection with TBEV results in a febrile illness followed in some cases by encephalitis, humans appear to be much less susceptible to infection with LIV. However, these viruses demonstrate different susceptibilities in sheep; LIV infection causes encephalitic disease, whereas TBEV infection generally does not. To investigate the role of the immune response in this mixed outcome, groups of sheep were inoculated with either virus, or with a primary inoculation with one virus and secondary inoculation with the other. Markers of both adaptive and innate immune responses were measured. In each group studied, infection resulted in seroconversion, demonstrated by the detection of virus specific neutralising antibodies. This appeared to control infection with TBEV but not LIV, which progressed to a febrile infection, with transient viraemia and elevated levels of serum interferon. This was followed by neuroinvasion, leading to up-regulation of innate immune transcripts in discrete areas of the brain, including interferon inducible genes and chemokines. Prior inoculation with TBEV did not prevent infection with LIV, but did appear to reduce disease severity and viraemia. We postulate that LIV has adapted to replicate efficiently in sheep cells, and disseminate rapidly following infection. By contrast, TBEV fails to disseminate in sheep and is controlled by the immune response.
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12
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Benavides J, González L, Dagleish M, Pérez V. Diagnostic pathology in microbial diseases of sheep or goats. Vet Microbiol 2015; 181:15-26. [PMID: 26275854 DOI: 10.1016/j.vetmic.2015.07.012] [Citation(s) in RCA: 10] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.1] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/24/2022]
Abstract
Post-mortem examination is a key step in the diagnostic process of infectious diseases in sheep and goats. Diagnostic pathology deals with identification and study of lesions, at the same time providing also significant clues regarding pathogenesis of the diseases. This article reviews the salient pathological findings associated with the most significant infectious diseases of sheep and goats present in countries where small ruminants are a relevant agricultural industry. Lesions are reviewed according to the different organ systems where they occur. Emphasis has been given in the description of the salient lesional patterns than can be identified in each organ and which can be of help in the differential diagnosis of the lesions caused by bacteria, viruses, fungi or prions. Finally, a review of the usefulness of ancillary tests that may be used on various tissue samples for performing an aetiological diagnosis, is included; the application of various techniques, from immunohistochemistry to molecular biology-based tests, is described.
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Affiliation(s)
- J Benavides
- Departamento de Sanidad Animal, Instituto de Ganadería de Montaña (CSIC-ULE), Facultad de Veterinaria, Universidad de León, Campus de Vegazana s/n, 24071 León, Spain
| | - L González
- Animal Health and Veterinary Laboratories Agency (AHVLA), Pentlands Science Park, Bush Loan, Midlothian EH26 0PZ, Scotland, UK
| | - M Dagleish
- Moredun Research Institute, Pentlands Science Park, Bush Loan, Midlothian EH26 0PZ, Scotland, UK
| | - V Pérez
- Departamento de Sanidad Animal, Instituto de Ganadería de Montaña (CSIC-ULE), Facultad de Veterinaria, Universidad de León, Campus de Vegazana s/n, 24071 León, Spain.
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13
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Jeffries CL, Mansfield KL, Phipps LP, Wakeley PR, Mearns R, Schock A, Bell S, Breed AC, Fooks AR, Johnson N. Louping ill virus: an endemic tick-borne disease of Great Britain. J Gen Virol 2014; 95:1005-1014. [PMID: 24552787 DOI: 10.1099/vir.0.062356-0] [Citation(s) in RCA: 68] [Impact Index Per Article: 6.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 01/27/2023] Open
Abstract
In Europe and Asia, Ixodid ticks transmit tick-borne encephalitis virus (TBEV), a flavivirus that causes severe encephalitis in humans but appears to show no virulence for livestock and wildlife. In the British Isles, where TBEV is absent, a closely related tick-borne flavivirus, named louping ill virus (LIV), is present. However, unlike TBEV, LIV causes a febrile illness in sheep, cattle, grouse and some other species, that can progress to fatal encephalitis. The disease is detected predominantly in animals from upland areas of the UK and Ireland. This distribution is closely associated with the presence of its arthropod vector, the hard tick Ixodes ricinus. The virus is a positive-strand RNA virus belonging to the genus Flavivirus, exhibiting a high degree of genetic homology to TBEV and other mammalian tick-borne viruses. In addition to causing acute encephalomyelitis in sheep, other mammals and some avian species, the virus is recognized as a zoonotic agent with occasional reports of seropositive individuals, particularly those whose occupation involves contact with sheep. Preventative vaccination in sheep is effective although there is no treatment for disease. Surveillance for LIV in Great Britain is limited despite an increased awareness of emerging arthropod-borne diseases and potential changes in distribution and epidemiology. This review provides an overview of LIV and highlights areas where further effort is needed to control this disease.
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Affiliation(s)
- C L Jeffries
- Animal Health and Veterinary Laboratories Agency - Weybridge, Woodham Lane, Addlestone, Surrey KT15 3NB, UK
| | - K L Mansfield
- Animal Health and Veterinary Laboratories Agency - Weybridge, Woodham Lane, Addlestone, Surrey KT15 3NB, UK
| | - L P Phipps
- Animal Health and Veterinary Laboratories Agency - Weybridge, Woodham Lane, Addlestone, Surrey KT15 3NB, UK
| | - P R Wakeley
- Animal Health and Veterinary Laboratories Agency - Weybridge, Woodham Lane, Addlestone, Surrey KT15 3NB, UK
| | - R Mearns
- Animal Health and Veterinary Laboratories Agency - Penrith, Merrythought, Calthwaite, Penrith CA11 9RR, UK
| | - A Schock
- Animal Health and Veterinary Laboratories Agency - Lasswade, Pentlands Science Park, Penicuik, Midlothian EH26 0PZ, UK
| | - S Bell
- Animal Health and Veterinary Laboratories Agency -Shrewsbury Investigation Centre & Laboratory, Kendal Road, Harlscott, Shrewsbury, Shropshire SY1 4HD, UK
| | - A C Breed
- Animal Health and Veterinary Laboratories Agency - Weybridge, Woodham Lane, Addlestone, Surrey KT15 3NB, UK
| | - A R Fooks
- University of Liverpool, Department of Clinical Infection, Microbiology and Immunology, Liverpool, Merseyside L69 7BE, UK.,Animal Health and Veterinary Laboratories Agency - Weybridge, Woodham Lane, Addlestone, Surrey KT15 3NB, UK
| | - N Johnson
- Animal Health and Veterinary Laboratories Agency - Weybridge, Woodham Lane, Addlestone, Surrey KT15 3NB, UK
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Abstract
A 3-month-old suckled beef calf from the west coast of Scotland showed neurologic clinical signs for 1 week and was euthanized after failing to respond to treatment. Blood and tissue samples, including the brain, were submitted for diagnosis. Histologic examination of the brain showed neuronal chromatolysis and necrosis in the hind brain and loss of Purkinje cells in the cerebellum, accompanied by mild nonsuppurative encephalitis in the hind brain with a striking lack of inflammation in the cerebellar layers. Other microscopic lesions present were mild nonsuppurative meningitis with perivascular cuffs, diffuse hypergliosis, and occasional foci of neuronophagia. Polymerase chain reaction amplification of viral nucleic acids and specific immunohistochemical labeling allowed the identification of louping ill virus, and serology showed high titers of immunoglobulin M, indicating a recent infection.
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15
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Mansfield KL, Johnson N, Cosby SL, Solomon T, Fooks AR. Transcriptional upregulation of SOCS 1 and suppressors of cytokine signaling 3 mRNA in the absence of suppressors of cytokine signaling 2 mRNA after infection with West Nile virus or tick-borne encephalitis virus. Vector Borne Zoonotic Dis 2011; 10:649-53. [PMID: 20854017 DOI: 10.1089/vbz.2009.0259] [Citation(s) in RCA: 19] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/25/2022] Open
Abstract
Suppressors of cytokine signaling (SOCS) proteins are a family of proteins that are able to act in a classic negative feedback loop to regulate cytokine signal transduction. The regulation of the immune response by SOCS proteins may contribute to persistent infection or even a fatal outcome. In this study, we have investigated the induction of SOCS 1-3 after peripheral infection with West Nile virus (WNV) or tick-borne encephalitis virus (TBEV) in the murine model. We have shown that the cytokine response after infection of mice with WNV or TBEV induces an upregulation in the brain of mRNA transcripts for SOCS 1 and SOCS 3, but not SOCS 2. We hypothesize that SOCS proteins may play a role in limiting cytokine responses in the brain as a neuroprotective mechanism, which may actually enhance the ability of neuroinvasive viruses such as WNV and TBEV to spread and cause disease.
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Affiliation(s)
- Karen L Mansfield
- Rabies and Wildlife Zoonoses Group, Veterinary Laboratories Agency, New Haw, Addlestone, United Kingdom
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Inflammation in the Central Nervous System. JUBB, KENNEDY & PALMER'S PATHOLOGY OF DOMESTIC ANIMALS 2007. [PMCID: PMC7155485 DOI: 10.1016/b978-070202823-6.50051-8] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/23/2022]
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