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PAT strategies and applications for cell therapy processing. CURRENT OPINION IN BIOMEDICAL ENGINEERING 2022. [DOI: 10.1016/j.cobme.2022.100405] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/20/2022]
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2
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Szittner Z, Péter B, Kurunczi S, Székács I, Horváth R. Functional blood cell analysis by label-free biosensors and single-cell technologies. Adv Colloid Interface Sci 2022; 308:102727. [DOI: 10.1016/j.cis.2022.102727] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 02/15/2022] [Revised: 05/25/2022] [Accepted: 06/27/2022] [Indexed: 11/01/2022]
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3
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Nash KE, Ong KG, Guldberg RE. Implantable biosensors for musculoskeletal health. Connect Tissue Res 2022; 63:228-242. [PMID: 35172654 PMCID: PMC8977250 DOI: 10.1080/03008207.2022.2041002] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Submit a Manuscript] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 02/03/2023]
Abstract
PURPOSE A healthy musculoskeletal system requires complex functional integration of bone, muscle, cartilage, and connective tissues responsible for bodily support, motion, and the protection of vital organs. Conditions or injuries to musculoskeeltal tissues can devastate an individual's quality of life. Some conditions that are particularly disabling include severe bone and muscle injuries to the extremities and amputations resulting from unmanageable musculoskeletal conditions or injuries. Monitoring and managing musculoskeletal health is intricate because of the complex mechanobiology of these interconnected tissues. METHODS For this article, we reviewed literature on implantable biosensors related to clinical data of the musculoskeletal system, therapeutics for complex bone injuries, and osseointegrated prosthetics as example applications. RESULTS As a result, a brief summary of biosensors technologies is provided along with review of noteworthy biosensors and future developments needed to fully realize the translational benefit of biosensors for musculoskeletal health. CONCLUSIONS Novel implantable biosensors capable of tracking biophysical parameters in vivo are highly relevant to musculoskeletal health because of their ability to collect clinical data relevant to medical decisions, complex trauma treatment, and the performance of osseointegrated prostheses.
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Affiliation(s)
- Kylie E. Nash
- Phil and Penny Knight Campus for Accelerating Scientific Impact Department of Bioengineering, University of Oregon, Eugene, OR 97403
| | - Keat Ghee Ong
- Phil and Penny Knight Campus for Accelerating Scientific Impact Department of Bioengineering, University of Oregon, Eugene, OR 97403
| | - Robert E. Guldberg
- Phil and Penny Knight Campus for Accelerating Scientific Impact Department of Bioengineering, University of Oregon, Eugene, OR 97403,Corresponding Author: Robert E. Guldberg, Ph.D., 3231 University of Oregon, Eugene OR, 97403,
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Sarfraz A, Sarfraz Z, Sarfraz M, Abdul Razzack A, Bano S, Singh Makkar S, Thevuthasan S, Paul T, Khawar Sana M, Azeem N, Felix M, Cherrez-Ojeda I. Industry 4.0 Technologies for the Manufacturing and Distribution of COVID-19 Vaccines. J Prim Care Community Health 2022; 13:21501319211068638. [PMID: 34984932 PMCID: PMC8753236 DOI: 10.1177/21501319211068638] [Citation(s) in RCA: 2] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 01/09/2023] Open
Abstract
BACKGROUND The evolutionary stages of manufacturing have led us to conceptualize the use of Industry 4.0 for COVID-19 (coronavirus disease 2019), powered by Industry 4.0 technologies. Using applications of integrated process optimizations reliant on digitized data, we propose novel intelligent networks along the vaccine value chain. Vaccine 4.0 may enable maintenance processes, streamline logistics, and enable optimal production of COVID-19 vaccines. VACCINE 4.0 FRAMEWORK The challenge in applying Vaccine 4.0 includes the requirement of large-scale technologies for digitally transforming manufacturing, producing, rolling-out, and distributing vaccines. With our framework, Vaccine 4.0 analytics will target process performance, process development, process stability, compliance, quality assessment, and optimized maintenance. The benefits of digitization during and post the COVID-19 pandemic include first, the continual assurance of process control, and second, the efficacy of big-data analytics in streamlining set parameter limits. Digitization including big data-analytics may potentially improve the quality of large-scale vaccine production, profitability, and manufacturing processes. The path to Vaccine 4.0 will enhance vaccine quality, improve efficacy, and compliance with data-regulated requirements. DISCUSSION Fiscal and logistical barriers are prevalent across resource-limited countries worldwide. The Vaccine 4.0 framework accounts for expected barriers of manufacturing and equitably distributing COVID-19 vaccines. With amalgamating big data analytics and biometrics, we enable the identification of vulnerable populations who are at higher risk of disease transmission. Artificial intelligence powered sensors and robotics support thermostable vaccine distribution in limited capacity regions, globally. Biosensors isolate COVID-19 vaccinations with low or limited efficacy. Finally, Vaccine 4.0 blockchain systems address low- and middle-income countries with limited distribution capacities. CONCLUSION Vaccine 4.0 is a viable framework to optimize manufacturing of vaccines during and post the COVID-19 pandemic.
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Affiliation(s)
- Azza Sarfraz
- Larkin Community Hospital, South Miami, FL, USA,The Aga Khan University, Karachi, Pakistan
| | - Zouina Sarfraz
- Larkin Community Hospital, South Miami, FL, USA,Fatima Jinnah Medical University, Lahore, Pakistan,Zouina Sarfraz, Division of Research & Academic Affairs, Larkin Community Hospital, 7031 SW 62nd Avenue, South Miami, FL 100181, USA.
| | - Muzna Sarfraz
- Larkin Community Hospital, South Miami, FL, USA,King Edward Medical University, Lahore, Pakistan
| | | | - Shehar Bano
- Fatima Jinnah Medical University, Lahore, Pakistan
| | | | | | - Trissa Paul
- Larkin Community Hospital, South Miami, FL, USA
| | | | | | - Miguel Felix
- Universidad Espiritu Santo, Samborondon, Ecuador,Respiralab Research Group, Guayaquil, Ecuador
| | - Ivan Cherrez-Ojeda
- Universidad Espiritu Santo, Samborondon, Ecuador,Respiralab Research Group, Guayaquil, Ecuador
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Garcia-Aponte OF, Herwig C, Kozma B. Lymphocyte expansion in bioreactors: upgrading adoptive cell therapy. J Biol Eng 2021; 15:13. [PMID: 33849630 PMCID: PMC8042697 DOI: 10.1186/s13036-021-00264-7] [Citation(s) in RCA: 13] [Impact Index Per Article: 4.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 12/16/2020] [Accepted: 03/29/2021] [Indexed: 12/25/2022] Open
Abstract
Bioreactors are essential tools for the development of efficient and high-quality cell therapy products. However, their application is far from full potential, holding several challenges when reconciling the complex biology of the cells to be expanded with the need for a manufacturing process that is able to control cell growth and functionality towards therapy affordability and opportunity. In this review, we discuss and compare current bioreactor technologies by performing a systematic analysis of the published data on automated lymphocyte expansion for adoptive cell therapy. We propose a set of requirements for bioreactor design and identify trends on the applicability of these technologies, highlighting the specific challenges and major advancements for each one of the current approaches of expansion along with the opportunities that lie in process intensification. We conclude on the necessity to develop targeted solutions specially tailored for the specific stimulation, supplementation and micro-environmental needs of lymphocytes’ cultures, and the benefit of applying knowledge-based tools for process control and predictability.
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Affiliation(s)
- Oscar Fabian Garcia-Aponte
- Research Area Biochemical Engineering, Institute of Chemical, Environmental and Bioscience Engineering, TU Wien, Gumpendorferstraße 1a, 1060, Vienna, Austria
| | - Christoph Herwig
- Research Area Biochemical Engineering, Institute of Chemical, Environmental and Bioscience Engineering, TU Wien, Gumpendorferstraße 1a, 1060, Vienna, Austria.
| | - Bence Kozma
- Research Area Biochemical Engineering, Institute of Chemical, Environmental and Bioscience Engineering, TU Wien, Gumpendorferstraße 1a, 1060, Vienna, Austria
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6
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Kumamoto S, Nakatake K, Fukuyama S, Yasuda K, Kitamura Y, Iwatsuki M, Baba H, Ihara T, Nakanishi Y, Nakashima Y. A dynamically deformable microfilter for selective separation of specific substances in microfluidics. BIOMICROFLUIDICS 2020; 14:064113. [PMID: 33425088 PMCID: PMC7772001 DOI: 10.1063/5.0025927] [Citation(s) in RCA: 4] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 08/22/2020] [Accepted: 11/04/2020] [Indexed: 05/08/2023]
Abstract
To study an environmental or biological solution, it is essential to separate its constituents. In this study, a 3D-deformable dynamic microfilter was developed to selectively separate the target substance from a solution. This microfilter is a fine metallic nickel structure fabricated using photolithography and electroplating techniques. It is gold-coated across its entire surface with multiple slits of 10-20 μm in width. Its two-dimensional shape is deformed into a three-dimensional shape when used for fluid separation due to hydrodynamic forces. By adjusting the pressure applied to the microfilter, the size of the gap created by deformation can be changed. To effectively isolate the target substance, the relationship between the solution flow rate and the extent of microfilter deformation was investigated. The filtration experiments demonstrated the microfilter's ability to isolate the target substance with elastic deformation without undergoing plastic deformation. Additionally, modification of the microfilter surface with nucleic acid aptamers resulted in the selective isolation of the target cell, which further demonstrates the potential application of microfilters in the isolation of specific components of heterogeneous solutions.
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Affiliation(s)
| | - Kenshiro Nakatake
- Graduate School of Science and Technology, Kumamoto University, 2-39-1 Kurokami, Chuo-ku, Kumamoto 860-8555, Japan
| | - Souichiro Fukuyama
- Graduate School of Science and Technology, Kumamoto University, 2-39-1 Kurokami, Chuo-ku, Kumamoto 860-8555, Japan
| | - Keiichiro Yasuda
- Ogic Technologies Co. Ltd., 2-9-9, Kamikumamoto, Nishi-ku, Kumamoto 860-0079, Japan
| | - Yusuke Kitamura
- Faculty of Advanced Science and Technology, Kumamoto University, 2-39-1 Kurokami, Chuo-ku, Kumamoto 860-8555, Japan
| | - Masaaki Iwatsuki
- Faculty of Life Science, Kumamoto University, 1-1-1 Honjo, Chuo-ku, Kumamoto 860-8556, Japan
| | - Hideo Baba
- Faculty of Life Science, Kumamoto University, 1-1-1 Honjo, Chuo-ku, Kumamoto 860-8556, Japan
| | - Toshihiro Ihara
- Faculty of Advanced Science and Technology, Kumamoto University, 2-39-1 Kurokami, Chuo-ku, Kumamoto 860-8555, Japan
| | | | - Yuta Nakashima
- Author to whom correspondence should be addressed:. Tel./Fax: +81-96-342-3743
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Abstract
The investigation of lipid films for the construction of biosensors has recently given the opportunity to manufacture devices to selectively detect a wide range of food toxicants, environmental pollutants, and compounds of clinical interest. Biosensor miniaturization using nanotechnological tools has provided novel routes to immobilize various “receptors” within the lipid film. This chapter reviews and exploits platforms in biosensors based on lipid membrane technology that are used in food, environmental, and clinical chemistry to detect various toxicants. Examples of applications are described with an emphasis on novel systems, new sensing techniques, and nanotechnology-based transduction schemes. The compounds that can be monitored are insecticides, pesticides, herbicides, metals, toxins, antibiotics, microorganisms, hormones, dioxins, etc.
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Abstract
The use of impedance-based label free cell analysis is increasingly popular and has many different applications. Here, we report that a real-time cell analyzer (RTCA) can be used to study the stimulation of Natural Killer (NK) cells. Engagement of NK cells via plate-bound antibodies directed against different activating surface receptors could be measured in real time using the label-free detection of impedance. The change in impedance was dependent on early signal transduction events in the NK cells as it was blocked by inhibitors of Src-family kinases and by inhibiting actin polymerization. While CD16 was the only receptor that could induce a strong change in impedance in primary NK cells, several activating receptors induced changes in impedance in expanded NK cells. Using PBMCs we could detect T cell receptor-mediated T cell activation and CD16-mediated NK cell activation in the same sample. Performing a dose-response analysis for the Src-family kinases inhibitor PP1 we show that T cells are more sensitive to inhibition compared to NK cells. Our data demonstrate that the RTCA can be used to detect physiological activation events in NK cells in a label-free and real-time fashion.
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9
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Piscopo NJ, Mueller KP, Das A, Hematti P, Murphy WL, Palecek SP, Capitini CM, Saha K. Bioengineering Solutions for Manufacturing Challenges in CAR T Cells. Biotechnol J 2018; 13:10.1002/biot.201700095. [PMID: 28840981 PMCID: PMC5796845 DOI: 10.1002/biot.201700095] [Citation(s) in RCA: 44] [Impact Index Per Article: 7.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 06/16/2017] [Revised: 07/26/2017] [Indexed: 12/13/2022]
Abstract
The next generation of therapeutic products to be approved for the clinic is anticipated to be cell therapies, termed "living drugs" for their capacity to dynamically and temporally respond to changes during their production ex vivo and after their administration in vivo. Genetically engineered chimeric antigen receptor (CAR) T cells have rapidly developed into powerful tools to harness the power of immune system manipulation against cancer. Regulatory agencies are beginning to approve CAR T cell therapies due to their striking efficacy in treating some hematological malignancies. However, the engineering and manufacturing of such cells remains a challenge for widespread adoption of this technology. Bioengineering approaches including biomaterials, synthetic biology, metabolic engineering, process control and automation, and in vitro disease modeling could offer promising methods to overcome some of these challenges. Here, we describe the manufacturing process of CAR T cells, highlighting potential roles for bioengineers to partner with biologists and clinicians to advance the manufacture of these complex cellular products under rigorous regulatory and quality control.
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Affiliation(s)
- Nicole J Piscopo
- Department of Biomedical Engineering, University of Wisconsin, Madison, WI, USA
- Wisconsin Institute for Discovery, University of Wisconsin, Madison, WI, USA
| | - Katherine P Mueller
- Department of Biomedical Engineering, University of Wisconsin, Madison, WI, USA
- Wisconsin Institute for Discovery, University of Wisconsin, Madison, WI, USA
| | - Amritava Das
- Department of Biomedical Engineering, University of Wisconsin, Madison, WI, USA
- Wisconsin Institute for Discovery, University of Wisconsin, Madison, WI, USA
| | - Peiman Hematti
- Department of Medicine, University of Wisconsin School of Medicine and Public Health, Madison, WI, USA
- University of Wisconsin Carbone Cancer Center, Madison, WI, USA
| | - William L Murphy
- Department of Biomedical Engineering, University of Wisconsin, Madison, WI, USA
- Department of Orthopedics and Rehabilitation, University of Wisconsin School of Medicine and Public Health, Madison, WI, USA
| | - Sean P Palecek
- Department of Chemical and Biological Engineering, University of Wisconsin, Madison, WI, USA
| | - Christian M Capitini
- University of Wisconsin Carbone Cancer Center, Madison, WI, USA
- Department of Pediatrics, University of Wisconsin School of Medicine and Public Health, Madison, WI, USA
| | - Krishanu Saha
- Department of Biomedical Engineering, University of Wisconsin, Madison, WI, USA
- Wisconsin Institute for Discovery, University of Wisconsin, Madison, WI, USA
- University of Wisconsin Carbone Cancer Center, Madison, WI, USA
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10
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Cui X, Liu Y, Hu D, Qian W, Tin C, Sun D, Chen W, Lam RHW. A fluorescent microbead-based microfluidic immunoassay chip for immune cell cytokine secretion quantification. LAB ON A CHIP 2018; 18:522-531. [PMID: 29326990 DOI: 10.1039/c7lc01183k] [Citation(s) in RCA: 29] [Impact Index Per Article: 4.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 05/24/2023]
Abstract
Quantitative and dynamic analyses of immune cell secretory cytokines are essential for precise determination and characterization of the "immune phenotype" of patients for clinical diagnosis and treatment of immune-related diseases. Although multiple methods including the enzyme-linked immunosorbent assay (ELISA) have been applied for cytokine detection, such measurements remain very challenging in real-time, high-throughput, and high-sensitivity immune cell analysis. In this paper, we report a highly integrated microfluidic device that allows for on-chip isolation, culture, and stimulation, as well as sensitive and dynamic cytokine profiling of immune cells. Such a microfluidic sensing chip is integrated with cytometric fluorescent microbeads for real-time and multiplexed monitoring of immune cell cytokine secretion dynamics, consuming a relatively small extracted sample volume (160 nl) without interrupting the immune cell culture. Furthermore, it is integrated with a Taylor dispersion-based mixing unit in each detection chamber that shortens the immunoassay period down to less than 30 minutes. We demonstrate the profiling of multiple pro-inflammatory cytokine secretions (e.g. interleukin-6, interleukin-8, and tumor necrosis factors) of human peripheral blood mononuclear cells (PBMCs) with a sensitivity of 20 pg ml-1 and a sample volume of 160 nl per detection. Further applications of this automated, rapid, and high-throughput microfluidic immunophenotyping platform can help unleash the mechanisms of systemic immune responses, and enable efficient assessments of the pathologic immune status for clinical diagnosis and immune therapy.
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Affiliation(s)
- Xin Cui
- Department of Mechanical and Biomedical Engineering, City University of Hong Kong, Hong Kong.
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11
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Liu G, Qi M, Hutchinson MR, Yang G, Goldys EM. Recent advances in cytokine detection by immunosensing. Biosens Bioelectron 2016; 79:810-21. [PMID: 26774995 DOI: 10.1016/j.bios.2016.01.020] [Citation(s) in RCA: 93] [Impact Index Per Article: 11.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 11/14/2015] [Revised: 12/30/2015] [Accepted: 01/07/2016] [Indexed: 01/12/2023]
Abstract
The detection of cytokines in body fluids, cells, tissues and organisms continues to attract considerable attention due to the importance of these key cell signaling molecules in biology and medicine. In this review, we describe recent advances in cytokine detection in the course of ongoing pursuit of new analytical approaches for these trace analytes with specific focus on immunosensing. We discuss recent elegant designs of sensing interface with improved performance with respect to sensitivity, selectivity, stability, simplicity, and the absence of sample matrix effects. Various immunosensing approaches based on multifunctional nanomaterials open novel opportunities for ultrasensitive detection of cytokines in body fluids in vitro and in vivo. Methodologies such as suspension arrays also known as bead assays together with optical fiber-based sensors, on their own or in combination with microfluidic devices will continue to have an important role to address the grand challenge of real-time in vivo multiplex cytokine detection.
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Affiliation(s)
- Guozhen Liu
- Key Laboratory of Pesticide and Chemical Biology of Ministry of Education, College of Chemistry, Central China Normal University, Wuhan 430079, PR China; ARC Centre of Excellence in Nanoscale Biophotonics (CNBP), Macquarie University, North Ryde 2109, Australia
| | - Meng Qi
- Key Laboratory of Pesticide and Chemical Biology of Ministry of Education, College of Chemistry, Central China Normal University, Wuhan 430079, PR China
| | - Mark R Hutchinson
- ARC Centre of Excellence in Nanoscale Biophotonics (CNBP), The University of Adelaide, Adelaide 5005, Australia
| | - Guangfu Yang
- Key Laboratory of Pesticide and Chemical Biology of Ministry of Education, College of Chemistry, Central China Normal University, Wuhan 430079, PR China
| | - Ewa M Goldys
- ARC Centre of Excellence in Nanoscale Biophotonics (CNBP), Macquarie University, North Ryde 2109, Australia.
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12
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Lee MH, O'Hare D, Chen YL, Chang YC, Yang CH, Liu BD, Lin HY. Molecularly imprinted electrochemical sensing of urinary melatonin in a microfluidic system. BIOMICROFLUIDICS 2014; 8:054115. [PMID: 25584113 PMCID: PMC4290580 DOI: 10.1063/1.4898152] [Citation(s) in RCA: 5] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 08/04/2014] [Accepted: 09/29/2014] [Indexed: 05/22/2023]
Abstract
Melatonin levels may be related to the risks of breast cancer and prostate cancer. The measurement of urinary melatonin is also useful in monitoring serum melatonin levels following oral administration. In this work, melatonin is the target molecule, which is imprinted onto poly(ethylene-co-vinyl alcohol) by evaporation of the solvent on the working electrode of an electrochemical sensing chip. This sensing chip is used directly as a tool for optimizing the imprinting polymer composition, flow rate, and injection volume of the samples. Microfluidic sensing of the target and interference molecules revealed that the lowest detection limit is as low as ∼pM, and the electrochemical response is weak even at high interference concentrations. Poly(ethylene-co-vinyl alcohol), containing 44 mol. % ethylene, had an imprinting effectiveness of more than six-fold. In random urine analysis, the microfluidic amperometric measurements of melatonin levels with an additional and recovery of melatonin, the melatonin recovery achieved 94.78 ± 1.9% for melatonin at a concentration of 1.75-2.11 pg/mL.
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Affiliation(s)
- Mei-Hwa Lee
- Department of Materials Science and Engineering, I-Shou University , Kaohsiung 84001, Taiwan
| | - Danny O'Hare
- Department of Bioengineering, Imperial College , London SW7 2BY, United Kingdom
| | - Yi-Li Chen
- Department of Chemical and Materials Engineering, National University of Kaohsiung (NUK) , Kaohsiung 81148, Taiwan
| | - Yu-Chia Chang
- Department of Materials Science and Engineering, I-Shou University , Kaohsiung 84001, Taiwan
| | - Chien-Hsin Yang
- Department of Chemical and Materials Engineering, National University of Kaohsiung (NUK) , Kaohsiung 81148, Taiwan
| | - Bin-Da Liu
- Department of Electrical Engineering, National Cheng Kung University , Tainan 701, Taiwan
| | - Hung-Yin Lin
- Department of Chemical and Materials Engineering, National University of Kaohsiung (NUK) , Kaohsiung 81148, Taiwan
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13
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Shin DS, You J, Rahimian A, Vu T, Siltanen C, Ehsanipour A, Stybayeva G, Sutcliffe J, Revzin A. Photodegradable hydrogels for capture, detection, and release of live cells. Angew Chem Int Ed Engl 2014; 53:8221-4. [PMID: 24931301 PMCID: PMC4380505 DOI: 10.1002/anie.201404323] [Citation(s) in RCA: 70] [Impact Index Per Article: 7.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 04/14/2014] [Indexed: 12/29/2022]
Abstract
Cells may be captured and released using a photodegradable hydrogel (photogel) functionalized with antibodies. Photogel substrates were used to first isolate human CD4 or CD8 T-cells from a heterogeneous cell suspension and then to release desired cells or groups of cells by UV-induced photodegradation. Flow cytometry analysis of the retrieved cells revealed approximately 95% purity of CD4 and CD8 T-cells, suggesting that this substrate had excellent specificity. To demonstrate the possibility of sorting cells according to their function, photogel substrates that were functionalized with anti-CD4 and anti-TNF-α antibodies were prepared. Single cells captured and stimulated on such substrates were identified by the fluorescence "halo" after immunofluorescent staining and could be retrieved by site-specific exposure to UV light through a microscope objective. Overall, it was demonstrated that functional photodegradable hydrogels enable the capture, analysis, and sorting of live cells.
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Affiliation(s)
- Dong-Sik Shin
- Department of Biomedical Engineering, University of California Davis, One Shields Ave, Davis, CA 95616 (USA)
| | - Jungmok You
- Department of Biomedical Engineering, University of California Davis, One Shields Ave, Davis, CA 95616 (USA)
| | - Ali Rahimian
- Department of Biomedical Engineering, University of California Davis, One Shields Ave, Davis, CA 95616 (USA)
| | - Tam Vu
- Department of Biomedical Engineering, University of California Davis, One Shields Ave, Davis, CA 95616 (USA)
| | - Christian Siltanen
- Department of Biomedical Engineering, University of California Davis, One Shields Ave, Davis, CA 95616 (USA)
| | - Arshia Ehsanipour
- Department of Biomedical Engineering, University of California Davis, One Shields Ave, Davis, CA 95616 (USA)
| | - Gulnaz Stybayeva
- Department of Biomedical Engineering, University of California Davis, One Shields Ave, Davis, CA 95616 (USA)
| | - Julie Sutcliffe
- Department of Biomedical Engineering, University of California Davis, One Shields Ave, Davis, CA 95616 (USA)
- Division of Hematology/Oncology, Department of Internal Medicine, Center for Molecular and Genomic Imaging, University of California, Davis, Davis, CA 95616 (USA)
| | - Alexander Revzin
- Department of Biomedical Engineering, University of California Davis, One Shields Ave, Davis, CA 95616 (USA)
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14
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Shin DS, You J, Rahimian A, Vu T, Siltanen C, Ehsanipour A, Stybayeva G, Sutcliffe J, Revzin A. Photodegradable Hydrogels for Capture, Detection, and Release of Live Cells. Angew Chem Int Ed Engl 2014. [DOI: 10.1002/ange.201404323] [Citation(s) in RCA: 4] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/09/2022]
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15
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Liu Q, Wu C, Cai H, Hu N, Zhou J, Wang P. Cell-based biosensors and their application in biomedicine. Chem Rev 2014; 114:6423-61. [PMID: 24905074 DOI: 10.1021/cr2003129] [Citation(s) in RCA: 189] [Impact Index Per Article: 18.9] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 01/15/2023]
Affiliation(s)
- Qingjun Liu
- Biosensor National Special Laboratory, Key Laboratory of Biomedical Engineering of the Ministry of Education, Department of Biomedical Engineering, Zhejiang University , Hangzhou 310027, China
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16
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Gao Y, Zhou Q, Matharu Z, Liu Y, Kwa T, Revzin A. A mathematical method for extracting cell secretion rate from affinity biosensors continuously monitoring cell activity. BIOMICROFLUIDICS 2014; 8:021501. [PMID: 24803956 PMCID: PMC4008758 DOI: 10.1063/1.4874216] [Citation(s) in RCA: 6] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 03/10/2014] [Accepted: 04/21/2014] [Indexed: 05/14/2023]
Abstract
Our laboratory has previously developed miniature aptasensors that may be integrated at the site of a small group of cells for continuous detection of cell secreted molecules such as inflammatory cytokine interferon gamma (IFN-γ). In a system such as this, the signal measured at the sensor surfaces is a complex function of transport, reaction, as well as of cellular activity. Herein, we report on the development of a mathematical framework for extracting cell production rates from binding curves generated with affinity biosensors. This framework consisted of a diffusion-reaction model coupled to a root finding algorithm for determining cell production rates values causing convergence of a predetermined criterion. To experimentally validate model predictions, we deployed a microfluidic device with an integrated biosensor for measuring the IFN-γ release from CD4 T cells. We found close agreement between secretion rate observed theoretically and those observed experimentally. After taking into account the differences in sensor geometry and reaction kinetics, the method for cell secretion rate determination described in this paper may be broadly applied to any biosensor continuously measuring cellular activity.
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Affiliation(s)
- Yandong Gao
- Department of Biomedical Engineering, University of California, Davis, California 95616, USA
| | - Qing Zhou
- Department of Biomedical Engineering, University of California, Davis, California 95616, USA
| | - Zimple Matharu
- Department of Biomedical Engineering, University of California, Davis, California 95616, USA
| | - Ying Liu
- Department of Biomedical Engineering, University of California, Davis, California 95616, USA
| | - Timothy Kwa
- Department of Biomedical Engineering, University of California, Davis, California 95616, USA
| | - Alexander Revzin
- Department of Biomedical Engineering, University of California, Davis, California 95616, USA
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Son KJ, Shin DS, Kwa T, Gao Y, Revzin A. Micropatterned sensing hydrogels integrated with reconfigurable microfluidics for detecting protease release from cells. Anal Chem 2013; 85:11893-901. [PMID: 24255999 PMCID: PMC4370905 DOI: 10.1021/ac402660z] [Citation(s) in RCA: 36] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 01/10/2023]
Abstract
Matrix metalloproteinases (MMPs) play a central role in the breakdown of the extracellular matrix and are typically upregulated in cancer cells. The goal of the present study is to develop microwells suitable for capture of cells and detection of cell-secreted proteases. Hydrogel microwells comprised of poly(ethylene glycol) (PEG) were photopatterned on glass and modified with ligands to promote cell adhesion. To sense protease release, peptides cleavable by MMP9 were designed to contain a donor/acceptor FRET pair (FITC and DABCYL). These sensing molecules were incorporated into the walls of the hydrogel wells to enable a detection scheme where cells captured within the wells secreted protease molecules which diffused into the gel, cleaved the peptide, and caused a fluorescence signal to come on. By challenging sensing hydrogel microstructures to known concentrations of recombinant MMP9, the limit of detection was determined to be 0.625 nM with a linear range extending to 40 nM. To enhance sensitivity and to limit cross-talk between adjacent sensing sites, microwell arrays containing small groups (∼20 cells/well) of lymphoma cells were integrated into reconfigurable PDMS microfluidic devices. Using this combination of sensing hydrogel microwells and reconfigurable microfluidics, detection of MMP9 release from as few as 11 cells was demonstrated. Smart hydrogel microstructures capable of sequestering small groups of cells and sensing cell function have multiple applications ranging from diagnostics to cell/tissue engineering. Further development of this technology will include single-cell analysis and function-based cell sorting capabilities.
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Affiliation(s)
- Kyung Jin Son
- Department of Biomedical Engineering, University of California, Davis, California 95616, United States
| | - Dong-Sik Shin
- Department of Biomedical Engineering, University of California, Davis, California 95616, United States
| | - Timothy Kwa
- Department of Biomedical Engineering, University of California, Davis, California 95616, United States
| | - Yandong Gao
- Department of Biomedical Engineering, University of California, Davis, California 95616, United States
| | - Alexander Revzin
- Department of Biomedical Engineering, University of California, Davis, California 95616, United States
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18
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Siltanen C, Shin DS, Sutcliffe J, Revzin A. Micropatterned photodegradable hydrogels for the sorting of microbeads and cells. Angew Chem Int Ed Engl 2013; 52:9224-8. [PMID: 23868693 PMCID: PMC4370904 DOI: 10.1002/anie.201303965] [Citation(s) in RCA: 24] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 05/09/2013] [Indexed: 01/03/2023]
Affiliation(s)
- Christian Siltanen
- Department of Biomedical Engineering, University of California Davis, One Shields Ave, Davis, CA 95616 (USA)
| | - Dong-Sik Shin
- Department of Biomedical Engineering, University of California Davis, One Shields Ave, Davis, CA 95616 (USA)
| | - Julie Sutcliffe
- Department of Biomedical Engineering, University of California Davis, One Shields Ave, Davis, CA 95616 (USA)
- Division of Hematology/Oncology, Department of Internal Medicine, Center for Molecular and Genomic Imaging, University of California Davis, Davis, CA 95616 (USA)
| | - Alexander Revzin
- Department of Biomedical Engineering, University of California Davis, One Shields Ave, Davis, CA 95616 (USA)
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19
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Cherstvy A. Detection of DNA hybridization by field-effect DNA-based biosensors: mechanisms of signal generation and open questions. Biosens Bioelectron 2013; 46:162-70. [DOI: 10.1016/j.bios.2013.02.026] [Citation(s) in RCA: 14] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 01/08/2013] [Revised: 02/05/2013] [Accepted: 02/13/2013] [Indexed: 01/27/2023]
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20
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Siltanen C, Shin D, Sutcliffe J, Revzin A. Micropatterned Photodegradable Hydrogels for the Sorting of Microbeads and Cells. Angew Chem Int Ed Engl 2013. [DOI: 10.1002/ange.201303965] [Citation(s) in RCA: 10] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.9] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/16/2022]
Affiliation(s)
- Christian Siltanen
- Department of Biomedical Engineering, University of California Davis, One Shields Ave, Davis, CA 95616 (USA)
| | - Dong‐Sik Shin
- Department of Biomedical Engineering, University of California Davis, One Shields Ave, Davis, CA 95616 (USA)
| | - Julie Sutcliffe
- Department of Biomedical Engineering, University of California Davis, One Shields Ave, Davis, CA 95616 (USA)
- Division of Hematology/Oncology, Department of Internal Medicine, Center for Molecular and Genomic Imaging, University of California Davis, Davis, CA 95616 (USA)
| | - Alexander Revzin
- Department of Biomedical Engineering, University of California Davis, One Shields Ave, Davis, CA 95616 (USA)
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21
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Chen W, Huang NT, Oh B, Lam RHW, Fan R, Cornell TT, Shanley TP, Kurabayashi K, Fu J. Surface-micromachined microfiltration membranes for efficient isolation and functional immunophenotyping of subpopulations of immune cells. Adv Healthc Mater 2013; 2:965-975. [PMID: 23335389 DOI: 10.1002/adhm.201200378] [Citation(s) in RCA: 37] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 10/07/2012] [Indexed: 01/02/2023]
Abstract
An accurate measurement of the immune status in patients with immune system disorders is critical in evaluating the stage of diseases and tailoring drug treatments. The functional cellular immunity test is a promising method to establish the diagnosis of immune dysfunctions. The conventional functional cellular immunity test involves measurements of the capacity of peripheral blood mononuclear cells to produce pro-inflammatory cytokines when stimulated ex vivo. However, this "bulk" assay measures the overall reactivity of a population of lymphocytes and monocytes, making it difficult to pinpoint the phenotype or real identity of the reactive immune cells involved. In this research, we develop a large surface micromachined poly-dimethylsiloxane (PDMS) microfiltration membrane (PMM) with high porosity, which is integrated in a microfluidic microfiltration platform. Using the PMM with functionalized microbeads conjugated with antibodies against specific cell surface proteins, we demonstrated rapid, efficient and high-throughput on-chip isolation, enrichment, and stimulation of subpopulations of immune cells from blood specimens. Furthermore, the PMM-integrated microfiltration platform, coupled with a no-wash homogeneous chemiluminescence assay ("AlphaLISA"), enables us to demonstrate rapid and sensitive on-chip immunophenotyping assays for subpopulations of immune cells isolated directly from minute quantities of blood samples.
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Affiliation(s)
- Weiqiang Chen
- Department of Mechanical Engineering University of Michigan Ann Arbor, MI 48109 USA
| | - Nien-Tsu Huang
- Department of Mechanical Engineering University of Michigan Ann Arbor, MI 48109 USA
| | - Boram Oh
- Department of Mechanical Engineering University of Michigan Ann Arbor, MI 48109 USA
| | - Raymond H W Lam
- Department of Mechanical and Biomedical Engineering City University of Hong Kong, Hong Kong, China
| | - Rong Fan
- Department of Biomedical Engineering Yale University New Haven, CT 06511, USA
| | - Timothy T Cornell
- Department of Pediatrics and Communicable Diseases University of Michigan, Ann Arbor, MI 48109, USA
| | - Thomas P Shanley
- Department of Pediatrics and Communicable Diseases University of Michigan, Ann Arbor, MI 48109, USA
| | - Katsuo Kurabayashi
- Department of Mechanical Engineering University of Michigan Ann Arbor, MI 48109 USA
| | - Jianping Fu
- Department of Mechanical Engineering University of Michigan Ann Arbor, MI 48109 USA
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22
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Zhang Y, Qiao L, Ren Y, Wang X, Gao M, Tang Y, Jeff Xi J, Fu TM, Jiang X. Two dimensional barcode-inspired automatic analysis for arrayed microfluidic immunoassays. BIOMICROFLUIDICS 2013; 7:34110. [PMID: 24404030 PMCID: PMC3695989 DOI: 10.1063/1.4811278] [Citation(s) in RCA: 7] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 04/15/2013] [Accepted: 06/03/2013] [Indexed: 05/09/2023]
Abstract
The usability of many high-throughput lab-on-a-chip devices in point-of-care applications is currently limited by the manual data acquisition and analysis process, which are labor intensive and time consuming. Based on our original design in the biochemical reactions, we proposed here a universal approach to perform automatic, fast, and robust analysis for high-throughput array-based microfluidic immunoassays. Inspired by two-dimensional (2D) barcodes, we incorporated asymmetric function patterns into a microfluidic array. These function patterns provide quantitative information on the characteristic dimensions of the microfluidic array, as well as mark its orientation and origin of coordinates. We used a computer program to perform automatic analysis for a high-throughput antigen/antibody interaction experiment in 10 s, which was more than 500 times faster than conventional manual processing. Our method is broadly applicable to many other microchannel-based immunoassays.
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Affiliation(s)
- Yi Zhang
- College of Engineering and School of Physics, Peking University, Beijing 100871, China ; National Center for Nanoscience and Technology, Beijing 100190, China
| | - Lingbo Qiao
- Department of Engineering Physics, Tsinghua University, Beijing 100084, China ; Key Laboratory of Particle & Radiation Imaging (Tsinghua University), Ministry of Education, Beijing 100084, China
| | - Yunke Ren
- College of Engineering and School of Physics, Peking University, Beijing 100871, China
| | - Xuwei Wang
- State Key Laboratory for Nonlinear Mechanics, Institute of Mechanics, Chinese Academy of Sciences, Beijing 100080, China
| | - Ming Gao
- Department of Engineering Physics, Tsinghua University, Beijing 100084, China
| | - Yunfang Tang
- National Center for Nanoscience and Technology, Beijing 100190, China
| | - Jianzhong Jeff Xi
- College of Engineering and School of Physics, Peking University, Beijing 100871, China
| | - Tzung-May Fu
- College of Engineering and School of Physics, Peking University, Beijing 100871, China
| | - Xingyu Jiang
- National Center for Nanoscience and Technology, Beijing 100190, China
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23
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Chen W, Huang NT, Li X, Yu ZTF, Kurabayashi K, Fu J. Emerging microfluidic tools for functional cellular immunophenotyping: a new potential paradigm for immune status characterization. Front Oncol 2013; 3:98. [PMID: 23626950 DOI: 10.3389/fonc.2013.00098] [Citation(s) in RCA: 21] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.9] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 03/05/2013] [Accepted: 04/10/2013] [Indexed: 11/13/2022] Open
Abstract
Rapid, accurate, and quantitative characterization of immune status of patients is of utmost importance for disease diagnosis and prognosis, evaluating efficacy of immunotherapeutics and tailoring drug treatments. Immune status of patients is often dynamic and patient-specific, and such complex heterogeneity has made accurate, real-time measurements of patient immune status challenging in the clinical setting. Recent advances in microfluidics have demonstrated promising applications of the technology for immune monitoring with minimum sample requirements and rapid functional immunophenotyping capability. This review will highlight recent developments of microfluidic platforms that can perform rapid and accurate cellular functional assays on patient immune cells. We will also discuss the future potential of integrated microfluidics to perform rapid, accurate, and sensitive cellular functional assays at a single-cell resolution on different types or subpopulations of immune cells, to provide an unprecedented level of information depth on the distribution of immune cell functionalities. We envision that such microfluidic immunophenotyping tools will allow for comprehensive and systems-level immunomonitoring, unlocking the potential to transform experimental clinical immunology into an information-rich science.
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Affiliation(s)
- Weiqiang Chen
- Integrated Biosystems and Biomechanics Laboratory, University of Michigan Ann Arbor, MI, USA ; Department of Mechanical Engineering, University of Michigan Ann Arbor, MI, USA
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24
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Zhao W, Zhang L, Jing W, Liu S, Tachibana H, Cheng X, Sui G. An integrated microfluidic device for rapid serodiagnosis of amebiasis. BIOMICROFLUIDICS 2013; 7:11101. [PMID: 24403984 PMCID: PMC3592878 DOI: 10.1063/1.4793222] [Citation(s) in RCA: 13] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 12/05/2012] [Accepted: 01/31/2013] [Indexed: 05/11/2023]
Abstract
A microfluidic device was successfully fabricated for the rapid serodiagnosis of amebiasis. A micro bead-based immunoassay was fabricated within integrated microfluidic chip to detect the antibody to Entamoeba histolytica in serum samples. In this assay, a recombinant fragment of C terminus of intermediate subunit of galactose and N-acetyl-D-galactosamine-inhibitable lectin of Entamoeba histolytica (C-Igl, aa 603-1088) has been utilized instead of the crude antigen. This device was validated with serum samples from patients with amebiasis and showed great sensitivity. The serodiagnosis can be completed within 20 min with 2 μl sample consumption. The device can be applied for the rapid and cheap diagnosis of other infectious disease, especially for the developing countries with very limited medical facilities.
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Affiliation(s)
- Wang Zhao
- Department of Environmental Science and Engineering, Fudan University, 220 Handan Road, Shanghai 200433, People's Republic of China
| | - Li Zhang
- Department of Medical Microbiology and Parasitology, Medical Centre of Fudan University, Shanghai, 200032, People's Republic of China
| | - Wenwen Jing
- Department of Environmental Science and Engineering, Fudan University, 220 Handan Road, Shanghai 200433, People's Republic of China
| | - Sixiu Liu
- Department of Environmental Science and Engineering, Fudan University, 220 Handan Road, Shanghai 200433, People's Republic of China
| | - Hiroshi Tachibana
- Department of Infectious Diseases, School of Medicine, Tokai University, Isehara, Kanagawa 259-1193, Japan
| | - Xunjia Cheng
- Department of Medical Microbiology and Parasitology, Medical Centre of Fudan University, Shanghai, 200032, People's Republic of China
| | - Guodong Sui
- Department of Environmental Science and Engineering, Fudan University, 220 Handan Road, Shanghai 200433, People's Republic of China
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25
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Vereshchagina E, Mc Glade D, Glynn M, Ducrée J. A hybrid microfluidic platform for cell-based assays via diffusive and convective trans-membrane perfusion. BIOMICROFLUIDICS 2013; 7:34101. [PMID: 24404021 PMCID: PMC3663865 DOI: 10.1063/1.4804250] [Citation(s) in RCA: 2] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 03/04/2013] [Accepted: 04/24/2013] [Indexed: 05/07/2023]
Abstract
We present a novel 3D hybrid assembly of a polymer microfluidic chip with polycarbonate track-etched membrane (PCTEM) enabling membrane-supported cell culture. Two chip designs have been developed to establish either diffusive or convective reagent delivery using the integrated PCTEM. While it is well suited to a range of cell-based assays, we specifically employ this platform for the screening of a common antitumor chemotoxic agent (mitomycin C - MMC) on the HL60 myeloid leukemia cell line. The toxic activity of MMC is based on the generation of severe DNA damage in the cells. Using either mode of operation, the HL60 cells were cultured on-chip before, during, and after exposure to MMC at concentrations ranging from 0 to 50 μM. Cell viability was analysed off-chip by the trypan blue dye exclusion assay. The results of the on-chip viability assay were found to be consistent with those obtained off-chip and indicated ca. 40% cell survival at MMC concentration of 50 μM. The catalogue of capabilities of the here described cell assay platform comprises of (i) the culturing of cells either under shear-free conditions or under induced through-membrane flows, (ii) the tight time control of the reagent exposure, (iii) the straightforward assembly of devices, (iv) the flexibility on the choice of the membrane, and, prospectively, (v) the amenability for large-scale parallelization.
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Affiliation(s)
- Elizaveta Vereshchagina
- School of Physical Sciences, National Centre for Sensor Research, Dublin City University, Dublin 9, Ireland
| | - Declan Mc Glade
- School of Physical Sciences, National Centre for Sensor Research, Dublin City University, Dublin 9, Ireland
| | - Macdara Glynn
- Biomedical Diagnostics Institute, National Centre for Sensor Research, Dublin City University, Dublin 9, Ireland
| | - Jens Ducrée
- School of Physical Sciences, National Centre for Sensor Research, Dublin City University, Dublin 9, Ireland ; Biomedical Diagnostics Institute, National Centre for Sensor Research, Dublin City University, Dublin 9, Ireland
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26
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Zhou Q, Liu Y, Shin DS, Silangcruz J, Tuleouva N, Revzin A. Aptamer-containing surfaces for selective capture of CD4 expressing cells. LANGMUIR : THE ACS JOURNAL OF SURFACES AND COLLOIDS 2012; 28:12544-9. [PMID: 22856558 PMCID: PMC3538135 DOI: 10.1021/la2050338] [Citation(s) in RCA: 16] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 05/22/2023]
Abstract
Aptamers have recently emerged as an excellent alternative to antibodies because of their inherent stability and ease of modification. In this paper, we describe the development of an aptamer-based surface for capture of cells expressing CD4 antigen. The glass or silicon surfaces were modified with amine-terminated silanes and then modified with thiolated RNA aptamer against CD4. Modification of the surface was first characterized by ellipsometry to demonstrate assembly of biointerface components and to show specific capture of recombinant CD4 protein. Subsequently, surfaces were challenged with model lymphocytes (cell lines) that were either positive or negative for CD4 antigen. Our experiments show that aptamer-functionalized surfaces have similar capture efficiency to substrates containing anti-CD4 antibody. To mimick capture of specific T-cells from a complex cell mixture, aptamer-modified surfaces were exposed to binary mixtures containing Molt-3 cells (CD4+) spiked into Daudi B cells (CD4-). 94% purity of CD4 cells was observed on aptamer-containing surfaces from an initial fraction of 15% of CD4. Given the importance of CD4 cell enumeration in HIV/AIDS diagnosis and monitoring, aptamer-based devices may offer an opportunity for novel cell detection strategies and may yield more robust and less expensive blood analysis devices in the future.
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Affiliation(s)
- Qing Zhou
- Department of Biomedical Engineering, University of California, Davis
| | - Ying Liu
- Department of Biomedical Engineering, University of California, Davis
| | - Dong-Sik Shin
- Department of Biomedical Engineering, University of California, Davis
| | - Jaime Silangcruz
- Department of Biomedical Engineering, University of California, Davis
| | - Nazgul Tuleouva
- Department of Biomedical Engineering, University of California, Davis
| | - Alexander Revzin
- Department of Biomedical Engineering, University of California, Davis
- Corresponding author: Alexander Revzin Ph.D., Department of Biomedical Engineering, University of California, Davis, 451 East Health Sciences Drive #2619, Davis, CA, 95616, , Ph: 530-752-2383, Fax: 530-754-5739
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