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Song T, Huo Q, Li C, Wang Q, Cheng L, Qi W, Ma Z, Song R. The biosynthesis of storage reserves and auxin is coordinated by a hierarchical regulatory network in maize endosperm. THE NEW PHYTOLOGIST 2024; 243:1855-1869. [PMID: 38962989 DOI: 10.1111/nph.19949] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 04/23/2024] [Accepted: 06/19/2024] [Indexed: 07/05/2024]
Abstract
Grain filling in maize (Zea mays) is intricately linked to cell development, involving the regulation of genes responsible for the biosynthesis of storage reserves (starch, proteins, and lipids) and phytohormones. However, the regulatory network coordinating these biological functions remains unclear. In this study, we identified 1744 high-confidence target genes co-regulated by the transcription factors (TFs) ZmNAC128 and ZmNAC130 (ZmNAC128/130) through chromatin immunoprecipitation sequencing coupled with RNA-seq analysis in the zmnac128/130 loss-of-function mutants. We further constructed a hierarchical regulatory network using DNA affinity purification sequencing analysis of downstream TFs regulated by ZmNAC128/130. In addition to target genes involved in the biosynthesis of starch and zeins, we discovered novel target genes of ZmNAC128/130 involved in the biosynthesis of lipids and indole-3-acetic acid (IAA). Consistently, the number of oil bodies, as well as the contents of triacylglycerol, and IAA were significantly reduced in zmnac128/130. The hierarchical regulatory network centered by ZmNAC128/130 revealed a significant overlap between the direct target genes of ZmNAC128/130 and their downstream TFs, particularly in regulating the biosynthesis of storage reserves and IAA. Our results indicated that the biosynthesis of storage reserves and IAA is coordinated by a multi-TFs hierarchical regulatory network in maize endosperm.
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Affiliation(s)
- Teng Song
- State Key Laboratory of Maize Bio-breeding, Frontiers Science Center for Molecular Design Breeding, Joint International Research Laboratory of Crop Molecular Breeding, National Maize Improvement Center, College of Agronomy and Biotechnology, China Agricultural University, Beijing, 100193, China
| | - Qiang Huo
- State Key Laboratory of Maize Bio-breeding, Frontiers Science Center for Molecular Design Breeding, Joint International Research Laboratory of Crop Molecular Breeding, National Maize Improvement Center, College of Agronomy and Biotechnology, China Agricultural University, Beijing, 100193, China
| | - Chaobin Li
- State Key Laboratory of Maize Bio-breeding, Frontiers Science Center for Molecular Design Breeding, Joint International Research Laboratory of Crop Molecular Breeding, National Maize Improvement Center, College of Agronomy and Biotechnology, China Agricultural University, Beijing, 100193, China
- State Key Laboratory of Systematic and Evolutionary Botany, Institute of Botany, Chinese Academy of Sciences, Beijing, 100093, China
| | - Qun Wang
- State Key Laboratory of Maize Bio-breeding, Frontiers Science Center for Molecular Design Breeding, Joint International Research Laboratory of Crop Molecular Breeding, National Maize Improvement Center, College of Agronomy and Biotechnology, China Agricultural University, Beijing, 100193, China
| | - Lijun Cheng
- Shanghai Key Laboratory of Bio-Energy Crops, Plant Science Center, School of Life Sciences, Shanghai University, Shanghai, 200444, China
| | - Weiwei Qi
- Shanghai Key Laboratory of Bio-Energy Crops, Plant Science Center, School of Life Sciences, Shanghai University, Shanghai, 200444, China
| | - Zeyang Ma
- State Key Laboratory of Maize Bio-breeding, Frontiers Science Center for Molecular Design Breeding, Joint International Research Laboratory of Crop Molecular Breeding, National Maize Improvement Center, College of Agronomy and Biotechnology, China Agricultural University, Beijing, 100193, China
| | - Rentao Song
- State Key Laboratory of Maize Bio-breeding, Frontiers Science Center for Molecular Design Breeding, Joint International Research Laboratory of Crop Molecular Breeding, National Maize Improvement Center, College of Agronomy and Biotechnology, China Agricultural University, Beijing, 100193, China
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Jiang Z, Zhang H, Jiao P, Wei X, Liu S, Guan S, Ma Y. The Integration of Metabolomics and Transcriptomics Provides New Insights for the Identification of Genes Key to Auxin Synthesis at Different Growth Stages of Maize. Int J Mol Sci 2022; 23:13195. [PMID: 36361983 PMCID: PMC9659120 DOI: 10.3390/ijms232113195] [Citation(s) in RCA: 3] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 09/29/2022] [Revised: 10/20/2022] [Accepted: 10/28/2022] [Indexed: 10/29/2023] Open
Abstract
As a staple food crop, maize is widely cultivated worldwide. Sex differentiation and kernel development are regulated by auxin, but the mechanism regulating its synthesis remains unclear. This study explored the influence of the growth stage of maize on the secondary metabolite accumulation and gene expression associated with auxin synthesis. Transcriptomics and metabonomics were used to investigate the changes in secondary metabolite accumulation and gene expression in maize leaves at the jointing, tasseling, and pollen-release stages of plant growth. In total, 1221 differentially accumulated metabolites (DAMs) and 4843 differentially expressed genes (DEGs) were screened. KEGG pathway enrichment analyses of the DEGs and DAMs revealed that plant hormone signal transduction, tryptophan metabolism, and phenylpropanoid biosynthesis were highly enriched. We summarized the key genes and regulatory effects of the tryptophan-dependent auxin biosynthesis pathways, giving new insights into this type of biosynthesis. Potential MSTRG.11063 and MSTRG.35270 and MSTRG.21978 genes in auxin synthesis pathways were obtained. A weighted gene co-expression network analysis identified five candidate genes, namely TSB (Zm00001d046676 and Zm00001d049610), IGS (Zm00001d020008), AUX2 (Zm00001d006283), TAR (Zm00001d039691), and YUC (Zm00001d025005 and Zm00001d008255), which were important in the biosynthesis of both tryptophan and auxin. This study provides new insights for understanding the regulatory mechanism of auxin synthesis in maize.
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Affiliation(s)
- Zhenzhong Jiang
- College of Life Sciences, Jilin Agricultural University, Changchun 130118, China
- Joint International Research Laboratory of Modern Agricultural Technology, Ministry of Education, Changchun 130118, China
| | - Honglin Zhang
- Joint International Research Laboratory of Modern Agricultural Technology, Ministry of Education, Changchun 130118, China
- College of Agronomy, Jilin Agricultural University, Changchun 130118, China
| | - Peng Jiao
- College of Life Sciences, Jilin Agricultural University, Changchun 130118, China
- Joint International Research Laboratory of Modern Agricultural Technology, Ministry of Education, Changchun 130118, China
| | - Xiaotong Wei
- Joint International Research Laboratory of Modern Agricultural Technology, Ministry of Education, Changchun 130118, China
- College of Agronomy, Jilin Agricultural University, Changchun 130118, China
| | - Siyan Liu
- Joint International Research Laboratory of Modern Agricultural Technology, Ministry of Education, Changchun 130118, China
- College of Agronomy, Jilin Agricultural University, Changchun 130118, China
| | - Shuyan Guan
- Joint International Research Laboratory of Modern Agricultural Technology, Ministry of Education, Changchun 130118, China
- College of Agronomy, Jilin Agricultural University, Changchun 130118, China
| | - Yiyong Ma
- Joint International Research Laboratory of Modern Agricultural Technology, Ministry of Education, Changchun 130118, China
- College of Agronomy, Jilin Agricultural University, Changchun 130118, China
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Yue K, Lingling L, Xie J, Coulter JA, Luo Z. Synthesis and regulation of auxin and abscisic acid in maize. PLANT SIGNALING & BEHAVIOR 2021; 16:1891756. [PMID: 34057034 PMCID: PMC8205056 DOI: 10.1080/15592324.2021.1891756] [Citation(s) in RCA: 3] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 05/12/2023]
Abstract
Indole-3-acetic acid (IAA), the primary auxin in higher plants, and abscisic acid (ABA) play crucial roles in the ability of maize (Zea mays L.) to acclimatize to various environments by mediating growth, development, defense and nutrient allocation. Although understanding the biochemical reactions for IAA and ABA biosynthesis and signal transduction has progressed, the mechanisms by which auxin and ABA are synthesized and transduced in maize have not been fully elucidated to date. The synthesis and signal transduction pathway of IAA and ABA in maize can be analyzed using an existing model. This article focuses on the research progress toward understanding the synthesis and signaling pathways of IAA and ABA, as well as IAA and ABA regulation of maize growth, providing insight for future development and the significance of IAA and ABA for maize improvement.
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Affiliation(s)
- Kai Yue
- Gansu Provincial Key Laboratory of Aridland Crop Science, Lanzhou, China
- College of Agronomy, Gansu Agricultural University, Lanzhou, China
| | - Li Lingling
- Gansu Provincial Key Laboratory of Aridland Crop Science, Lanzhou, China
- College of Agronomy, Gansu Agricultural University, Lanzhou, China
- CONTACT Lingling Li College of Agronomy/Gansu Provincial Key Laboratory of Aridland Crop Science, Gansu Agricultural University, Lanzhou 730070, China
| | - Junhong Xie
- Gansu Provincial Key Laboratory of Aridland Crop Science, Lanzhou, China
- College of Agronomy, Gansu Agricultural University, Lanzhou, China
| | - Jeffrey A. Coulter
- Department of Agronomy and Plant Genetics, University of Minnesota, St. Paul, MN, USA
| | - Zhuzhu Luo
- College of Resource and Environment, Gansu Agricultural University, Lanzhou, China
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Zhang H, Wang R, Wang H, Liu B, Xu M, Guan Y, Yang Y, Qin L, Chen E, Li F, Huang R, Zhou Y. Heterogeneous root zone salinity mitigates salt injury to Sorghum bicolor (L.) Moench in a split-root system. PLoS One 2019; 14:e0227020. [PMID: 31887166 PMCID: PMC6936808 DOI: 10.1371/journal.pone.0227020] [Citation(s) in RCA: 3] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 08/12/2019] [Accepted: 12/10/2019] [Indexed: 01/24/2023] Open
Abstract
The heterogeneous distribution of soil salinity across the rhizosphere can moderate salt injury and improve sorghum growth. However, the essential molecular mechanisms used by sorghum to adapt to such environmental conditions remain uncharacterized. The present study evaluated physiological parameters such as the photosynthetic rate, antioxidative enzyme activities, leaf Na+ and K+ contents, and osmolyte contents and investigated gene expression patterns via RNA sequencing (RNA-seq) analysis under various conditions of nonuniformly distributed salt. Totals of 5691 and 2047 differentially expressed genes (DEGs) in the leaves and roots, respectively, were identified by RNA-seq under nonuniform (NaCl-free and 200 mmol·L-1 NaCl) and uniform (100 mmol·L-1 and 100 mmol·L-1 NaCl) salinity conditions. The expression of genes related to photosynthesis, Na+ compartmentalization, phytohormone metabolism, antioxidative enzymes, and transcription factors (TFs) was enhanced in leaves under nonuniform salinity stress compared with uniform salinity stress. Similarly, the expression of the majority of aquaporins and essential mineral transporters was upregulated in the NaCl-free root side in the nonuniform salinity treatment, whereas abscisic acid (ABA)-related and salt stress-responsive TF transcripts were more abundant in the high-saline root side in the nonuniform salinity treatment. In contrast, the expression of the DEGs identified in the nonuniform salinity treatment remained virtually unaffected and was even downregulated in the uniform salinity treatment. The transcriptome findings might be supportive of the increased photosynthetic rate, reduced Na+ levels, increased antioxidative capability in the leaves and, consequently, the growth recovery of sorghum under nonuniform salinity stress as well as the inhibited sorghum growth under uniform salinity conditions. The increased expression of salt resistance genes activated in response to the nonuniform salinity distribution implied that the cross-talk between the nonsaline and high-saline sides of the roots exposed to nonuniform salt stress is potentially regulated.
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Affiliation(s)
- Huawen Zhang
- Agronomy College, Shenyang Agricultural University, Shenyang, Liaoning, China
- Crop Research Institute, Shandong Academy of Agricultural Sciences, Jinan, Shandong, China
- Shandong Engineering Laboratory for Featured Crops, Jinan, Shandong, China
| | - Runfeng Wang
- Crop Research Institute, Shandong Academy of Agricultural Sciences, Jinan, Shandong, China
- Shandong Engineering Laboratory for Featured Crops, Jinan, Shandong, China
| | - Hailian Wang
- Crop Research Institute, Shandong Academy of Agricultural Sciences, Jinan, Shandong, China
- Shandong Engineering Laboratory for Featured Crops, Jinan, Shandong, China
| | - Bin Liu
- Crop Research Institute, Shandong Academy of Agricultural Sciences, Jinan, Shandong, China
- Shandong Engineering Laboratory for Featured Crops, Jinan, Shandong, China
| | - Mengping Xu
- Crop Research Institute, Shandong Academy of Agricultural Sciences, Jinan, Shandong, China
- Shandong Engineering Laboratory for Featured Crops, Jinan, Shandong, China
| | - Yan’an Guan
- Crop Research Institute, Shandong Academy of Agricultural Sciences, Jinan, Shandong, China
- Shandong Engineering Laboratory for Featured Crops, Jinan, Shandong, China
| | - Yanbing Yang
- Crop Research Institute, Shandong Academy of Agricultural Sciences, Jinan, Shandong, China
- Shandong Engineering Laboratory for Featured Crops, Jinan, Shandong, China
| | - Ling Qin
- Crop Research Institute, Shandong Academy of Agricultural Sciences, Jinan, Shandong, China
- Shandong Engineering Laboratory for Featured Crops, Jinan, Shandong, China
| | - Erying Chen
- Crop Research Institute, Shandong Academy of Agricultural Sciences, Jinan, Shandong, China
- Shandong Engineering Laboratory for Featured Crops, Jinan, Shandong, China
| | - Feifei Li
- Crop Research Institute, Shandong Academy of Agricultural Sciences, Jinan, Shandong, China
- Shandong Engineering Laboratory for Featured Crops, Jinan, Shandong, China
| | - Ruidong Huang
- Agronomy College, Shenyang Agricultural University, Shenyang, Liaoning, China
| | - Yufei Zhou
- Agronomy College, Shenyang Agricultural University, Shenyang, Liaoning, China
- * E-mail:
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Blakeslee JJ, Spatola Rossi T, Kriechbaumer V. Auxin biosynthesis: spatial regulation and adaptation to stress. JOURNAL OF EXPERIMENTAL BOTANY 2019; 70:5041-5049. [PMID: 31198972 DOI: 10.1093/jxb/erz283] [Citation(s) in RCA: 54] [Impact Index Per Article: 10.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 01/30/2019] [Accepted: 06/03/2019] [Indexed: 05/25/2023]
Abstract
The plant hormone auxin is essential for plant growth and development, controlling both organ development and overall plant architecture. Auxin homeostasis is regulated by coordination of biosynthesis, transport, conjugation, sequestration/storage, and catabolism to optimize concentration-dependent growth responses and adaptive responses to temperature, water stress, herbivory, and pathogens. At present, the best defined pathway of auxin biosynthesis is the TAA/YUC route, in which the tryptophan aminotransferases TAA and TAR and YUCCA flavin-dependent monooxygenases produce the auxin indole-3-acetic acid from tryptophan. This review highlights recent advances in our knowledge of TAA/YUC-dependent auxin biosynthesis focusing on membrane localization of auxin biosynthetic enzymes, differential regulation in root and shoot tissue, and auxin biosynthesis during abiotic stress.
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Affiliation(s)
- Joshua J Blakeslee
- Department of Horticulture and Crop Science, The Ohio State University, Wooster, OH, USA
| | - Tatiana Spatola Rossi
- Department of Biological and Medical Sciences, Oxford Brookes University, Oxford, UK
| | - Verena Kriechbaumer
- Department of Biological and Medical Sciences, Oxford Brookes University, Oxford, UK
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Zhao Y. Essential Roles of Local Auxin Biosynthesis in Plant Development and in Adaptation to Environmental Changes. ANNUAL REVIEW OF PLANT BIOLOGY 2018; 69:417-435. [PMID: 29489397 DOI: 10.1146/annurev-arplant-042817-040226] [Citation(s) in RCA: 151] [Impact Index Per Article: 25.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 05/18/2023]
Abstract
It has been a dominant dogma in plant biology that the self-organizing polar auxin transport system is necessary and sufficient to generate auxin maxima and minima that are essential for almost all aspects of plant growth and development. However, in the past few years, it has become clear that local auxin biosynthesis is required for a suite of developmental processes, including embryogenesis, endosperm development, root development, and floral initiation and patterning. Moreover, it was discovered that local auxin biosynthesis maintains optimal plant growth in response to environmental signals, including light, temperature, pathogens, and toxic metals. In this article, I discuss the recent progress in auxin biosynthesis research and the paradigm shift in recognizing the important roles of local auxin biosynthesis in plant biology.
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Affiliation(s)
- Yunde Zhao
- Section of Cell and Developmental Biology, University of California, San Diego, La Jolla, California 92093, USA;
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7
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Deng Z, Wang ZY, Kutschera U. Seedling development in maize cv. B73 and blue light-mediated proteomic changes in the tip vs. stem of the coleoptile. PROTOPLASMA 2017; 254:1317-1322. [PMID: 27631339 PMCID: PMC5885752 DOI: 10.1007/s00709-016-1023-6] [Citation(s) in RCA: 4] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 06/22/2016] [Accepted: 09/05/2016] [Indexed: 05/07/2023]
Abstract
In 2009, the draft genome of the reference inbred line of maize (Zea mays L. spp. mays cv. B73) was published so that, using this specific corn variety, molecular analyses of physiological processes became possible. However, the morphology and developmental patterns of B73 maize, compared with that of the more frequently used hybrid varieties, have not yet been analyzed. Here, we describe organ development in seedlings of B73 maize and in those of six other hybrid cultivars, and document significant morphological as well as quantitative differences between these varieties of Z. mays. In a second set of experiments, we used etiolated seedlings of B73 maize to analyze the effect of blue light (BL) on the patterns of proteins in the tip vs. growing region of this sheath-like organ. By using two-dimensional difference gel electrophoresis (2D DIGE), coupled with tandem mass spectrometry, we detected, in the microsomal fraction of maize coleoptile tips, rapid changes in the abundance of protein spots of maize phototropin 1 and several metabolic enzymes. In the sub-apical (growing) region of the coleoptile, proteomic changes were less pronounced. These results suggest that the tip of the coleoptile of B73 maize may serve as a unique model system for dissecting BL responses in a light-sensitive plant organ of known function.
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Affiliation(s)
- Zhiping Deng
- State Key Laboratory Breeding Base for Zhejiang Sustainable Pest and Disease Control, Institute of Virology and Biotechnology, Zhejiang Academy of Agricultural Sciences, Hangzhou, 310021, China
- Department of Plant Biology, Carnegie Institution for Science, Stanford, California, 94305, USA
| | - Zhi-Yong Wang
- Department of Plant Biology, Carnegie Institution for Science, Stanford, California, 94305, USA
| | - Ulrich Kutschera
- Department of Plant Biology, Carnegie Institution for Science, Stanford, California, 94305, USA.
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8
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Kriechbaumer V, Botchway SW, Hawes C. Localization and interactions between Arabidopsis auxin biosynthetic enzymes in the TAA/YUC-dependent pathway. JOURNAL OF EXPERIMENTAL BOTANY 2016; 67:4195-207. [PMID: 27208541 DOI: 10.1093/jxb/erw195] [Citation(s) in RCA: 34] [Impact Index Per Article: 4.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 06/05/2023]
Abstract
The growth regulator auxin is involved in all key developmental processes in plants. A complex network of a multiplicity of potential biosynthetic pathways as well as transport, signalling plus conjugation and deconjugation lead to a complex and multifaceted system system for auxin function. This raises the question how such a system can be effectively organized and controlled. Here we report that a subset of auxin biosynthetic enzymes in the TAA/YUC route of auxin biosynthesis is localized to the endoplasmic reticulum (ER). ER microsomal fractions also contain a significant percentage of auxin biosynthetic activity. This could point toward a model of auxin function using ER membrane location and subcellular compartmentation for supplementary layers of regulation. Additionally we show specific protein-protein interactions between some of the enzymes in the TAA/YUC route of auxin biosynthesis.
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Affiliation(s)
- Verena Kriechbaumer
- Plant Cell Biology, Biological and Medical Sciences, Oxford Brookes University, Oxford OX3 0BP, UK
| | - Stanley W Botchway
- Central Laser Facility, Science and Technology Facilities Council (STFC) Rutherford Appleton Laboratory, Research Complex at Harwell, Didcot OX11 0QX, UK
| | - Chris Hawes
- Plant Cell Biology, Biological and Medical Sciences, Oxford Brookes University, Oxford OX3 0BP, UK
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Kutschera U, Wang ZY. Growth-limiting proteins in maize coleoptiles and the auxin-brassinosteroid hypothesis of mesocotyl elongation. PROTOPLASMA 2016; 253:3-14. [PMID: 25772679 PMCID: PMC6609159 DOI: 10.1007/s00709-015-0787-4] [Citation(s) in RCA: 30] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 10/28/2014] [Accepted: 02/27/2015] [Indexed: 05/08/2023]
Abstract
The shoot of grass coleoptiles consists of the mesocotyl, the node, and the coleoptile (with enclosed primary leaf). Since the 1930s, it is known that auxin (indole-3-acetic acid, IAA), produced in the tip of the coleoptile, is the central regulator of turgor-driven organ growth. Fifty years ago, it was discovered that antibiotics that suppress protein biosynthesis, such as cycloheximide, inhibit auxin (IAA)-induced cell elongation in excised sections of coleoptiles and stems. Based on such inhibitor studies, the concept of "growth-limiting proteins (GLPs)" emerged that was subsequently elaborated and modified. Here, we summarize the history of this idea with reference to IAA-mediated shoot elongation in maize (Zea mays) seedlings and recent studies on the molecular mechanism underlying auxin action in Arabidopsis thaliana. In addition, the analysis of light-induced inhibition of shoot elongation in intact corn seedlings is discussed. We propose a concept to account for the GLP-mediated epidermal wall-loosening process in coleoptile segments and present a more general model of growth regulation in intact maize seedlings. Quantitative proteomic and genomic studies led to a refinement of the classic "GLP concept" to explain phytohormone-mediated cell elongation at the molecular level (i.e., the recently proposed theory of a "central growth regulation network," CGRN). Novel data show that mesocotyl elongation not only depends on auxin but also on brassinosteroids (BRs). However, the biochemical key processes that regulate the IAA/BR-mediated loosening of the expansion-limiting epidermal wall(s) have not yet been elucidated.
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Affiliation(s)
- Ulrich Kutschera
- Department of Plant Biology, Carnegie Institution for Science, Stanford, CA, 94305, USA.
| | - Zhi-Yong Wang
- Department of Plant Biology, Carnegie Institution for Science, Stanford, CA, 94305, USA
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Kriechbaumer V, Seo H, Park WJ, Hawes C. Endoplasmic reticulum localization and activity of maize auxin biosynthetic enzymes. JOURNAL OF EXPERIMENTAL BOTANY 2015; 66:6009-6020. [PMID: 26139824 DOI: 10.1093/jxb/erv314] [Citation(s) in RCA: 15] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 06/04/2023]
Abstract
Auxin is a major growth hormone in plants and the first plant hormone to be discovered and studied. Active research over >60 years has shed light on many of the molecular mechanisms of its action including transport, perception, signal transduction, and a variety of biosynthetic pathways in various species, tissues, and developmental stages. The complexity and redundancy of the auxin biosynthetic network and enzymes involved raises the question of how such a system, producing such a potent agent as auxin, can be appropriately controlled at all. Here it is shown that maize auxin biosynthesis takes place in microsomal as well as cytosolic cellular fractions from maize seedlings. Most interestingly, a set of enzymes shown to be involved in auxin biosynthesis via their activity and/or mutant phenotypes and catalysing adjacent steps in YUCCA-dependent biosynthesis are localized to the endoplasmic reticulum (ER). Positioning of auxin biosynthetic enzymes at the ER could be necessary to bring auxin biosynthesis in closer proximity to ER-localized factors for transport, conjugation, and signalling, and allow for an additional level of regulation by subcellular compartmentation of auxin action. Furthermore, it might provide a link to ethylene action and be a factor in hormonal cross-talk as all five ethylene receptors are ER localized.
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Affiliation(s)
- Verena Kriechbaumer
- Biological and Medical Sciences, Oxford Brookes University, Oxford OX3 0BP, UK
| | - Hyesu Seo
- Department of Molecular Biology, Institute of Nanosensor and Biotechnology, Dankook University, Yongin-si 448-701, South Korea
| | - Woong June Park
- Department of Molecular Biology, Institute of Nanosensor and Biotechnology, Dankook University, Yongin-si 448-701, South Korea
| | - Chris Hawes
- Biological and Medical Sciences, Oxford Brookes University, Oxford OX3 0BP, UK
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Hawes C, Kiviniemi P, Kriechbaumer V. The endoplasmic reticulum: a dynamic and well-connected organelle. JOURNAL OF INTEGRATIVE PLANT BIOLOGY 2015; 57:50-62. [PMID: 25319240 DOI: 10.1111/jipb.12297] [Citation(s) in RCA: 56] [Impact Index Per Article: 6.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 08/18/2014] [Accepted: 10/09/2014] [Indexed: 06/04/2023]
Abstract
The endoplasmic reticulum forms the first compartment in a series of organelles which comprise the secretory pathway. It takes the form of an extremely dynamic and pleomorphic membrane-bounded network of tubules and cisternae which have numerous different cellular functions. In this review, we discuss the nature of endoplasmic reticulum structure and dynamics, its relationship with closely associated organelles, and its possible function as a highway for the distribution and delivery of a diverse range of structures from metabolic complexes to viral particles.
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Affiliation(s)
- Chris Hawes
- Department of Biological and Medical Sciences, Oxford Brookes University, Oxford, OX3 0BP, UK
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Tivendale ND, Ross JJ, Cohen JD. The shifting paradigms of auxin biosynthesis. TRENDS IN PLANT SCIENCE 2014; 19:44-51. [PMID: 24524164 DOI: 10.1016/j.tplants.2013.09.012] [Citation(s) in RCA: 68] [Impact Index Per Article: 6.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 05/21/2023]
Abstract
Auxins are an important group of hormones found in all land plants and several soil-dwelling microbes. Although auxin was the first phytohormone identified, its biosynthesis remained unclear until recently. In the past few years, our understanding of auxin biosynthesis has im-proved dramatically, to the stage where many believe there is a single predominant pathway in Arabidopsis (Arabidopsis thaliana L.). However, there is still uncertainty over the applicability of these findings to other plant species. Indeed, it appears that in certain organs of some species, other pathways can operate. Here we review the key advances that have led to our current understanding of auxin biosynthesis and its many pro-posed pathways.
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Abstract
Auxin plays important roles during the entire life span of a plant. This small organic acid influences cell division, cell elongation and cell differentiation, and has great impact on the final shape and function of cells and tissues in all higher plants. Auxin metabolism is not well understood but recent discoveries, reviewed here, have started to shed light on the processes that regulate the synthesis and degradation of this important plant hormone.
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Affiliation(s)
- Karin Ljung
- Umeå Plant Science Centre, Department of Forest Genetics and Plant Physiology, Swedish University of Agricultural Sciences, SE-901 83, Umeå, Sweden.
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14
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Ross JJ, Tivendale ND, Davidson SE, Reid JB, Davies NW, Quittenden LJ, Smith JA. A mutation affecting the synthesis of 4-chloroindole-3-acetic acid. PLANT SIGNALING & BEHAVIOR 2012; 7:1533-6. [PMID: 23073010 PMCID: PMC3578886 DOI: 10.4161/psb.22319] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 06/01/2023]
Abstract
Traditionally, schemes depicting auxin biosynthesis in plants have been notoriously complex. They have involved up to four possible pathways by which the amino acid tryptophan might be converted to the main active auxin, indole-3-acetic acid (IAA), while another pathway was suggested to bypass tryptophan altogether. It was also postulated that different plants use different pathways, further adding to the complexity. In 2011, however, it was suggested that one of the four tryptophan-dependent pathways, via indole-3-pyruvic acid (IPyA), is the main pathway in Arabidopsis thaliana, although concurrent operation of one or more other pathways has not been excluded. We recently showed that, for seeds of Pisum sativum (pea), it is possible to go one step further. Our new evidence indicates that the IPyA pathway is the only tryptophan-dependent IAA synthesis pathway operating in pea seeds. We also demonstrated that the main auxin in developing pea seeds, 4-chloroindole-3-acetic acid (4-Cl-IAA), which accumulates to levels far exceeding those of IAA, is synthesized via a chlorinated version of the IPyA pathway.
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Affiliation(s)
- John J Ross
- School of Plant Science, University of Tasmania, Hobart, TAS, Australia.
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15
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Mano Y, Nemoto K. The pathway of auxin biosynthesis in plants. JOURNAL OF EXPERIMENTAL BOTANY 2012; 63:2853-72. [PMID: 22447967 DOI: 10.1093/jxb/ers091] [Citation(s) in RCA: 303] [Impact Index Per Article: 25.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 05/02/2023]
Abstract
The plant hormone auxin, which is predominantly represented by indole-3-acetic acid (IAA), is involved in the regulation of plant growth and development. Although IAA was the first plant hormone identified, the biosynthetic pathway at the genetic level has remained unclear. Two major pathways for IAA biosynthesis have been proposed: the tryptophan (Trp)-independent and Trp-dependent pathways. In Trp-dependent IAA biosynthesis, four pathways have been postulated in plants: (i) the indole-3-acetamide (IAM) pathway; (ii) the indole-3-pyruvic acid (IPA) pathway; (iii) the tryptamine (TAM) pathway; and (iv) the indole-3-acetaldoxime (IAOX) pathway. Although different plant species may have unique strategies and modifications to optimize their metabolic pathways, plants would be expected to share evolutionarily conserved core mechanisms for auxin biosynthesis because IAA is a fundamental substance in the plant life cycle. In this review, the genes now known to be involved in auxin biosynthesis are summarized and the major IAA biosynthetic pathway distributed widely in the plant kingdom is discussed on the basis of biochemical and molecular biological findings and bioinformatics studies. Based on evolutionarily conserved core mechanisms, it is thought that the pathway via IAM or IPA is the major route(s) to IAA in plants.
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Affiliation(s)
- Yoshihiro Mano
- Graduate School of Bioscience, Tokai University, 317 Nishino, Numazu, Shizuoka 410-0321, Japan.
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Kriechbaumer V, Wang P, Hawes C, Abell BM. Alternative splicing of the auxin biosynthesis gene YUCCA4 determines its subcellular compartmentation. THE PLANT JOURNAL : FOR CELL AND MOLECULAR BIOLOGY 2012; 70:292-302. [PMID: 22233288 DOI: 10.1111/j.1365-313x.2011.04866.x] [Citation(s) in RCA: 70] [Impact Index Per Article: 5.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 05/20/2023]
Abstract
Auxin is a major growth hormone in plants, and recent studies have elucidated many of the molecular mechanisms underlying its action, including transport, perception and signal transduction. However, major gaps remain in our knowledge of auxin biosynthetic control, partly due to the complexity and probable redundancy of multiple pathways that involve the YUCCA family of flavin-dependent mono-oxygenases. This study reveals the differential localization of YUCCA4 alternative splice variants to the endoplasmic reticulum and the cytosol, which depends on tissue-specific splicing. One isoform is restricted to flowers, and is anchored to the cytosolic face of the endoplasmic reticulum membrane via a hydrophobic C-terminal transmembrane domain. The other isoform is present in all tissues and is distributed throughout the cytosol. These findings are consistent with previous observations of yucca4 phenotypes in flowers, and suggest a role for intracellular compartmentation in auxin biosynthesis.
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Affiliation(s)
- Verena Kriechbaumer
- Biomedical Research Centre, Sheffield Hallam University, Sheffield S1 1WB, UK.
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Shin JS, Yun CH, Cho YW, Baek NI, Choi MS, Jeong TS, Chung HG, Lee KT. Indole-Containing Fractions of Brassica rapa Inhibit Inducible Nitric Oxide Synthase and Pro-Inflammatory Cytokine Expression by Inactivating Nuclear Factor-κB. J Med Food 2011; 14:1527-37. [DOI: 10.1089/jmf.2011.1611] [Citation(s) in RCA: 17] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/12/2022] Open
Affiliation(s)
- Ji-Sun Shin
- Department of Pharmaceutical Biochemistry, Kyung Hee University, Seoul, Korea
- Department of Biomedical Science, College of Medical Science, Kyung Hee University, Seoul, Korea
| | - Chang Hyeon Yun
- Department of Pharmaceutical Biochemistry, Kyung Hee University, Seoul, Korea
- Department of Life and Nanopharmaceutical Science, College of Pharmacy, Kyung Hee University, Seoul, Korea
| | - Young-Wuk Cho
- Department of Biomedical Science, College of Medical Science, Kyung Hee University, Seoul, Korea
| | - Nam-In Baek
- Graduate School of Biotechnology & Plant Metabolism Research Center, Kyung Hee University, Suwon, Korea
| | - Myung-Sook Choi
- Department of Food Science and Nutrition, Kyungpook National University, Daegu, Korea
| | - Tae-Sook Jeong
- National Research Laboratory of Lipid Metabolism & Atherosclerosis, Korea Research Institute of Bioscience and Biotechnology, Daejeon, Korea
| | | | - Kyung-Tae Lee
- Department of Pharmaceutical Biochemistry, Kyung Hee University, Seoul, Korea
- Department of Biomedical Science, College of Medical Science, Kyung Hee University, Seoul, Korea
- Department of Life and Nanopharmaceutical Science, College of Pharmacy, Kyung Hee University, Seoul, Korea
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18
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Phillips KA, Skirpan AL, Liu X, Christensen A, Slewinski TL, Hudson C, Barazesh S, Cohen JD, Malcomber S, McSteen P. vanishing tassel2 encodes a grass-specific tryptophan aminotransferase required for vegetative and reproductive development in maize. THE PLANT CELL 2011; 23:550-66. [PMID: 21335375 PMCID: PMC3077783 DOI: 10.1105/tpc.110.075267] [Citation(s) in RCA: 181] [Impact Index Per Article: 13.9] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 03/11/2010] [Revised: 01/04/2011] [Accepted: 01/27/2011] [Indexed: 05/18/2023]
Abstract
Auxin plays a fundamental role in organogenesis in plants. Multiple pathways for auxin biosynthesis have been proposed, but none of the predicted pathways are completely understood. Here, we report the positional cloning and characterization of the vanishing tassel2 (vt2) gene of maize (Zea mays). Phylogenetic analyses indicate that vt2 is a co-ortholog of TRYPTOPHAN AMINOTRANSFERASE OF ARABIDOPSIS1 (TAA1), which converts Trp to indole-3-pyruvic acid in one of four hypothesized Trp-dependent auxin biosynthesis pathways. Unlike single mutations in TAA1, which cause subtle morphological phenotypes in Arabidopsis thaliana, vt2 mutants have dramatic effects on vegetative and reproductive development. vt2 mutants share many similarities with sparse inflorescence1 (spi1) mutants in maize. spi1 is proposed to encode an enzyme in the tryptamine pathway for Trp-dependent auxin biosynthesis, although this biochemical activity has recently been questioned. Surprisingly, spi1 vt2 double mutants had only a slightly more severe phenotype than vt2 single mutants. Furthermore, both spi1 and vt2 single mutants exhibited a reduction in free auxin levels, but the spi1 vt2 double mutants did not have a further reduction compared with vt2 single mutants. Therefore, both spi1 and vt2 function in auxin biosynthesis in maize, possibly in the same pathway rather than independently as previously proposed.
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Affiliation(s)
- Kimberly A. Phillips
- Department of Biology, Pennsylvania State University, 208 Mueller Lab, University Park, Pennsylvania 16802
| | - Andrea L. Skirpan
- Department of Biology, Pennsylvania State University, 208 Mueller Lab, University Park, Pennsylvania 16802
| | - Xing Liu
- Department of Horticultural Science and the Microbial and Plant Genomics Institute, University of Minnesota, Saint Paul, Minnesota 55108
| | - Ashley Christensen
- Department of Biological Sciences, California State University, Long Beach, California 90840
| | - Thomas L. Slewinski
- Department of Biology, Pennsylvania State University, 208 Mueller Lab, University Park, Pennsylvania 16802
| | - Christopher Hudson
- Department of Biology, Pennsylvania State University, 208 Mueller Lab, University Park, Pennsylvania 16802
| | - Solmaz Barazesh
- Department of Biology, Pennsylvania State University, 208 Mueller Lab, University Park, Pennsylvania 16802
| | - Jerry D. Cohen
- Department of Horticultural Science and the Microbial and Plant Genomics Institute, University of Minnesota, Saint Paul, Minnesota 55108
| | - Simon Malcomber
- Department of Biological Sciences, California State University, Long Beach, California 90840
| | - Paula McSteen
- Department of Biology, Pennsylvania State University, 208 Mueller Lab, University Park, Pennsylvania 16802
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Normanly J. Approaching cellular and molecular resolution of auxin biosynthesis and metabolism. Cold Spring Harb Perspect Biol 2010; 2:a001594. [PMID: 20182605 DOI: 10.1101/cshperspect.a001594] [Citation(s) in RCA: 137] [Impact Index Per Article: 9.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/22/2022]
Abstract
There is abundant evidence of multiple biosynthesis pathways for the major naturally occurring auxin in plants, indole-3-acetic acid (IAA), and examples of differential use of two general routes of IAA synthesis, namely Trp-dependent and Trp-independent. Although none of these pathways has been completely defined, we now have examples of specific IAA biosynthetic pathways playing a role in developmental processes by way of localized IAA synthesis, causing us to rethink the interactions between IAA synthesis, transport, and signaling. Recent work also points to some IAA biosynthesis pathways being specific to families within the plant kingdom, whereas others appear to be more ubiquitous. An important advance within the past 5 years is our ability to monitor IAA biosynthesis and metabolism at increasingly higher resolution.
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Affiliation(s)
- Jennifer Normanly
- Department of Biochemistry and Molecular Biology, University of Massachusetts, Amherst, Massachusetts 01003, USA.
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Abstract
Monocots are known to respond differently to auxinic herbicides; hence, certain herbicides kill broadleaf (i.e., dicot) weeds while leaving lawns (i.e., monocot grasses) intact. In addition, the characters that distinguish monocots from dicots involve structures whose development is controlled by auxin. However, the molecular mechanisms controlling auxin biosynthesis, homeostasis, transport, and signal transduction appear, so far, to be conserved between monocots and dicots, although there are differences in gene copy number and expression leading to diversification in function. This article provides an update on the conservation and diversification of the roles of genes controlling auxin biosynthesis, transport, and signal transduction in root, shoot, and reproductive development in rice and maize.
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Affiliation(s)
- Paula McSteen
- Department of Biology, Penn State University, University Park, Pennsylvania 16802, USA.
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21
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Abstract
Auxin is a plant growth regulator involved in diverse fundamental developmental responses. Much is now known about auxin transport, via influx and efflux carriers, and about auxin perception and its role in gene regulation. Many developmental processes are dependent on peaks of auxin concentration and, to date, attention has been directed at the role of polar auxin transport in generating and maintaining auxin gradients. However, surprisingly little attention has focussed on the role and significance of auxin biosynthesis, which should be expected to contribute to active auxin pools. Recent reports on the function of the YUCCA flavin monooxygenases and a tryptophan aminotransferase in Arabidopsis have caused us to look again at the importance of local biosynthesis in developmental processes. Many alternative and redundant pathways of auxin synthesis exist in many plants and it is emerging that they may function in response to environmental cues.
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Affiliation(s)
- John W Chandler
- Department of Developmental Biology, University of Cologne, Gyrhofstrasse 17, Cologne, Germany.
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Reineke G, Heinze B, Schirawski J, Buettner H, Kahmann R, Basse CW. Indole-3-acetic acid (IAA) biosynthesis in the smut fungus Ustilago maydis and its relevance for increased IAA levels in infected tissue and host tumour formation. MOLECULAR PLANT PATHOLOGY 2008; 9:339-55. [PMID: 18705875 PMCID: PMC6640242 DOI: 10.1111/j.1364-3703.2008.00470.x] [Citation(s) in RCA: 109] [Impact Index Per Article: 6.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 05/18/2023]
Abstract
Infection of maize (Zea mays) plants with the smut fungus Ustilago maydis is characterized by excessive host tumour formation. U. maydis is able to produce indole-3-acetic acid (IAA) efficiently from tryptophan. To assess a possible connection to the induction of host tumours, we investigated the pathways leading to fungal IAA biosynthesis. Besides the previously identified iad1 gene, we identified a second indole-3-acetaldehyde dehydrogenase gene, iad2. Deltaiad1Deltaiad2 mutants were blocked in the conversion of both indole-3-acetaldehyde and tryptamine to IAA, although the reduction in IAA formation from tryptophan was not significantly different from Deltaiad1 mutants. To assess an influence of indole-3-pyruvic acid on IAA formation, we deleted the aromatic amino acid aminotransferase genes tam1 and tam2 in Deltaiad1Deltaiad2 mutants. This revealed a further reduction in IAA levels by five- and tenfold in mutant strains harbouring theDeltatam1 andDeltatam1Deltatam2 deletions, respectively. This illustrates that indole-3-pyruvic acid serves as an efficient precursor for IAA formation in U. maydis. Interestingly, the rise in host IAA levels upon U. maydis infection was significantly reduced in tissue infected with Deltaiad1Deltaiad2Deltatam1 orDeltaiad1Deltaiad2Deltatam1Deltatam2 mutants, whereas induction of tumours was not compromised. Together, these results indicate that fungal IAA production critically contributes to IAA levels in infected tissue, but this is apparently not important for triggering host tumour formation.
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Affiliation(s)
- Gavin Reineke
- Max-Planck-Institute for Terrestrial Microbiology, Department of Organismic Interactions, Karl-von-Frisch-Strasse, D-35043 Marburg, Germany
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Kriechbaumer V, Park WJ, Gierl A, Glawischnig E. Auxin biosynthesis in maize. PLANT BIOLOGY (STUTTGART, GERMANY) 2006; 8:334-9. [PMID: 16807825 DOI: 10.1055/s-2006-923883] [Citation(s) in RCA: 11] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 05/10/2023]
Abstract
For the biosynthesis of the phytohormone indole-3-acetic acid (IAA), a number of tryptophan-dependent and -independent pathways have been discussed. Maize is an appropriate model system to analyze IAA biosynthesis particularly because high quantities of IAA conjugates are stored in the endosperm. This allowed precursor feeding experiments in a kernel culture system followed by retrobiosynthetic NMR analysis, which strongly suggested that tryptophan-dependent IAA synthesis is the predominant route for auxin biosynthesis in the maize kernel. Two nitrilases ZmNIT1 and ZmNIT2 are expressed in seeds. ZmNIT2 efficiently hydrolyzes indole-3-acetonitrile (IAN) to IAA and thus could be involved in auxin biosynthesis. Redundant pathways, e.g., via indole-3-acetaldehyde could imply that multiple mutants will be necessary to obtain IAA-deficient plants and to conclusively identify relevant genes for IAA biosynthesis.
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Affiliation(s)
- V Kriechbaumer
- Lehrstuhl für Genetik, Technische Universität München, Am Hochanger 8, 85350 Freising, Germany
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Pollmann S, Müller A, Weiler EW. Many roads lead to "auxin": of nitrilases, synthases, and amidases. PLANT BIOLOGY (STUTTGART, GERMANY) 2006; 8:326-33. [PMID: 16807824 DOI: 10.1055/s-2006-924075] [Citation(s) in RCA: 35] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.9] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 05/10/2023]
Abstract
Recent progress in understanding the biosynthesis of the auxin, indole-3-acetic acid (IAA) in Arabidopsis thaliana is reviewed. The current situation is characterized by considerable progress in identifying, at the molecular level and in functional terms, individual reactions of several possible pathways. It is still too early to piece together a complete picture, but it becomes obvious that A. thaliana has multiple pathways of IAA biosynthesis, not all of which may operate at the same time and some only in particular physiological situations. There is growing evidence for the presence of an indoleacetamide pathway to IAA in A. thaliana, hitherto known only from certain plant-associated bacteria, among them the phytopathogen Agrobacterium tumefaciens.
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Affiliation(s)
- S Pollmann
- Department of Plant Physiology, Ruhr-University Bochum, Universitätsstrasse 150, ND 3/55, 44801 Bochum, Germany.
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