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Bushmanova EA, Lyudinina AY, Bojko ER. The Prevalence of Low Energy Availability in Cross-Country Skiers during the Annual Cycle. Nutrients 2024; 16:2279. [PMID: 39064722 PMCID: PMC11279856 DOI: 10.3390/nu16142279] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 06/24/2024] [Revised: 07/09/2024] [Accepted: 07/12/2024] [Indexed: 07/28/2024] Open
Abstract
BACKGROUND AND OBJECTIVES A sustained mismatch between energy intake (EI) and exercise energy expenditure (EEE) can lead to Low Energy Availability (LEA), as well as health and performance impairments characteristic of Relative Energy Deficiency in Sport (RED-S). Research in females has identified specific LEA cut-points for the risks of developing physiological and performance disturbances. Cut-points in males have yet to be evaluated; therefore, this study examined the prevalence of LEA in highly trained male cross-country skiers. The key purpose of this study was to analyze EI, resting energy expenditure (REE), EEE, and energy availability (EA) in highly trained cross-country skiers during the preparation and competition periods. The secondary objective of our study was to evaluate the relative contribution of fats and carbohydrates to EI, REE, and EEE. MATERIALS AND METHODS EI was determined by an estimated 24 h diet recall method, REE was assessed by indirect calorimetry, and EEE was estimated from heart rate in 27 cross-country skiers. RESULTS EI amounted to 4050 ± 797 kcal/day on a typical training day (TD) and 5986 ± 924 kcal/day (p < 0.001) on a typical competition day (CD). REE on TDs (2111 ± 294 kcal/day or 30 ± 6 kcal/day/kg) was higher (p < 0.05) than on CDs (1891 ± 504 kcal/day or 27 ± 7 kcal/day/kg). The EA in the athletes was <15 kcal∙kg FFM-1·d-1 on TDs and <65 kcal∙kg FFM-1·d-1 on CDs. EI was not optimal, as indicated by low EA throughout TDs (June). This could be associated with insufficient EI along with a high amount of EEE (3690.7 ± 485.2 kcal/day). During the transition from TD to CD, an increase in the contribution of fats to EI and EEE was observed in cross-country skiers. CONCLUSION The conception of LEA and REDs and their potential implication for performance is underestimated among coaches and athletes. The importance of appropriate dietary strategies is essential to ensure that enough calories are consumed to support efficient training.
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Affiliation(s)
- Ekaterina A. Bushmanova
- Department of Ecological and Medical Physiology, Ural Branch, Institute of Physiology, Russian Academy of Sciences, Pervomaiskaya av.50, Syktyvkar 167982, Russia; (A.Y.L.); (E.R.B.)
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Tiemeier L, Nikolaidis PT, Chlíbková D, Wilhelm M, Thuany M, Weiss K, Knechtle B. Ultra-Cycling- Past, Present, Future: A Narrative Review. SPORTS MEDICINE - OPEN 2024; 10:48. [PMID: 38679655 PMCID: PMC11056358 DOI: 10.1186/s40798-024-00715-7] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 02/19/2023] [Accepted: 04/06/2024] [Indexed: 05/01/2024]
Abstract
BACKGROUND Ultra-endurance events are gaining popularity in multiple exercise disciplines, including cycling. With increasing numbers of ultra-cycling events, aspects influencing participation and performance are of interest to the cycling community. MAIN BODY The aim of this narrative review was, therefore, to assess the types of races offered, the characteristics of the cyclists, the fluid and energy balance during the race, the body mass changes after the race, and the parameters that may enhance performance based on existing literature. A literature search was conducted in PubMed, Scopus, and Google Scholar using the search terms 'ultracycling', 'ultra cycling', 'ultra-cycling', 'ultra-endurance biking', 'ultra-bikers' and 'prolonged cycling'. The search yielded 948 results, of which 111 were relevant for this review. The studies were classified according to their research focus and the results were summarized. The results demonstrated changes in physiological parameters, immunological and oxidative processes, as well as in fluid and energy balance. While the individual race with the most published studies was the Race Across America, most races were conducted in Europe, and a trend for an increase in European participants in international races was observed. Performance seems to be affected by characteristics such as age and sex but not by anthropometric parameters such as skin fold thickness. The optimum age for the top performance was around 40 years. Most participants in ultra-cycling events were male, but the number of female athletes has been increasing over the past years. Female athletes are understudied due to their later entry and less prominent participation in ultra-cycling races. A post-race energy deficit after ultra-cycling events was observed. CONCLUSION Future studies need to investigate the causes for the observed optimum race age around 40 years of age as well as the optimum nutritional supply to close the observed energy gap under consideration of the individual race lengths and conditions. Another research gap to be filled by future studies is the development of strategies to tackle inflammatory processes during the race that may persist in the post-race period.
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Affiliation(s)
- Lucas Tiemeier
- Centre for Rehabilitation & Sports Medicine, Bern University Hospital, Inselspital, University of Bern, Bern, Switzerland
| | | | - Daniela Chlíbková
- Centre of Sports Activities, Brno University of Technology, 61669, Brno, Czech Republic
| | - Matthias Wilhelm
- Centre for Rehabilitation & Sports Medicine, Bern University Hospital, Inselspital, University of Bern, Bern, Switzerland
| | | | - Katja Weiss
- Institute of Primary Care, University of Zurich, Zurich, Switzerland
| | - Beat Knechtle
- Institute of Primary Care, University of Zurich, Zurich, Switzerland.
- Medbase St. Gallen Am Vadianplatz, Vadianstrasse 26, 9001, St. Gallen, Switzerland.
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3
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Septuagenarians Approach 4 Times the Basal Metabolic Rate During Race Across America. Int J Sports Physiol Perform 2022; 17:806-809. [PMID: 35193106 DOI: 10.1123/ijspp.2021-0309] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 07/21/2021] [Revised: 10/15/2021] [Accepted: 10/25/2021] [Indexed: 11/18/2022]
Abstract
BACKGROUND Previous data have demonstrated that Tour de France riders maintain total daily energy expenditure (TDEE) between 3.5 and 5.5 times the basal metabolic rate (×BMR). In contrast, TDEE for healthy male septuagenarians has been reported to average 1.3 to 2.0 ×BMR. PURPOSE Measure the TDEE and water efflux during ultraendurance work in an older population during the cross-continent cycling Race Across America. METHODS A 4-man septuagenarian team (70 [1.6] y, 72.0 [5.1] kg) received an oral dose of doubly labeled water prior to completing the Race Across America (4817 km, 51,816 m of climbing) for TDEE calculation. Nude body weight measures were coupled with collected urine samples. RESULTS The race was completed in approximately 6.5 days (official time: 6 d, 13 h, and 13 min) with an average speed of 30.6 (0.7) km·h-1 (age-group course record). Body weight remained unchanged (prerace: 70.4 [5.8] kg, postrace: 70.0 [5.3] kg). TDEE was calculated over 3 race segments. TDEE varied between individual riders and segments throughout the continuous event (24.7 [4.2] MJ·24 h-1, 5900 [1015] kcals·24 h-1, 3.4 [0.5] ×BMR). Water efflux averaged 10.2 (0.8) L·24 h-1 resulting in a total turnover of 45.3 (3.9) L amounting to 1.5 (0.2) times initial total body water during the race. CONCLUSIONS Highly active septuagenarians maintain body weight prerace to postrace, suggesting near energy balance when TDEE approaches 4 ×BMR. These values exceed twice those of previously observed healthy but less active septuagenarian men and are comparable to professional riders during portions of the Tour de France. Advanced age and high metabolic output are not mutually exclusive.
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Leo P, Spragg J, Podlogar T, Lawley JS, Mujika I. Power profiling and the power-duration relationship in cycling: a narrative review. Eur J Appl Physiol 2022; 122:301-316. [PMID: 34708276 PMCID: PMC8783871 DOI: 10.1007/s00421-021-04833-y] [Citation(s) in RCA: 27] [Impact Index Per Article: 13.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 06/02/2021] [Accepted: 10/14/2021] [Indexed: 12/03/2022]
Abstract
Emerging trends in technological innovations, data analysis and practical applications have facilitated the measurement of cycling power output in the field, leading to improvements in training prescription, performance testing and race analysis. This review aimed to critically reflect on power profiling strategies in association with the power-duration relationship in cycling, to provide an updated view for applied researchers and practitioners. The authors elaborate on measuring power output followed by an outline of the methodological approaches to power profiling. Moreover, the deriving a power-duration relationship section presents existing concepts of power-duration models alongside exercise intensity domains. Combining laboratory and field testing discusses how traditional laboratory and field testing can be combined to inform and individualize the power profiling approach. Deriving the parameters of power-duration modelling suggests how these measures can be obtained from laboratory and field testing, including criteria for ensuring a high ecological validity (e.g. rider specialization, race demands). It is recommended that field testing should always be conducted in accordance with pre-established guidelines from the existing literature (e.g. set number of prediction trials, inter-trial recovery, road gradient and data analysis). It is also recommended to avoid single effort prediction trials, such as functional threshold power. Power-duration parameter estimates can be derived from the 2 parameter linear or non-linear critical power model: P(t) = W'/t + CP (W'-work capacity above CP; t-time). Structured field testing should be included to obtain an accurate fingerprint of a cyclist's power profile.
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Affiliation(s)
- Peter Leo
- Division of Performance Physiology & Prevention, Department of Sport Science, University Innsbruck, Innsbruck, Austria.
| | - James Spragg
- Health Physical Activity Lifestyle Sport Research Centre (HPALS), University of Cape Town, Cape Town, South Africa
| | - Tim Podlogar
- Faculty of Health Sciences, University of Primorska, Izola, Slovenia
- Department of Automatics, Biocybernetics and Robotics, Jožef Stefan Institute, Ljubljana, Slovenia
| | - Justin S Lawley
- Division of Performance Physiology & Prevention, Department of Sport Science, University Innsbruck, Innsbruck, Austria
| | - Iñigo Mujika
- Department of Physiology, Faculty of Medicine and Nursing, University of the Basque Country, Leioa, Basque Country, Spain
- Exercise Science Laboratory, School of Kinesiology, Faculty of Medicine, Universidad Finis Terrae, Santiago, Chile
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5
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Halsey LG, Bryce CM. Are humans evolved specialists for running in the heat? Man
vs
. horse races provide empirical insights. Exp Physiol 2020; 106:258-268. [DOI: 10.1113/ep088502] [Citation(s) in RCA: 5] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 01/30/2020] [Accepted: 06/23/2020] [Indexed: 11/08/2022]
Affiliation(s)
- Lewis G. Halsey
- Department of Life Sciences University of Roehampton London SW15 4JD UK
| | - Caleb M. Bryce
- Botswana Predator Conservation Trust Private Bag 13 Maun Botswana
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Flack KD, Hays HM, Moreland J. The consequences of exercise-induced weight loss on food reinforcement. A randomized controlled trial. PLoS One 2020; 15:e0234692. [PMID: 32555624 PMCID: PMC7302707 DOI: 10.1371/journal.pone.0234692] [Citation(s) in RCA: 13] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 01/21/2020] [Accepted: 05/29/2020] [Indexed: 12/22/2022] Open
Abstract
BACKGROUND Obesity remains a primary threat to the health of most Americans, with over 66% considered overweight or obese with a body mass index (BMI) of 25 kg/m2 or greater. A common treatment option many believe to be effective, and therefore turn to, is exercise. However, the amount of weight loss from exercise training is often disappointingly less than expected with greater amounts of exercise not always promoting greater weight loss. Increases in energy intake have been prescribed as the primary reason for this lack of weight loss success with exercise. Research has mostly focused on alterations in hormonal mediators of appetite (e.g.: ghrelin, peptide YY, GLP-1, pancreatic polypeptide, and leptin) that may increase hunger and/or reduce satiety to promote greater energy intake with exercise training. A less understood mechanism that may be working to increase energy intake with exercise is reward-driven feeding, a strong predictor of energy intake and weight status but rarely analyzed in the context of exercise. DESIGN Sedentary men and women (BMI: 25-35 kg/m2, N = 52) were randomized into parallel aerobic exercise training groups partaking in either two or six exercise sessions/week, or sedentary control for 12 weeks. METHODS The reinforcing value of food was measured by an operant responding progressive ratio schedule task (the behavioral choice task) to determine how much work participants were willing to perform for access to a healthy food option relative to a less healthy food option before and after the exercise intervention. Body composition and resting energy expenditure were assessed via DXA and indirect calorimetry, respectively, at baseline and post testing. RESULTS Changes in fat-free mass predicted the change in total amount of operant responding for food (healthy and unhealthy). There were no correlations between changes in the reinforcing value of one type of food (healthy vs unhealthy) to changes in body composition. CONCLUSION In support of previous work, reductions in fat-free mass resulting from an aerobic exercise intervention aimed at weight loss plays an important role in energy balance regulation by increasing operant responding for food.
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Affiliation(s)
- Kyle D. Flack
- Department of Dietetics and Human Nutrition, University of Kentucky, Lexington, Kentucky, United States of America
| | - Harry M. Hays
- Department of Dietetics and Human Nutrition, University of Kentucky, Lexington, Kentucky, United States of America
| | - Jack Moreland
- Department of Dietetics and Human Nutrition, University of Kentucky, Lexington, Kentucky, United States of America
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Guex K, Serain E, Gremion G, Besson C, Faiss R, Majo J, Degache F. Participating In The Race Across AMerica In A Team Of Eight Cyclists: Do Not Neglect Crew Preparation. Open Access J Sports Med 2019; 10:161-169. [PMID: 31807092 PMCID: PMC6839592 DOI: 10.2147/oajsm.s219124] [Citation(s) in RCA: 1] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 06/11/2019] [Accepted: 09/28/2019] [Indexed: 12/20/2022] Open
Abstract
Background The Race Across AMerica (RAAM) is considered as one of the longest, and most difficult cycling races in the world. It can be performed in solo or in relay of two, four or eight persons. Purpose/method The aim of the present study was to investigate several physiological, perceptual and psychological responses before, during and after RAAM in a team of eight amateur cyclists. Because logistics of all team is demanding and complex, crew members have followed the same testing procedure. Results The main result is that parameters were globally not altered to a greater extent in cyclists than in crew members over the course of the RAAM, and that all variables returned to pre-race levels 1 week after the end of the race in both groups. In crew, body fat was decreased (p < 0.05) at mid-race (Mid) vs 1 week before the RAAM (Pre) (−1.5%) and total body water was increased (p < 0.05) at Mid vs Pre (+2.5%). In pre-relay quadriceps strength in cyclists was significantly lower (p < 0.05) at Mid vs Pre (41.6 ± 9.1 vs 45.0 ± 11.2 N, d = 0.36). Therefore, performing the race with eight well-prepared amateur cyclists seems to decrease potential risks on health. In crew, quadriceps strength remained stable at each assessment time but general fatigue increased all along the race. Anger was increased (p < 0.05) at Mid vs Pre in crew. Conclusion The most important message of this study is that crew members for a team of eight require adequate and sufficient preparation and training. Roles and responsibilities need to be thoroughly defined; individuals need to know each other beforehand and they must be prepared for sleep deprivation. The results of this study show the importance of the preparation of two teams: crew members, as well as cyclists.
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Affiliation(s)
- Kenny Guex
- School of Health Sciences (HESAV), University of Applied Sciences and Arts Western Switzerland (HES-SO), Lausanne, Switzerland
| | - Emilie Serain
- School of Health Sciences (HESAV), University of Applied Sciences and Arts Western Switzerland (HES-SO), Lausanne, Switzerland
| | - Gerald Gremion
- Department of Sports Medicine, Centre Hospitalier Universitaire Vaudois, Lausanne, Switzerland
| | - Cyril Besson
- Department of Sports Medicine, Centre Hospitalier Universitaire Vaudois, Lausanne, Switzerland
| | - Raphael Faiss
- Institute of Sports Sciences, Faculty of Biology and Medicine, University of Lausanne, Lausanne, Switzerland
| | - Jocelyne Majo
- School of Management and Engineering Vaud (HEIG-VD), University of Applied Sciences and Arts Western Switzerland (HES-SO), Delémont, Switzerland
| | - Francis Degache
- School of Health Sciences (HESAV), University of Applied Sciences and Arts Western Switzerland (HES-SO), Lausanne, Switzerland.,Institute of Sports Sciences, Faculty of Biology and Medicine, University of Lausanne, Lausanne, Switzerland.,Therapeutic and Performance Sports Institute, MotionLab, Lausanne, Switzerland
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8
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Merritt EK, Nieman DC, Toone BR, Groen A, Pugachev A. Proteomic Markers of Non-functional Overreaching During the Race Across America (RAAM): A Case Study. Front Physiol 2019; 10:1410. [PMID: 31798466 PMCID: PMC6874140 DOI: 10.3389/fphys.2019.01410] [Citation(s) in RCA: 5] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 08/13/2019] [Accepted: 10/31/2019] [Indexed: 11/13/2022] Open
Abstract
In a previous study, proteomics procedures identified blood proteins as potential overreaching and overtraining biomarkers, and a targeted proteomics panel of 21 proteins was developed.
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Affiliation(s)
- Edward K Merritt
- Department of Kinesiology, Southwestern University, Georgetown, TX, United States
| | - David C Nieman
- North Carolina Research Campus, Appalachian State University, Kannapolis, NC, United States
| | - Brian R Toone
- Department of Mathematics and Computer Science, Samford University, Homewood, AL, United States
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9
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Development and Implementation of a Nutrition Knowledge Questionnaire for Ultraendurance Athletes. Int J Sport Nutr Exerc Metab 2019; 29:39-45. [PMID: 29757047 DOI: 10.1123/ijsnem.2017-0322] [Citation(s) in RCA: 19] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 09/22/2017] [Revised: 03/16/2018] [Accepted: 04/13/2018] [Indexed: 11/18/2022]
Abstract
The nutritional intake of ultraendurance athletes is often poorly matched with the requirements of the sport. Nutrition knowledge is a mediating factor to food choice that could correct such imbalances. Therefore, the purpose of this study was to develop and validate a questionnaire to assess the nutrition knowledge of ultraendurance athletes. Nutritional knowledge was assessed using a modified sports nutrition knowledge questionnaire (ULTRA-Q). Four independent assessors with specialization in sports nutrition confirmed the content validity of the ULTRA-Q. Registered sports nutritionists, registered dietitians, and those without nutrition training completed the ULTRA-Q on two separate occasions. After the first completion, a significant difference in nutrition scores between groups (p ≤ .001) provided evidence of construct validity. After the second completion, intraclass correlation coefficients comparing nutrition scores between time points (.75-.95) provided evidence of test-retest reliability. Subsequently, experienced ultraendurance athletes (male: n = 74 and female: n = 27) completed the ULTRA-Q. Athletes also documented their sources of nutrition knowledge for ultraendurance events. The total nutrition knowledge score for ultraendurance athletes was 68.3% ± 9.5%, and there were no significant differences in knowledge scores between males and females (67.4% ± 9.6% and 70.7% ± 9.3%, respectively) or between runners and triathletes (69.1% ± 9.7% and 65.1% ± 9.4%, respectively). In general, it appeared that ultraendurance athletes favored other athletes (73%) over nutrition experts (8%) as a source of nutritional information. The findings of this study indicate that ultraendurance athletes had a reasonable level of nutrition knowledge, but interathlete variability suggests a need for targeted nutrition education.
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10
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Corrion K, Morales V, Bergamaschi A, Massiera B, Morin JB, d’Arripe-Longueville F. Psychosocial factors as predictors of dropout in ultra-trailers. PLoS One 2018; 13:e0206498. [PMID: 30395613 PMCID: PMC6218041 DOI: 10.1371/journal.pone.0206498] [Citation(s) in RCA: 9] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 01/11/2018] [Accepted: 10/15/2018] [Indexed: 11/19/2022] Open
Abstract
OBJECTIVE Although research on the physiological and psychological factors of endurance performance has been extensive, the factors related to dropping out of ultra-trail races have not been well documented. The aim of this study was to examine psychosocial factors as predictors of dropout in ultra-trail runners. METHODS Two hundred and twenty-one volunteer athletes completed a survey that included measures of: (a) motivational variables (self-determined motivation, basic needs satisfaction, achievement goals), (b) theory of planned behavior constructs (attitudes, subjective norms, self-efficacy and intention to finish the race), and (c) coping strategies in sport. RESULTS The results showed that finishers had higher scores for self-efficacy and intention to finish the race than withdrawers, whereas withdrawers had higher scores for avoidance coping. Multiple logistic regression showed that the number of started and finished ultra-trail races (OR, 0.44; 95% CI 0.22-0.88; p<0.02), self-efficacy (OR, 2.03; 95% CI 1.06-3.89; p<0.04), intention to finish the race (OR, 0.34; 95% CI 0.16-0.71; p<0.004), mastery-approach goals (OR, 0.56; 95% CI 0.31-1.00; p<0.05), and coping strategies of seeking social support (OR, 0.43; 95% CI 0.26-0.71; p<0.001) were associated with a lower risk of race dropout, whereas avoidance coping strategies (OR, 2.26; 95% CI 1.46-3.52; p<0.001) were associated with an increased dropout rate. CONCLUSION Interventions promoting self-efficacy constructs and specific coping strategies might contribute to preventing dropout in ultra-trailers.
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Blennerhassett C, McNaughton L, Sparks S. Factors influencing ultra-endurance athletes food choices: an adapted food choice questionnaire. Res Sports Med 2018; 27:257-271. [DOI: 10.1080/15438627.2018.1530999] [Citation(s) in RCA: 11] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/24/2022]
Affiliation(s)
- C Blennerhassett
- Faculty of Health and Social Care, Edge Hill University, Ormskirk, UK
| | - L.R. McNaughton
- Department of Sport and Physical Activity, Edge Hill University, Ormskirk, UK
- Department of Sport and Movement Studies, Faculty of Health Science, University of Johannesburg, Johannesburg, South Africa
| | - S.A Sparks
- Department of Sport and Physical Activity, Edge Hill University, Ormskirk, UK
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12
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Martinez S, Aguilo A, Rodas L, Lozano L, Moreno C, Tauler P. Energy, macronutrient and water intake during a mountain ultramarathon event: The influence of distance. J Sports Sci 2017; 36:333-339. [PMID: 28322630 DOI: 10.1080/02640414.2017.1306092] [Citation(s) in RCA: 33] [Impact Index Per Article: 4.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 10/19/2022]
Abstract
Adequate dietary strategies are essential for the successful participation in ultra-endurance races. The aim of this study was to evaluate and compare the energy and water intakes of participants during three different mountain ultra-endurance runs. The study took place at the "Ultra Mallorca Serra de Tramuntana" (Mallorca, Spain), an ultra-endurance mountain event with runners participating either in a 44-km (Marathon, n = 51), a 67-km (Trail, n = 109) or a 112-km (Ultra, n = 53) run competition. Participants in the study answered a questionnaire focused on the nutritional intake within an hour after finishing the competition. Mean energy intake during the competitions was 183 kcal · h¯1, with an average carbohydrate intake of 31 g · h¯1 (52.1% of participants consumed less than 30 g · h¯1). No significant differences between competitions were found in these parameters. However, a higher percentage of energy from lipids in participants in the Trail and the Ultra was found (P = 0.034). Furthermore, significant differences were observed in water intake per hour of competition (P = 0.039), with the lowest value for the intake during the Ultra competition. In conclusion, the majority of the participants in the study present low carbohydrate intakes. However, fluid intake seems to be adequate. Different distances did not significantly influence the participants' nutritional strategies.
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Affiliation(s)
- Sonia Martinez
- a Research Group on Evidence, Lifestyles & Health, Department of Nursing and Physiotherapy, Research Institute on Health Sciences , University of the Balearic Islands , Palma de Mallorca , Spain
| | - Antoni Aguilo
- a Research Group on Evidence, Lifestyles & Health, Department of Nursing and Physiotherapy, Research Institute on Health Sciences , University of the Balearic Islands , Palma de Mallorca , Spain
| | - Lluis Rodas
- b Research Group on Evidence, Lifestyles & Health, Department of Fundamental Biology and Health Sciences, Research Institute on Health Sciences , University of the Balearic Islands , Palma de Mallorca , Spain
| | - Leticia Lozano
- a Research Group on Evidence, Lifestyles & Health, Department of Nursing and Physiotherapy, Research Institute on Health Sciences , University of the Balearic Islands , Palma de Mallorca , Spain
| | - Carlos Moreno
- a Research Group on Evidence, Lifestyles & Health, Department of Nursing and Physiotherapy, Research Institute on Health Sciences , University of the Balearic Islands , Palma de Mallorca , Spain
| | - Pedro Tauler
- b Research Group on Evidence, Lifestyles & Health, Department of Fundamental Biology and Health Sciences, Research Institute on Health Sciences , University of the Balearic Islands , Palma de Mallorca , Spain
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13
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Heydenreich J, Kayser B, Schutz Y, Melzer K. Total Energy Expenditure, Energy Intake, and Body Composition in Endurance Athletes Across the Training Season: A Systematic Review. SPORTS MEDICINE-OPEN 2017; 3:8. [PMID: 28161872 PMCID: PMC5292109 DOI: 10.1186/s40798-017-0076-1] [Citation(s) in RCA: 83] [Impact Index Per Article: 11.9] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 09/07/2016] [Accepted: 01/24/2017] [Indexed: 12/22/2022]
Abstract
BACKGROUND Endurance athletes perform periodized training in order to prepare for main competitions and maximize performance. However, the coupling between alterations of total energy expenditure (TEE), energy intake, and body composition during different seasonal training phases is unclear. So far, no systematic review has assessed fluctuations in TEE, energy intake, and/or body composition in endurance athletes across the training season. The purpose of this study was to (1) systematically analyze TEE, energy intake, and body composition in highly trained athletes of various endurance disciplines and of both sexes and (2) analyze fluctuations in these parameters across the training season. METHODS An electronic database search was conducted on the SPORTDiscus and MEDLINE (January 1990-31 January 2015) databases using a combination of relevant keywords. Two independent reviewers identified potentially relevant studies. Where a consensus was not reached, a third reviewer was consulted. Original research articles that examined TEE, energy intake, and/or body composition in 18-40-year-old endurance athletes and reported the seasonal training phases of data assessment were included in the review. Articles were excluded if body composition was assessed by skinfold measurements, TEE was assessed by questionnaires, or data could not be split between the sexes. Two reviewers assessed the quality of studies independently. Data on subject characteristics, TEE, energy intake, and/or body composition were extracted from the included studies. Subjects were categorized according to their sex and endurance discipline and each study allocated a weight within categories based on the number of subjects assessed. Extracted data were used to calculate weighted means and standard deviations for parameters of TEE, energy intake, and/or body composition. RESULTS From 3589 citations, 321 articles were identified as potentially relevant, with 82 meeting all of the inclusion criteria. TEE of endurance athletes was significantly higher during the competition phase than during the preparation phase (p < 0.001) and significantly higher than energy intake in both phases (p < 0.001). During the competition phase, both body mass and fat-free mass were significantly higher compared to other seasonal training phases (p < 0.05). CONCLUSIONS Limitations of the present study included insufficient data being available for all seasonal training phases and thus low explanatory power of single parameters. Additionally, the classification of the different seasonal training phases has to be discussed. Male and female endurance athletes show important training seasonal fluctuations in TEE, energy intake, and body composition. Therefore, dietary intake recommendations should take into consideration other factors including the actual training load, TEE, and body composition goals of the athlete.
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Affiliation(s)
- Juliane Heydenreich
- Swiss Federal Institute of Sport Magglingen SFISM, Hauptstrasse 247, 2532, Magglingen, Switzerland. .,Faculty of Biology and Medicine, University of Lausanne, Lausanne, 1015, Switzerland.
| | - Bengt Kayser
- Faculty of Biology and Medicine, University of Lausanne, Lausanne, 1015, Switzerland
| | - Yves Schutz
- Faculty of Medicine, University of Fribourg, Fribourg, 1700, Switzerland
| | - Katarina Melzer
- Swiss Federal Institute of Sport Magglingen SFISM, Hauptstrasse 247, 2532, Magglingen, Switzerland
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Manunzio C, Mester J, Kaiser W, Wahl P. Training Intensity Distribution and Changes in Performance and Physiology of a 2nd Place Finisher Team of the Race across America Over a 6 Month Preparation Period. Front Physiol 2016; 7:642. [PMID: 28082909 PMCID: PMC5187238 DOI: 10.3389/fphys.2016.00642] [Citation(s) in RCA: 17] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.1] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 05/24/2016] [Accepted: 12/07/2016] [Indexed: 01/23/2023] Open
Abstract
Aim: To monitor the training intensity distribution (TID) and the development of physiological and performance parameters. Methods: During their preparation period for the RAAM, 4 athletes (plus 1 additional backup racer) performed 3 testing sessions; one before, one after 3, and one after 6 months of training. VO2max, maximal rate of lactate accumulation (dLa/dtmax), critical power, power output at lactate minimum (MLSSP), peak and mean power output during a sprint test, heart rate recovery, isometric strength, jumping height, and body composition were determined. All training sessions were recorded with a power meter. The endurance TID was analyzed based on the time in zone approach, according to a classical 3-zone model, including all power data of training sessions, and a power specific 3-zone model, where time with power output below 50% of MLSSP was not considered. Results: The TID using the classical 3-zone model reflected a pyramidal TID (zone 1: 63 ± 16, zone 2: 28 ± 13 and zone 3: 9 ± 4%). The power specific 3-zone model resulted in a threshold-based TID (zone 1: 48 ± 13, zone 2: 39 ± 10, zone 3: 13 ± 4%). VO2max increased by 7.1 ± 5.3% (P = 0.06). dLa/dtmax decreased by 16.3 ± 8.1% (P = 0.03). Power output at lactate minimum and critical power increased by 10.3 ± 4.1 and 16.8 ± 6.2% (P = 0.01), respectively. No changes were found for strength parameters and jumps. Conclusion: The present study underlines that a threshold oriented TID results in only moderate increases in physiological parameters. The amount of training below 50% of MLSSp (~28% of total training time) is remarkably high. Researchers, trainers, and athletes should pay attention to the different ways of interpreting training power data, to gain realistic insights into the TID and the corresponding improvements in performance and physiological parameters.
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Affiliation(s)
- Christian Manunzio
- Institute of Training Science and Sport Informatics, German Sport University Cologne, Germany
| | - Joachim Mester
- Institute of Training Science and Sport Informatics, German Sport UniversityCologne, Germany; The German Research Centre of Elite Sport, German Sport University CologneCologne, Germany
| | - Walter Kaiser
- Private Practice for Oral and Maxillofacial Surgery Neuss, Germany
| | - Patrick Wahl
- Institute of Training Science and Sport Informatics, German Sport UniversityCologne, Germany; The German Research Centre of Elite Sport, German Sport University CologneCologne, Germany; Department of Molecular and Cellular Sport Medicine, Institute of Cardiovascular Research and Sport Medicine, German Sport University CologneCologne, Germany
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15
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Williamson E. Nutritional implications for ultra-endurance walking and running events. EXTREME PHYSIOLOGY & MEDICINE 2016; 5:13. [PMID: 27895900 PMCID: PMC5117571 DOI: 10.1186/s13728-016-0054-0] [Citation(s) in RCA: 22] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 06/04/2016] [Accepted: 11/01/2016] [Indexed: 01/15/2023]
Abstract
This paper examines the various nutritional challenges which athletes encounter in preparing for and participating in ultra-endurance walking and running events. Special attention is paid to energy level, performance, and recovery within the context of athletes' intake of carbohydrate, protein, fat, and various vitamins and minerals. It outlines, by way of a review of literature, those factors which promote optimal performance for the ultra-endurance athlete and provides recommendations from multiple researchers concerned with the nutrition and performance of ultra-endurance athletes. Despite the availability of some research about the subject, there is a paucity of longitudinal material which examines athletes by nature and type of ultra-endurance event, gender, age, race, and unique physiological characteristics. Optimal nutrition results in a decreased risk of energy depletion, better performance, and quicker full-recovery.
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Affiliation(s)
- Eric Williamson
- Department of Exercise Science, University of Toronto, 55 Harbord Street, Toronto, ON M5S 2W6 Canada
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16
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Knechtle B, Bragazzi NL, Rosemann T, Rüst CA. Pacing in a self-paced world record attempt in 24-h road cycling. SPRINGERPLUS 2015; 4:650. [PMID: 26543784 PMCID: PMC4628007 DOI: 10.1186/s40064-015-1445-1] [Citation(s) in RCA: 8] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.9] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 04/22/2015] [Accepted: 10/19/2015] [Indexed: 11/12/2022]
Abstract
Background Pacing strategy plays a major role in sport performance. However, there is a dearth of knowledge concerning pacing during ultra-endurance sport events. The present case study investigated the pacing of an ultra-cyclist in a self-paced attempt to break the world record in 24-h road cycling and, with all the caveats and the limitations affecting a case report, could be useful in generating hypotheses and further studies about pacing dynamics during prolonged sport performances. Case description A well experienced ultra-cyclist completed laps of 11.731 km during 24 h and the support crew recorded for each lap time and power output in Watt. The trend in cycling speed and power output across laps was investigated using regression analyses. A mixed-effects regression model including lap, ambient air temperature, air pressure, air humidity and wind speed as fixed variables was used to investigate a relationship of environmental factors with cycling speed. Discussion and evaluation The athlete achieved 896.173 km within the 24 h. He set a new world record by breaking the old record (Jure Robic, 2004, 834.77 km) by 61.403 km. He cycled at an average speed
of 37.34 km/h with an average power output of 250.2 W. The decrease in cycling speed and power output across laps could be modelled linearly. Temperature and wind speed were related to cycling speed during the whole event. There was a significant interaction air temperature × relative humidity for the whole event. Conclusions The athlete adopted a positive pacing (i.e. speed gradually declined throughout the event) and environmental factors (i.e. temperature and wind speed) influenced cycling speed during the event.
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Affiliation(s)
- Beat Knechtle
- Facharzt FMH für Allgemeinmedizin, Gesundheitszentrum St. Gallen, Vadianstrasse 26, 9001 St. Gallen, Switzerland ; Institute of Primary Care, University of Zurich, Zurich, Switzerland
| | - Nicola Luigi Bragazzi
- Department of Health Sciences (DISSAL), School of Public Health, University of Genoa, Genoa, Italy
| | - Thomas Rosemann
- Institute of Primary Care, University of Zurich, Zurich, Switzerland
| | - Christoph A Rüst
- Institute of Primary Care, University of Zurich, Zurich, Switzerland
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Shoak MA, Knechtle B, Knechtle P, Rüst CA, Rosemann T, Lepers R. Participation and performance trends in ultracycling. Open Access J Sports Med 2013; 4:41-51. [PMID: 24379708 PMCID: PMC3871902 DOI: 10.2147/oajsm.s40142] [Citation(s) in RCA: 21] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.9] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 01/08/2023] Open
Abstract
Background Participation and performance trends have been investigated in ultramarathons and ultratriathlons but not in ultracycling. The aim of the present study was to investigate (1) participation and performance trends in ultraendurance cyclists, (2) changes in cycling speed over the years, and (3) the age of the fastest male and female ultraendurance cyclists. Methods Participation and performance trends in the 5000 km Race Across America (RAAM) and in two RAAM-qualifier races – the 818 km Furnace Creek 508 in the United States and the 715 km Swiss Cycling Marathon in Europe – were investigated using linear regression analyses and analyses of variance. Results On average, ~41% of participants did not finish either the RAAM or the Furnace Creek 508, whereas ~26% did not finish the Swiss Cycling Marathon. Female finishers accounted for ~11% in both the RAAM and the Furnace Creek 508 but only ~3% in the Swiss Cycling Marathon. The mean cycling speed of all finishers remained unchanged during the studied periods. The winner’s average speed was faster for men than for women in the RAAM (22.6 ± 1.1 km · h−1 versus 18.4 ± 1.7 km · h−1, respectively; average speed difference between male and female winners, 25.0% ± 11.9%), the Swiss Cycling Marathon (30.8 ± 0.8 km · h−1 versus 24.4 ± 1.9 km · h−1, respectively; average speed difference between male and female winners, 27.8% ± 9.4%), and the Furnace Creek 508 (27.4 ± 1.6 km · h−1 versus 23.4 ± 3.0 km · h−1, respectively; average speed difference between male and female winners, 18.4% ± 13.9%). In both the Furnace Creek 508 and the Swiss Cycling Marathon, ~46% of the finishers were aged between 35 and 49 years. The mean age of winners, both male and female, across the years in the Furnace Creek 508 and in the Swiss Cycling Marathon was 37 ± 10 years. Conclusion These findings in ultracycling races showed that (1) ~26%–40% of starters were unable to finish, (2) the percentage of female finishers was ~3%–11%, (3) the gender difference in performance was ~18%–28%, and (4) ~46% of the successful finishers were master athletes. Future studies need to investigate the reasons for the low female participation and focus on the age-related performance decline in other ultraendurance events in order to confirm that master athletes are predisposed to ultraendurance performances.
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Affiliation(s)
- Mohannad Abou Shoak
- Institute of General Practice and Health Services Research, University of Zurich, Zurich, Switzerland
| | - Beat Knechtle
- Institute of General Practice and Health Services Research, University of Zurich, Zurich, Switzerland ; Gesundheitszentrum St Gallen, St Gallen, Switzerland
| | | | - Christoph Alexander Rüst
- Institute of General Practice and Health Services Research, University of Zurich, Zurich, Switzerland
| | - Thomas Rosemann
- Institute of General Practice and Health Services Research, University of Zurich, Zurich, Switzerland
| | - Romuald Lepers
- INSERM U1093, Faculty of Sport Sciences, University of Burgundy, Dijon, France
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18
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Shoak MA, Knechtle B, Rüst CA, Lepers R, Rosemann T. European dominance in multistage ultramarathons: an analysis of finisher rate and performance trends from 1992 to 2010. Open Access J Sports Med 2013; 4:9-18. [PMID: 24379704 PMCID: PMC3871050 DOI: 10.2147/oajsm.s39619] [Citation(s) in RCA: 5] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/23/2022] Open
Abstract
BACKGROUND Participation and performance trends regarding the nationality of ultraendurance athletes have been investigated in the triathlon, but not in running. The present study aimed to identify the countries in which multistage ultramarathons were held around the world and the nationalities of successful finishers. METHODS Finisher rates and performance trends of finishers in multistage ultramarathons held worldwide between 1992 and 2010 were investigated. RESULTS Between 1992 and 2010, the bulk of multistage ultramarathons were held in Germany and France, with more than 30 races organized in each country. Completion rates for men and women increased exponentially, with women representing on average 16.4% of the total field. Since 1992, 6480 athletes have competed in Morocco, 2538 in Germany, and 1842 in France. A total of 81.9% of athletes originated from Europe, and more specifically from France (22.9%), Great Britain (18.0%), and Germany (13.4%). CONCLUSION European ultramarathoners dominated the athletes who completed multistage ultramarathons worldwide, with specific dominance of French, British, and German athletes. Future studies should investigate social aspects, such as sport tourism, among European athletes to understand why European athletes are so interested in participating in multistage ultramarathons.
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Affiliation(s)
- Mohannad Abou Shoak
- Institute of General Practice and for Health Services Research, University of Zurich, Zurich, Switzerland
| | - Beat Knechtle
- Institute of General Practice and for Health Services Research, University of Zurich, Zurich, Switzerland ; Gesundheitszentrum St Gallen, St Gallen, Switzerland
| | - Christoph Alexander Rüst
- Institute of General Practice and for Health Services Research, University of Zurich, Zurich, Switzerland
| | - Romuald Lepers
- INSERM U1093, Faculty of Sport Sciences, University of Burgundy, Dijon, France
| | - Thomas Rosemann
- Institute of General Practice and for Health Services Research, University of Zurich, Zurich, Switzerland
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Sehovic E, Knechtle B, Rüst CA, Rosemann T. 12-hour ultra-marathons - Increasing worldwide participation and dominance of Europeans. JOURNAL OF HUMAN SPORT AND EXERCISE 2013. [DOI: 10.4100/jhse.2013.84.05] [Citation(s) in RCA: 9] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/06/2022] Open
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20
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Halsey LG, Stroud MA. 100 Years Since Scott Reached the Pole: A Century of Learning About the Physiological Demands of Antarctica. Physiol Rev 2012; 92:521-36. [DOI: 10.1152/physrev.00031.2011] [Citation(s) in RCA: 13] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.1] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/18/2022] Open
Abstract
The 1910–1913 Terra Nova Expedition to the Antarctic, led by Captain Robert Falcon Scott, was a venture of science and discovery. It is also a well-known story of heroism and tragedy since his quest to reach the South Pole and conduct research en route, while successful was also fateful. Although Scott and his four companions hauled their sledges to the Pole, they died on their return journey either directly or indirectly from the extreme physiological stresses they experienced. One hundred years on, our understanding of such stresses caused by Antarctic extremes and how the body reacts to severe exercise, malnutrition, hypothermia, high altitude, and sleep deprivation has greatly advanced. On the centenary of Scott's expedition to the bottom of the Earth, there is still controversy surrounding whether the deaths of those five men could have, or should have, been avoided. This paper reviews present-day knowledge related to the physiology of sustained man-hauling in Antarctica and contrasts this with the comparative ignorance about these issues around the turn of the 20th century. It closes by considering whether, with modern understanding about the effects of such a scenario on the human condition, Scott could have prepared and managed his team differently and so survived the epic 1,600-mile journey. The conclusion is that by carrying rations with a different composition of macromolecules, enabling greater calorific intake at similar overall weight, Scott might have secured the lives of some of the party, and it is also possible that enhanced levels of vitamin C in his rations, albeit difficult to achieve in 1911, could have significantly improved their survival chances. Nevertheless, even with today's knowledge, a repeat attempt at his expedition would by no means be bound to succeed.
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Affiliation(s)
- Lewis G. Halsey
- University of Roehampton, London, and National Institute for Health Research Biomedical Research Unit in Nutrition, Southampton University Hospitals Trust, Southampton, United Kingdom
| | - Mike A. Stroud
- University of Roehampton, London, and National Institute for Health Research Biomedical Research Unit in Nutrition, Southampton University Hospitals Trust, Southampton, United Kingdom
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Bescós R, Rodríguez FA, Iglesias X, Knechtle B, Benítez A, Marina M, Padullés JM, Torrado P, Vazquez J, Rosemann T. Nutritional behavior of cyclists during a 24-hour team relay race: a field study report. J Int Soc Sports Nutr 2012; 9:3. [PMID: 22309475 PMCID: PMC3287968 DOI: 10.1186/1550-2783-9-3] [Citation(s) in RCA: 19] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 08/11/2011] [Accepted: 02/06/2012] [Indexed: 11/10/2022] Open
Abstract
Background Information about behavior of energy intake in ultra-endurance cyclists during a 24-hour team relay race is scarce. The nutritional strategy during such an event is an important factor which athletes should plan carefully before the race. The purpose of this study was to examine and compare the nutritional intake of ultra-endurance cyclists during a 24-hour team relay race with the current nutritional guidelines for endurance events. Additionally, we analyzed the relationship among the nutritional and performance variables. Methods Using a observational design, nutritional intake of eight males (mean ± SD: 36.7 ± 4.7 years; 71.6 ± 4.9 kg; 174.6 ± 7.3 cm; BMI 23.5 ± 0.5 kg/m2) participating in a 24-hour team relay cycling race was assessed. All food and fluid intake by athletes were weighed and recorded. Additionally, distance and speed performed by each rider were also recorded. Furthermore, before to the race, all subjects carried out an incremental exercise test to determine two heart rate-VO2 regression equations which were used to estimate the energy expenditure. Results The mean ingestion of macronutrients during the event was 943 ± 245 g (13.1 ± 4.0 g/kg) of carbohydrates, 174 ± 146 g (2.4 ± 1.9 g/kg) of proteins and 107 ± 56 g (1.5 ± 0.7 g/kg) of lipids, respectively. This amount of nutrients reported an average nutrient intake of 22.8 ± 8.9 MJ which were significantly lower compared with energy expenditure 42.9 ± 6.8 MJ (P = 0.012). Average fluid consumption corresponded to 10497 ± 2654 mL. Mean caffeine ingestion was 142 ± 76 mg. Additionally, there was no relationship between the main nutritional variables (i.e. energy intake, carbohydrates, proteins, fluids and caffeine ingestion) and the main performance variables (i.e. distance and speed). Conclusions A 24-hour hours cycling competition in a team relay format elicited high energy demands which were not compensated by energy intake of the athletes despite that dietary consumption of macronutrients did not differ to the nutritional guidelines for longer events.
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Affiliation(s)
- Raúl Bescós
- Institut Nacional d'Educació Física de Catalunya, Sports Sciences Research Group, Universitat de Barcelona, Spain.
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SCHUMACHER YORCKOLAF, AHLGRIM CHRISTOPH, PRETTIN STEPHAN, POTTGIESSER TORBEN. Physiology, Power Output, and Racing Strategy of a Race Across America Finisher. Med Sci Sports Exerc 2011; 43:885-9. [DOI: 10.1249/mss.0b013e3181fec009] [Citation(s) in RCA: 9] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/21/2022]
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