Fabricating complex three-dimensional nanostructures with high-resolution conformable phase masks

Metal Nanocomposites Reinforced by Ceramic Nanoarchitecture: Exploiting Extrinsic Size Effects for High Mechanical Strength

The pursuit of harnessing superior mechanical properties achieved through the size effect on a macroscopic scale has been a prominent focus in engineering, as size-induced strengthening is enabled only in the nanoscale regime. This study presents a metal/ceramic/metal (MCM) nanocomposite reinforced by ceramic nanoarchitectures. Through proximity-field nanopatterning, the inch-scale production of nanoarchitecture films is enabled in a single fabrication step. The developed three-dimensional (3D) Ni/Al2O3/Ni nanocomposite film exhibits significantly high compressive strength, corresponding to an increase of approximately 30% compared with that calculated using the upper limits of the conventional rule of mixtures. The exceptional strength of the 3D MCM nanocomposite can be attributed to the extrinsic size effect of the ceramic nanoarchitectures. By combining size-induced strengthening of ceramics with the strengthening law for composites, a new type of strengthening model is derived and experimentally validated using the 3D MCM nanocomposite.

Realization of all two-dimensional Bravais lattices with metasurface-based interference lithography

Proximity-field nanopatterning (PnP) have been used recently as a rapid, cost-effective, and large-scale fabrication method utilizing volumetric interference patterns generated by conformal phase masks. Despite the effectiveness of PnP processes, their design diversity has not been thoroughly explored. Here, we demonstrate that the possibility of generating any two-dimensional lattice with diverse motifs. By controlling the amplitude, phase, and polarization of each diffraction beam, we can implement all two-dimensional Bravais lattices in three-dimensional space. The results may provide diverse applications that require three-dimensional nanostructures from optical materials and structural materials to energy storage or conversion materials.

High figure-of-merit for ZnO nanostructures by interfacing lowly-oxidized graphene quantum dots

Thermoelectric technology has potential for converting waste heat into electricity. Although traditional thermoelectric materials exhibit extremely high thermoelectric performances, their scarcity and toxicity limit their applications. Zinc oxide (ZnO) emerges as a promising alternative owing to its high thermal stability and relatively high Seebeck coefficient, while also being earth-abundant and nontoxic. However, its high thermal conductivity (>40 W m-1K-1) remains a challenge. In this study, we use a multi-step strategy to achieve a significantly high dimensionless figure-of-merit (zT) value of approximately 0.486 at 580 K (estimated value) by interfacing graphene quantum dots with 3D nanostructured ZnO. Here, we show the fabrication of graphene quantum dots interfaced 3D ZnO, yielding the highest zT value ever reported for ZnO counterparts; specifically, our experimental results indicate that the fabricated 3D GQD@ZnO exhibited a significantly low thermal conductivity of 0.785 W m-1K-1 (estimated value) and a remarkably high Seebeck coefficient of - 556 μV K-1 at 580 K.

Rational design of arbitrary topology in three-dimensional space via inverse calculation of phase modulation

Recent advances in nanotechnology have led to the emergence of metamaterials with unprecedented properties through precisely controlled topologies. To explore metamaterials with nanoscale topologies, interest in three-dimensional nanofabrication methods has grown and led to rapid production of target nanostructures over large areas. Additionally, inverse design methods have revolutionized materials science, enabling the optimization of microstructures and topologies to achieve the desired properties without extensive experimental cycles. This review highlights the recent progress in inverse design methods applied in proximity-field nanopatterning. It introduces novel approaches, such as adjoint methods and particle swarm optimization, to achieve target topologies and high-resolution nanostructures. Furthermore, machine learning algorithms for inverse design are explored, demonstrating the potential efficacy of the phase-mask design. This comprehensive review offers insights into the progress of inverse design using phase modulation to realize target topologies of nanostructures.

Photonic Crystal Enhanced Fluorescence: A Review on Design Strategies and Applications

Nanoscale fluorescence emitters are efficient for measuring biomolecular interactions, but their utility for applications requiring single-unit observations is constrained by the need for large numerical aperture objectives, fluorescence intermittency, and poor photon collection efficiency resulting from omnidirectional emission. Photonic crystal (PC) structures hold promise to address the aforementioned challenges in fluorescence enhancement. In this review, we provide a broad overview of PCs by explaining their structures, design strategies, fabrication techniques, and sensing principles. Furthermore, we discuss recent applications of PC-enhanced fluorescence-based biosensors incorporated with emerging technologies, including nucleic acids sensing, protein detection, and steroid monitoring. Finally, we discuss current challenges associated with PC-enhanced fluorescence and provide an outlook for fluorescence enhancement with photonic-plasmonics coupling and their promise for point-of-care biosensing as well monitoring analytes of biological and environmental relevance. The review presents the transdisciplinary applications of PCs in the broad arena of fluorescence spectroscopy with broad applications in photo-plasmonics, life science research, materials chemistry, cancer diagnostics, and internet of things.

Two-photon polymerization for 3D biomedical scaffolds: Overview and updates

The needs for high-resolution, well-defined and complex 3D microstructures in diverse fields call for the rapid development of novel 3D microfabrication techniques. Among those, two-photon polymerization (TPP) attracted extensive attention owing to its unique and useful characteristics. As an approach to implementing additive manufacturing, TPP has truly 3D writing ability to fabricate artificially designed constructs with arbitrary geometry. The spatial resolution of the manufactured structures via TPP can exceed the diffraction limit. The 3D structures fabricated by TPP could properly mimic the microenvironment of natural extracellular matrix, providing powerful tools for the study of cell behavior. TPP can meet the requirements of manufacturing technique for 3D scaffolds (engineering cell culture matrices) used in cytobiology, tissue engineering and regenerative medicine. In this review, we demonstrated the development in 3D microfabrication techniques and we presented an overview of the applications of TPP as an advanced manufacturing technique in complex 3D biomedical scaffolds fabrication. Given this multidisciplinary field, we discussed the perspectives of physics, materials science, chemistry, biomedicine and mechanical engineering. Additionally, we dived into the principles of tow-photon absorption (TPA) and TPP, requirements of 3D biomedical scaffolders, developed-to-date materials and chemical approaches used by TPP and manufacturing strategies based on mechanical engineering. In the end, we draw out the limitations of TPP on 3D manufacturing for now along with some prospects of its future outlook towards the fabrication of 3D biomedical scaffolds.

Multiphoton Lithography of Organic Semiconductor Devices for 3D Printing of Flexible Electronic Circuits, Biosensors, and Bioelectronics

In recent years, 3D printing of electronics have received growing attention due to their potential applications in emerging fields such as nanoelectronics and nanophotonics. Multiphoton lithography (MPL) is considered the state-of-the-art amongst the microfabrication techniques with true 3D fabrication capability owing to its excellent level of spatial and temporal control. Here, a homogenous and transparent photosensitive resin doped with an organic semiconductor material (OS), which is compatible with MPL process, is introduced to fabricate a variety of 3D OS composite microstructures (OSCMs) and microelectronic devices. Inclusion of 0.5 wt% OS in the resin enhances the electrical conductivity of the composite polymer about 10 orders of magnitude and compared to other MPL-based methods, the resultant OSCMs offer high specific electrical conductivity. As a model protein, laminin is incorporated into these OSCMs without a significant loss of activity. The OSCMs are biocompatible and support cell adhesion and growth. Glucose-oxidase-encapsulated OSCMs offer a highly sensitive glucose sensing platform with nearly tenfold higher sensitivity compared to previous glucose biosensors. In addition, this biosensor exhibits excellent specificity and high reproducibility. Overall, these results demonstrate the great potential of these novel MPL-fabricated OSCM devices for a wide range of applications from flexible bioelectronics/biosensors, to nanoelectronics and organ-on-a-chip devices.

Three-Dimensional, Submicron Porous Electrode with a Density Gradient to Enhance Charge Carrier Transport

Rapid charging capability is a requisite feature of lithium-ion batteries (LIBs). To overcome the capacity degradation from a steep Li-ion concentration gradient during the fast reaction, electrodes with tailored transport kinetics have been explored by managing the geometries. However, the traditional electrode fabrication process has great challenges in precisely controlling and implementing the desired pore networks and configuration of electrode materials. Herein, we demonstrate a density-graded composite electrode that arises from a three-dimensional current collector in which the porosity gradually decreases to 53.8% along the depth direction. The density-graded electrode effectively reduces energy loss at high charging rates by mitigating polarization. This electrode shows an outstanding capacity of 94.2 mAh g^-1 at a fast current density of 59.7 C (20 A g^-1), which is much higher than that of an electrode with a nearly constant density gradient (38.0 mAh g^-1). Through these in-depth studies on the pore networks and their transport kinetics, we describe the design principle of rational electrode geometries for ultrafast charging LIBs.

Mechanoresponsive scatterers for high-contrast optical modulation

Smart chromatic materials with optical transmittances that can be modified by light scattering upon external stimuli are attracting extensive interest because of their appealing applications in smart windows, privacy protection, electronic displays, etc. However, the development of these scatterers, which are mostly activated by electric fields, is hindered by their intrinsic energy consumption, slow responses, and poor stability. Recently, mechanoresponsive scatterers based on a strain-driven reconfiguration of the surface or internal structure have emerged, featuring fast responses and a simple composition/fabrication. Because there is no energy consumption to maintain the transparency/opacity, this novel scheme for scatterers holds great promise to break the existing bottleneck. This article presents recent advances in the development of mechanoresponsive scatterers and compares different structural design strategies. The scatterers are categorized into 2D, 3D, and other types according to the dimensions of their functioning structures. The fabrication methods, mechanisms, and relationships between the structural parameters and optical modulating performances are discussed for each category. Next, the potential applications of these scatterers are outlined. Finally, the advantages and disadvantages of the mainstream 2D and 3D categories are summarized, followed by a perspective on future research directions.

Photolithographic realization of target nanostructures in 3D space by inverse design of phase modulation

The mass production of precise three-dimensional (3D) nanopatterns has long been the ultimate goal of fabrication technology. While interference lithography and proximity-field nanopatterning (PnP) may provide partial solutions, their setup complexity and limited range of realizable structures, respectively, remain the main problems. Here, we tackle these challenges by applying an inverse design to the PnP process. Our inverse design platform based on the adjoint method can efficiently find optimal phase masks for diverse target lattices and motifs. We fabricate a 2D rectangular array of nanochannels, which has not been reported for conventional PnP with normally incident light, as a proof of concept. With further demonstration of material conversion, our work provides versatile platforms for nanomaterial fabrication.

From macromonomers to bottlebrush copolymers with sequence control: synthesis, properties, and applications

Bottlebrush polymers (BBPs) are a type of comb-like macromolecules with densely grafted polymeric sidechains attached to the polymer backbones, and many intriguing properties and applications have been demonstrated due to...

Rationally Designed TiO2 Nanostructures of Continuous Pore Network for Fast-Responding and Highly Sensitive Acetone Sensor

For the last several years, indoor air quality monitoring has been a significant issue due to the increasing time portion of indoor human activities. Especially, the early detection of volatile organic compounds potentially harmful to the human body by the prolonged exposure is the primary concern for public human health, and such technology is imperatively desired. In this study, highly porous and periodic 3D TiO₂ nanostructures are designed and studied for this concern. Specifically, extremely high gas molecule accessibility throughout the whole nanostructures and precisely controlled internecks of 3D TiO₂ nanostructures can achieve an unprecedented gas response of 299 to 50 ppm CH₃ COCH₃ with an extremely fast response time of less than 1s. The systematic approach to utilize the whole inner and outer surfaces of the gas sensing materials and periodically formed internecks to localize the current paths in this study can provide highly promising perspectives to advance the development of chemoresistive gas sensors using metal oxide nanostructures for the Internet of Everything application.

Scalable Fabrication of High-Performance Thin-Shell Oxide Nanoarchitected Materials via Proximity-Field Nanopatterning

Nanoarchitected materials are considered as a promising research field, deriving distinctive mechanical properties by combining nanomechanical size effects with conventional structural engineering. Despite the successful demonstration of the superiority and feasibility of nanoarchitected materials, scalable and facile fabrication techniques capable of macroscopically producing such materials at a low cost are required to take advantage of the nanoarchitected materials for specific applications. Unlike conventional techniques, proximity-field nanopatterning (PnP) is capable of simultaneously obtaining high spatial resolution and mass producibility in synthesizing such nanoarchitected materials in the form of an inch-scale film. Herein, we focus on the feasibility of using PnP as a scalable fabrication technique for three-dimensional nanostructures and the superiority of the resultant thin-shell oxide nanoarchitected materials for specific applications, such as lightweight structural materials, mechanically robust nanocomposites, and high-performance piezoelectric materials. This review will discuss and summarize the relevant results obtained for nanoarchitected materials synthesized by PnP and provide suggestions for future research directions for scalable manufacturing and application.

Optically Activated 3D Thin-Shell TiO2 for Super-Sensitive Chemoresistive Responses: Toward Visible Light Activation

One of the well-known strategies for achieving high-performance light-activated gas sensors is to design a nanostructure for effective surface responses with its geometric advances. However, no study has gone beyond the benefits of the large surface area and provided fundamental strategies to offer a rational structure for increasing their optical and chemical performances. Here, a new class of UV-activated sensing nanoarchitecture made of highly periodic 3D TiO2, which facilitates 55 times enhanced light absorption by confining the incident light in the nanostructure, is prepared as an active gas channel. The key parameters, such as the total 3D TiO2 film and thin-shell thicknesses, are precisely optimized by finite element analysis. Collectively, this fundamental design leads to ultrahigh chemoresistive response to NO2 with a theoretical detection limit of ≈200 ppt. The demonstration of high responses with visible light illumination proposes a future perspective for light-activated gas sensors based on semiconducting oxides.

Electroplated Functional Materials with 3D Nanostructures Defined by Advanced Optical Lithography and Their Emerging Applications

Electroplating has been favored to date as a surface treatment technology in various industries in the development of semiconductors, automobiles, ships, and steel due to its advantages of being a simple, solution-based process, with low cost and high throughput. Recently, classical electroplating has been reborn as an advanced manufacturing process for functional materials by combining it with unconventional optical three-dimensional (3D) nanofabrication techniques capable of generating polymer templates with high-resolution 3D periodic nanostructures. The bottom-up filling behavior of electroplating rising from a seed layer makes it possible to densely fill the nanoporous network of the template with heterogeneous inorganic materials. At this time, understanding and optimizing the process parameters (e.g., additive, current density, type of current waveform, etc.) of electroplating is critical for defect control. In addition, since electroplating is generally performed near room temperature, unlike other thin film deposition techniques, structural damage to the polymer template by heat during electroplating is almost negligible. Based on the excellent compatibility of electroplating and optical 3D nanofabrication, innovative functional materials with 3D periodic nanostructures targeting electrochemical or energy-related applications have been created. In this mini review, a strategy for producing functional materials with 3D periodic nanostructures through a templating process will be covered, and the recent cases of successful applications to electrodes for energy storage devices, electrocatalysts, and thermoelectric materials will be summarized. We will also discuss technical issues that need to be considered in the process to improve the quality of the resulting functional materials with 3D nanoarchitectures.

Fabrication of three-dimensional high-aspect-ratio structures by oblique-incidence Talbot lithography

Developing a suitable production method for three-dimensional periodic nanostructures with high aspect ratios is a subject of growing interest. For mass production, Talbot lithography offers many advantages. However, one disadvantage is that the minimum period of the light intensity distribution is limited by the period of the diffraction grating used. To enhance the aspect ratio of fabricated nanostructures, in the present study we focus on multiple wave interference between diffracted waves created using the Talbot effect. We propose a unique exposure method to generate multiple wave interference between adjacent diffraction orders by controlling the angle of incidence of an ultraviolet (UV) light source. Using finite-difference time-domain simulations, we obtain fringe patterns with a sub-wavelength period using a one-dimensional periodic grating mask. Moreover, we demonstrate the practical application of this approach by using UV lithography to fabricate sub-wavelength periodic photopolymer-based structures with an aspect ratio of 30 in millimeter-scale areas, indicating its suitability for mass production.

Focused Electric-Field Polymer Writing: Toward Ultralarge, Multistimuli-Responsive Membranes

The cost-effective direct writing of polymer nanofibers (NFs) has garnered considerable research attention as a compelling one-pot strategy for obtaining key building blocks of electrochemical and optical devices. Among the promising applications, the changes in optical response from external stimuli such as mechanical deformation and changes in the thermal environment are of great significance for emerging applications in smart windows, privacy protection, aesthetics, artificial skin, and camouflage. Herein, we propose a rational design for the mass production of customized NFs through the development of focused electric-field polymer writing (FEPW) coupled with the roll-to-roll technique. As a proof of key applications, we demonstrate multistimuli-responsive (mechano- and thermochromism) membranes with an exceptional production scale (over 300 cm²). Specifically, the membranes consist of periodically aligned ultrathin (∼60 nm) alumina nanotubes inserted in the elastomers. We performed a two-phase finite element analysis of the unit cells to verify the underlying physics of light scattering at heterogeneous interfaces of the strain-induced air gaps. By adding thermochromic dye during the FEPW, the optical modulation of transmittance change (∼83% to 37% at visible wavelength) was successfully extended to high-contrast thermal-dependent coloration.

Three-Dimensional Cathodes for Electrochemical Reduction of CO2: From Macro- to Nano-Engineering

Rising anthropogenic CO2 emissions and their climate warming effects have triggered a global response in research and development to reduce the emissions of this harmful greenhouse gas. The use of CO2 as a feedstock for the production of value-added fuels and chemicals is a promising pathway for development of renewable energy storage and reduction of carbon emissions. Electrochemical CO2 conversion offers a promising route for value-added products. Considerable challenges still remain, limiting this technology for industrial deployment. This work reviews the latest developments in experimental and modeling studies of three-dimensional cathodes towards high-performance electrochemical reduction of CO2. The fabrication-microstructure-performance relationships of electrodes are examined from the macro- to nanoscale. Furthermore, future challenges, perspectives and recommendations for high-performance cathodes are also presented.

High-Contrast Optical Modulation from Strain-Induced Nanogaps at 3D Heterogeneous Interfaces

The realization of high-contrast modulation in optically transparent media is of great significance for emerging mechano-responsive smart windows. However, no study has provided fundamental strategies for maximizing light scattering during mechanical deformations. Here, a new type of 3D nanocomposite film consisting of an ultrathin (≈60 nm) Al2O3 nanoshell inserted between the elastomers in a periodic 3D nanonetwork is proposed. Regardless of the stretching direction, numerous light-scattering nanogaps (corresponding to the porosity of up to ≈37.4 vol%) form at the interfaces of Al2O3 and the elastomers under stretching. This results in the gradual modulation of transmission from ≈90% to 16% at visible wavelengths and does not degrade with repeated stretching/releasing over more than 10 000 cycles. The underlying physics is precisely predicted by finite element analysis of the unit cells. As a proof of concept, a mobile-app-enabled smart window device for Internet of Things applications is realized using the proposed 3D nanocomposite with successful expansion to the 3 × 3 in. scale.

Path-Guided Hierarchical Surface Relief Gratings on Azo-Films Induced by Polarized Light Illumination through Surface-Wrinkling Phase Mask

Surface relief gratings (SRGs) with hierarchical microstructures are highly needed owing to their diverse applications in various fields. Here, we introduce surface-wrinkling templates as novel nonlithographic phase masks to direct the generation of hierarchical well-prescribed SRGs on nonconformally contacted azo-films by a simple single-beam illumination. The light-induced SRGs have controlled microstructures including single/double/triple wavelengths and single/double orientations as well as their organizations. These microstructures can be well tailored by the wavelength of the surface-wrinkling phase masks and the polarization direction of incident light relative to the wrinkling patterns in the phase masks. Interestingly, we find that the larger wavelength is induced prior to the smaller ones, offering another new strategy to tailor the microstructures of SRGs through simple manipulation of the illumination duration. In particular, path-guided SRGs with unprecedented well-organized hierarchical microstructures have been available in the case of controlled moving of the light illumination through the surface-wrinkling phase mask. As demonstrated, the obtained hierarchical SRGs with the capability of multiple optical inscription/erasure have great application potentials in fields such as confidential information (or pattern) records and encryption/decryption.

Hierarchically porous Au nanostructures with interconnected channels for efficient mass transport in electrocatalytic CO2 reduction

Electrocatalytic CO₂ reduction is a promising way to provide renewable energy from gaseous CO₂ The development of nanostructures improves energy efficiency and selectivity for value-added chemicals, but complex nanostructures limit the CO₂ conversion rates due to poor mass transport during vigorous electrolysis. Herein, we propose a three-dimensional (3D) hierarchically porous Au comprising interconnected macroporous channels (200-300 nm) and nanopores (∼10 nm) fabricated via proximity-field nanopatterning. The interconnected macropores and nanopores enable efficient mass transport and large active areas, respectively. The roles of each pore network are investigated using reliable 3D nanostructures possessing controlled pore distribution and size. The hierarchical nanostructured electrodes show a high CO selectivity of 85.8% at a low overpotential of 0.264 V and efficient mass activity that is maximum 3.96 times higher than that of dealloyed nanoporous Au. Hence, the systematic model study shows the proposed hierarchical nanostructures have important value in increasing the efficiency of expensive Au.

Continuous roll-to-roll patterning of three-dimensional periodic nanostructures

In this work, we introduce a roll-to-roll system that can continuously print three-dimensional (3D) periodic nanostructures over large areas. This approach is based on Langmuir-Blodgett assembly of colloidal nanospheres, which diffract normal incident light to create a complex intensity pattern for near-field nanolithography. The geometry of the 3D nanostructure is defined by the Talbot effect and can be precisely designed by tuning the ratio of the nanosphere diameter to the exposure wavelength. Using this system, we have demonstrated patterning of 3D photonic crystals with a 500 nm period on a 50 × 200 mm² flexible substrate, with a system throughput of 3 mm/s. The patterning yield is quantitatively analyzed by an automated electron beam inspection method, demonstrating long-term repeatability of an up to 88% yield over a 4-month period. The inspection method can also be employed to examine pattern uniformity, achieving an average yield of up to 78.6% over full substrate areas. The proposed patterning method is highly versatile and scalable as a nanomanufacturing platform and can find application in nanophotonics, nanoarchitected materials, and multifunctional nanostructures.

2D and 3D nanostructuring strategies for thermoelectric materials

Thermoelectric materials have attracted increased research attention as the implementation of various nanostructures has potential to improve both their performance and applicability. A traditional limitation of thermoelectric performance in bulk materials is the interconnected nature of the individual parameters (for example, it is difficult to decrease thermal conductivity while maintaining electrical conductivity), but through the rational design of nanoscale structures, it is possible to decouple these relationships and greatly enhance the performance. For 2D strategies, newly investigated materials such as graphene, transition metal dichalcogenides, black phosphorus, etc. are attractive thanks to not only their unique thermoelectric properties, but also potential advantages in ease of processing, flexibility, and lack of rare or toxic constituent elements. For 3D strategies, the use of induced porosity, assembly of various nanostructures, and nanoscale lithography all offer specific advantages over bulk materials of the same chemical composition, most notably decreased thermal conductivity due to phonon scattering and enhanced Seebeck coefficient due to energy filtering. In this review, a general summary of the popular techniques and strategies for 2D and 3D thermoelectric materials will be provided, along with suggestions for future research directions based on the observed trends.

Multifocal multi-value phase zone plate for 3D focusing

We demonstrate a method for creating a three-dimensional (3D) array of focal spots by combination of a multi-focal diffractive lens and a two-dimensional multi-value phase grating. The multi-focal Fresnel-based lens is created by means of encoding special nonlinearities into the phase structure of a Fresnel zone plate and is represented as a mathematical superposition of this phase function with a refractive lens. The imposed nonlinearity type enables the creation of multiple focal spots with uniform intensity along the optical axis. We demonstrate the example of a 3D multi-value phase grating, which creates five focal planes with a $5 \times 5$5×5 transverse array of focal spots with equal energy distribution in each plane. Experimental results are included to verify the theoretical outcomes, where the phase pattern of a 3D multi-value phase grating is encoded onto a spatial light modulator.

Metasurface-generated complex 3-dimensional optical fields for interference lithography

Fast submicrometer-scale 3D printing techniques are of interest for various applications ranging from photonics and electronics to tissue engineering. Interference lithography is a versatile 3D printing method with the ability to generate complicated nanoscale structures. Its application, however, has been hindered by either the complicated setups in multibeam lithography that cause sensitivity and impede scalability or the limited level of control over the fabricated structure achievable with mask-assisted processes. Here, we show that metasurface masks can generate complex volumetric intensity distributions with submicrometer scales for fast and scalable 3D printing. These results push the limits of optical devices in controlling the light intensity distribution and significantly increase the realm of possibilities for 3D printing.

Fast, large-scale, and robust 3-dimensional (3D) fabrication techniques for patterning a variety of structures with submicrometer resolution are important in many areas of science and technology such as photonics, electronics, and mechanics with a wide range of applications from tissue engineering to nanoarchitected materials. From several promising 3D manufacturing techniques for realizing different classes of structures suitable for various applications, interference lithography with diffractive masks stands out for its potential to fabricate complex structures at fast speeds. However, the interference lithography masks demonstrated generally suffer from limitations in terms of the patterns that can be generated. To overcome some of these limitations, here we propose the metasurface-mask–assisted 3D nanofabrication which provides great freedom in patterning various periodic structures. To showcase the versatility of this platform, we design metasurface masks that generate exotic periodic lattices like gyroid, rotated cubic, and diamond structures. As a proof of concept, we experimentally demonstrate a diffractive element that can generate the diamond lattice.

Large area flexible pressure/strain sensors and arrays using nanomaterials and printing techniques

Sensors are becoming more demanding in all spheres of human activities for their advancement in terms of fabrication and cost. Several methods of fabrication and configurations exist which provide them myriad of applications. However, the advantage of fabrication for sensors lies with bulk fabrication and processing techniques. Exhaustive study for process advancement towards miniaturization from the advent of MEMS technology has been going on and progressing at high pace and has reached a highly advanced level wherein batch production and low cost alternatives provide a competitive performance. A look back to this advancement and thus understanding the route further is essential which is the core of this review in light of nanomaterials and printed technology based sensors. A subjective appraisal of these developments in sensor architecture from the advent of MEMS technology converging present date novel materials and process technologies through this article help us understand the path further.

Recent progress in near-field nanolithography using light interactions with colloidal particles: from nanospheres to three-dimensional nanostructures

The advance of nanotechnology is firmly rooted in the development of cost-effective, versatile, and easily accessible nanofabrication techniques. The ability to pattern complex two-dimensional and three-dimensional nanostructured materials are particularly desirable, since they can have novel physical properties that are not found in bulk materials. This review article will report recent progress in utilizing self-assembly of colloidal particles for nanolithography. In these techniques, the near-field interactions of light and colloids are the sole mechanisms employed to generate the intensity distributions for patterning. Based on both 'bottom-up' self-assembly and 'top-down' lithography approaches, these processes are highly versatile and can take advantage of a number of optical effects, allowing the complex 3D nanostructures to be patterned using single exposures. There are several key advantages including low equipment cost, facile structure design, and patterning scalability, which will be discussed in detail. We will outline the underlying optical effects, review the geometries that can be fabricated, discuss key limitations, and highlight potential applications in nanophotonics, optoelectronic devices, and nanoarchitectured materials.

Two-Photon Vertical-Flow Lithography for Microtube Synthesis

Two-photon vertical-flow lithography is demonstrated for synthesis of complex-shaped polymeric microtubes with a high aspect ratio (>100:1). This unique microfluidic approach provides rigorous control over the morphology and surface topology to generate thin-walled (<1 µm) microtubes with a tunable diameter (1-400 µm) and pore size (1-20 µm). The interplay between fluid-flow control and two-photon lithography presents a generic high-resolution method that will substantially contribute toward the future development of biocompatible scaffolds, stents, needles, nerve guides, membranes, and beyond.

Atomic Layer Deposition of Inorganic Thin Films on 3D Polymer Nanonetworks

Atomic layer deposition (ALD) is a unique tool for conformally depositing inorganic thin films with precisely controlled thickness at nanoscale. Recently, ALD has been used in the manufacture of inorganic thin films using a three-dimensional (3D) nanonetwork structure made of polymer as a template, which is pre-formed by advanced 3D nanofabrication techniques such as electrospinning, block-copolymer (BCP) lithography, direct laser writing (DLW), multibeam interference lithography (MBIL), and phase-mask interference lithography (PMIL). The key technical requirement of this polymer template-assisted ALD is to perform the deposition process at a lower temperature, preserving the nanostructure of the polymer template during the deposition process. This review focuses on the successful cases of conformal deposition of inorganic thin films on 3D polymer nanonetworks using thermal ALD or plasma-enhanced ALD at temperatures below 200 °C. Recent applications and prospects of nanostructured polymer–inorganic composites or hollow inorganic materials are also discussed.

Discontinuous Galerkin time domain analysis of electromagnetic scattering from dispersive periodic nanostructures at oblique incidence

An efficient discontinuous Galerkin time domain (DGTD) method with a generalized dispersive material (GDM) model and periodic boundary conditions (PBCs), hereto referred to as DGTD-GDM-PBCs, is proposed to analyze the electromagnetic scattering from dispersive periodic nanostructures. The GDM model is utilized to achieve a robust and accurate universal model for arbitrary dispersive materials. Using a transformed field variable technique, PBCs are introduced to efficiently truncate the computational domain in the periodic directions for both normally and obliquely incident illumination cases. Based on the transformed Maxwell's equations with PBCs, the formulation of the DGTD method with a GDM model is derived. Furthermore, a Runge-Kutta time-stepping scheme is proposed to update the semi-discrete transformed Maxwell's equations and auxiliary differential equations (ADEs) with high order accuracy. Numerical examples for periodic nanostructures with dispersive elements, such as reflection and transmission of a thin film, surface plasmon at the interfaces of a metallic hole array structure, and absorption properties of a dual-band infrared absorber are presented to demonstrate the accuracy and capability of the proposed method.

Strategies to improve the photocatalytic activity of TiO2: 3D nanostructuring and heterostructuring with graphitic carbon nanomaterials

TiO2-based photocatalysis has been considered to be one of the most promising avenues for environmental remediation including water purification. However, several technical issues such as the limited surface area of bulk TiO2, the large band gap of TiO2, and rapid charge recombination still limit the practical application of TiO2 photocatalysts. Therefore, here we focus on two structural design strategies: (i) monolithic three-dimensional (3D) nanostructuring, and (ii) heterostructuring with graphitic carbon nanomaterials. A monolithic 3D nanostructure enables maximal surface area in a given volume and efficient reuse of the photocatalyst without recollection. Heterostructuring with carbon nanomaterials helps achieve maximal utilization of the solar spectrum and charge separation and provides efficient TiO2 photocatalysts. In this review, recent progress on TiO2 photocatalysts toward the abovementioned strategies will be summarized. Further discussion and direction will provide insights into the rational design of highly efficient TiO2 photocatalysts, and help develop advanced photocatalyst models.

Emergence of New Density-Strength Scaling Law in 3D Hollow Ceramic Nanoarchitectures

Density-strength tradeoff appears to be an inherent limitation for most materials and therefore design of cell topology that mitigates strength decrease with density reduction has been a long-lasting engineering pursue for porous materials. Continuum-mechanics-based analyses of mechanical responses of conventional porous materials with bending-dominated structures often give the density-strength scaling law following the power-law relationship with an exponent of 1.5 or higher, which consequentially determines the upper bound of the specific strength for a material to reach. In this work, a new design criterion capable of significantly abating strength degradation in lightweight materials is presented, by successfully combining the size-induced strengthening effect in nanomaterials with the architectural design of cellular porous materials. Hollow-tube-based 3D ceramic nanoarchitectures satisfying such criterion are fabricated in large area using proximity field nano-patterning and atomic layer deposition. Experimental data from micropillar compression confirm that the strengths of these nanoarchitectural materials scale with relative densities with a power-law exponent of 0.93, a hardly observable value in conventional bending-dominated porous materials. This discovery of a new density-strength scaling law in nanoarchitectured materials will contribute to creating new lightweight structural materials attaining unprecedented specific strengths overcoming the conventional limit.

Multifunctional Polymer Nanocomposites Reinforced by 3D Continuous Ceramic Nanofillers

Polymer nanocomposites with inclusion of ceramic nanofillers have relatively high yield strength, elastic moduli, and toughness that therefore are widely used as functional coating and films for optoelectronic applications. Although the mechanical properties are enhanced with increasing the fraction of nanofiller inclusion, there generally is an upper limit on the amount of nanofiller inclusion because the aggregation of the fillers in the polymer matrix, which typically occurs, degrades the mechanical and/or optical performances above 5 vol % of inclusions. Here, we demonstrate an unconventional polymer nanocomposite composed of a uniformly distributed three-dimensional (3D) continuous ceramic nanofillers, which allows for extremely high loading (∼19 vol %) in the polymer matrix without any concern of aggregation and loss in transparency. The fabrication strategy involves conformal deposition of Al₂O₃ nanolayer with a precise control in thickness that ranges from 12 to 84 nm on a 3D nanostructured porous polymer matrix followed by filling the pores with the same type of polymer. The 3D continuous Al₂O₃ nanolayers embedded in the matrix with extremely high filler rate of 19.17 vol % improve compressive strength by 142% compared to the pure epoxy without Al₂O₃ filler, and this value is in agreement with theoretically predicted strength through the rule of mixture. These 3D nanocomposites show superb transparency in the visible (>85% at 600 nm) and near-IR (>90% at 1 μm) regions and improved heat dissipation beyond that of conventional Al₂O₃ dispersed nanocomposites with similar filler loading of 15.11 vol % due to the existence of a continuous thermal conduction path through the oxide network.

Small-Scale Biological and Artificial Multidimensional Sensors for 3D Sensing

A vast majority of existing sub-millimeter-scale sensors have a planar, 2D geometry as a result of conventional top-down lithographic procedures. However, 2D sensors often suffer from restricted sensing capability, allowing only partial measurements of 3D quantities. Here, nano/microscale sensors with different geometric (1D, 2D, and 3D) configurations are reviewed to introduce their advantages and limitations when sensing changes in quantities in 3D space. This Review categorizes sensors based on their geometric configuration and sensing capabilities. Among the sensors reviewed here, the 3D configuration sensors defined on polyhedral structures are especially advantageous when sensing spatially distributed 3D quantities. The nano- and microscale vertex configuration forming polyhedral structures enable full 3D spatial sensing due to orthogonally aligned sensing elements. Particularly, the cubic configuration leveraged in 3D sensors offers an array of diverse applications in the field of biosensing for micro-organisms and proteins, optical metamaterials for invisibility cloaking, 3D imaging, and low-power remote sensing of position and angular momentum for use in microbots. Here, various 3D sensors are compared to assess the advantages of their geometry and its impact on sensing mechanisms. 3D biosensors in nature are also explored to provide vital clues for the development of novel 3D sensors.

3D nanostructured N-doped TiO2 photocatalysts with enhanced visible absorption

Considering the environmental issues, it is essential to develop highly efficient and recyclable photocatalysts in purification systems. Conventional TiO2 nanoparticles have strong intrinsic oxidizing power and high surface area, but are difficult to collect after use and rarely absorb visible light, resulting in low photocatalytic efficiency under sunlight. Here we develop a new type of highly efficient and recyclable photocatalyst made of a three-dimensional (3D) nanostructured N-doped TiO2 monolith with enhanced visible light absorption. To prepare the sample, an ultrathin TiN layer (∼10 nm) was conformally coated using atomic layer deposition (ALD) on 3D nanostructured TiO2. Subsequent thermal annealing at low temperature (550 °C) converted TiN to anatase phase N-doped TiO2. The resulting 3D N-doped TiO2 showed ∼33% enhanced photocatalytic performance compared to pure 3D TiO2 of equivalent thickness under sunlight due to the reduced bandgap, from 3.2 eV to 2.75 eV through N-doping. The 3D N-doped TiO2 monolith could be easily collected and reused at least 5 times without any degradation in photocatalytic performance.

Anomalous thermoelectricity of pure ZnO from 3D continuous ultrathin nanoshell structures

ZnO is a potential thermoelectric material because of its non-toxicity, high thermal stability, and relatively high Seebeck coefficient (S) of metal oxides. However, the extremely low figure of merit (zT), which comes from a high thermal conductivity (κ) over 40 W m^-1 K^-1, limits the thermoelectric application of ZnO. In particular, below 500 K, ZnO exhibits a nearly negligible zT (<10^-3), unless a dopant is incorporated into the crystal structure. Here, we propose a new strategy for achieving a reduced κ and a correspondingly increased zT of pure ZnO over a wide temperature range from 333 K to 723 K by forming an ∼72 nm thick, 3D continuous ultrathin nanoshell structure. The suppressed κ of the 3D ZnO film is ∼3.6 W m^-1 K^-1 at 333 K, which is ∼38 times lower than that of the blanket ZnO film (3.2 μm thick), which was set as a reference. The experimental zT of the 3D ZnO film is ∼0.017 at 333 K, which is the highest value among pure ZnO reported to date and is estimated to increase by ∼0.072 at 693 K according to the Debye-Callaway approach. Large-area (∼1 in²) fabrication of the 3D ZnO film with high structural uniformity allows the realization of an integrated thermoelectric device, which generates ∼60 mV at a temperature difference of 40 K along the in-plane direction.

Fabrication of Nanoshell-Based 3D Periodic Structures by Templating Process using Solution-derived ZnO

Fabrication methods for a 3D periodic nanostructure with excellent and unique properties for various applications, such as photonic and phononic crystals, have attracted considerable interest. Templating processes using colloidal crystals have been proposed to create nanoshell-based 3D structures over a large area with ease. However, there are technical limitations in structural design, resulting in difficulties for structural flexibility. Here, we demonstrate a combination of proximity field nanopatterning and infiltration processes using solution-derived ZnO for a nanoshell-based 3D periodic structure with high structural flexibility and controllability. A unique process of infiltration of a solution-derived material into a polymeric template prepared by a proximity field nanopatterning process achieves the fabrication of a pre-formed layer that works as a protective layer for the template and framework for the inverse structure. Subsequently, this process shows the controllability of nanoshell thickness and significant improvement in the structure height shrinkage factor (16%) compared to those of a previous non-vacuum infiltration method (34%). The proposed method offers high controllability and flexibility in the design of structural sizes, leading to further development toward nanoshell-based 3D structures for various applications including energy devices and sensors.

Femtosecond-Laser-Based 3D Printing for Tissue Engineering and Cell Biology Applications

Fabrication of 3D cell scaffolds has gained tremendous attention in recent years because of its applications in tissue engineering and cell biology applications. The success of tissue engineering or cell interactions mainly depends on the fabrication of well-defined microstructures, which ought to be biocompatible for cell proliferation. Femtosecond-laser-based 3D printing is one of the solution candidates that can be used to manufacture 3D tissue scaffolds through computer-aided design (CAD) which can be efficiently engineered to mimic the microenvironment of tissues. UV-based lithography has also been used for constructing the cellular scaffolds but the toxicity of UV light to the cells has prevented its application to the direct patterning of the cells in the scaffold. Although the mask-based lithography has provided a high resolution, it has only enabled 2D patterning not arbitrary 3D printing with design flexibility. Femtosecond-laser-based 3D printing is trending in the area of tissue engineering and cell biology applications due to the formation of well-defined micro- and submicrometer structures via visible and near-infrared (NIR) femtosecond laser pulses, followed by the fabrication of cell scaffold microstructures with a high precision. Laser direct writing and multiphoton polymerization are being used for fabricating the cell scaffolds, The implication of spatial light modulators in the interference lithography to generate the digital hologram will be the future prospective of mask-based lithography. Polyethylene glycol diacrylate (PEG-DA), ormocomp, pentaerythritol tetraacrylate (PETTA) have been fabricated through TPP to generate the cell scaffolds, whereas SU-8 was used to fabricate the microrobots for targeted drug delivery. Well-designed and precisely fabricated 3D cell scaffolds manufactured by femtosecond-laser-based 3D printing can be potentially used for studying cell migration, matrix invasion and nuclear stiffness to determine stage of cancer and will open broader horizons in the future in tissue engineering and biology applications.

Three-Dimensional Continuous Conductive Nanostructure for Highly Sensitive and Stretchable Strain Sensor

The demand for wearable strain gauges that can detect dynamic human motions is growing in the area of healthcare technology. However, the realization of efficient sensing materials for effective detection of human motions in daily life is technically challenging due to the absence of the optimally designed electrode. Here, we propose a novel concept for overcoming the intrinsic limits of conventional strain sensors based on planar electrodes by developing highly periodic and three-dimensional (3D) bicontinuous nanoporous electrodes. We create a 3D bicontinuous nanoporous electrode by constructing conductive percolation networks along the surface of porous 3D nanostructured poly(dimethylsiloxane) with single-walled carbon nanotubes. The 3D structural platform allows fabrication of a strain sensor with robust properties such as a gauge factor of up to 134 at a tensile strain of 40%, a widened detection range of up to 160%, and a cyclic property of over 1000 cycles. Collectively, this study provides new design opportunities for a highly efficient sensing system that finely captures human motions, including phonations and joint movements.

Application of Bottlebrush Block Copolymers as Photonic Crystals

Brush block copolymers are a class of comb polymers that feature polymeric side chains densely grafted to a linear backbone. These polymers display interesting properties due to their dense functionality, low entanglement, and ability to rapidly self-assemble to highly ordered nanostructures. The ability to prepare brush polymers with precise structures has been enabled by advancements in controlled polymerization techniques. This Feature Article highlights the development of brush block copolymers as photonic crystals that can reflect visible to near-infrared wavelengths of light. Fabrication of these materials relies on polymer self-assembly processes to achieve nanoscale ordering, which allows for the rapid preparation of photonic crystals from common organic chemical feedstocks. The characteristic physical properties of brush block copolymers are discussed, along with methods for their preparation. Strategies to induce self-assembly at ambient temperatures and the use of blending techniques to tune photonic properties are emphasized.

Toward Scalable Flexible Nanomanufacturing for Photonic Structures and Devices

Continuous and scalable nanopatterning over flexible substrates is highly desirable for both commercial and scientific interests, but is difficult to realize with traditional photolithographic processes. The recent advancements in nanofabrication methodologies enable light management with photonic structures on flexible materials, providing an increasingly popular strategy to control the light harvesting in the optoelectronic devices of photovoltaics, and in organic and inorganic light-emitting diodes. Here, the current status of nanopatterning technologies for the fabrication of optoelectronic devices is summarized. Scalable nanopatterning technologies for nanomanufacturing on flexible materials are emphasized. Critical challenges in various patterning techniques when considering the resolution, scalability, processing throughput, and the use of masks and resists are addressed. The integration of flexible nanopatterned substrates with light manipulation in organic optoelectronic devices is also discussed; this enables the control of light flux and spectra. Finally, potential development directions are highlighted.

Direct fabrication of complex 3D hierarchical nanostructures by reactive ion etching of hollow sphere colloidal crystals

Direct reactive ion etching (RIE) of hollow SiO2 sphere colloidal crystals (HSCCs) is employed as a facile, low-cost method to fabricate complex three-dimensional (3D) hierarchical nanostructures. These multilayered structures are gradually transformed into nanostructures of increasing complexity by controlling the etching time, without complicated procedures (no mask needed). The resulting 3D topologies are unique, and cannot be obtained through traditional approaches. The formation mechanism of these structures is explained in detail by geometrical modeling during the different etching stages, through shadow effects of the higher layers. SEM images confirm the modeled morphological changes. The nanostructures obtained by our approach show very fine features as small as ∼30 nm. Our approach opens new avenues to directly obtain complex 3D nanostructures from colloidal crystals and can find applications in sensing, templating, and catalysis where fine tuning the specific surface might be critical.

Flexible Near-Field Nanopatterning with Ultrathin, Conformal Phase Masks on Nonplanar Substrates for Biomimetic Hierarchical Photonic Structures

Multilevel hierarchical platforms that combine nano- and microstructures have been intensively explored to mimic superior properties found in nature. However, unless directly replicated from biological samples, desirable multiscale structures have been challenging to efficiently produce to date. Departing from conventional wafer-based technology, new and efficient techniques suitable for fabricating bioinspired structures are highly desired to produce three-dimensional architectures even on nonplanar substrates. Here, we report a facile approach to realize functional nanostructures on uneven microstructured platforms via scalable optical fabrication techniques. The ultrathin form (∼3 μm) of a phase grating composed of poly(vinyl alcohol) makes the material physically flexible and enables full-conformal contact with rough surfaces. The near-field optical effect can be identically generated on highly curved surfaces as a result of superior conformality. Densely packed nanodots with submicron periodicity are uniformly formed on microlens arrays with a radius of curvature that is as low as ∼28 μm. Increasing the size of the gratings causes the production area to be successfully expanded by up to 16 in(2). The "nano-on-micro" structures mimicking real compound eyes are transferred to flexible and stretchable substrates by sequential imprinting, facilitating multifunctional optical films applicable to antireflective diffusers for large-area sheet-illumination displays.

Laser Scanning Holographic Lithography for Flexible 3D Fabrication of Multi-Scale Integrated Nano-structures and Optical Biosensors

Three-dimensional (3D) periodic nanostructures underpin a promising research direction on the frontiers of nanoscience and technology to generate advanced materials for exploiting novel photonic crystal (PC) and nanofluidic functionalities. However, formation of uniform and defect-free 3D periodic structures over large areas that can further integrate into multifunctional devices has remained a major challenge. Here, we introduce a laser scanning holographic method for 3D exposure in thick photoresist that combines the unique advantages of large area 3D holographic interference lithography (HIL) with the flexible patterning of laser direct writing to form both micro- and nano-structures in a single exposure step. Phase mask interference patterns accumulated over multiple overlapping scans are shown to stitch seamlessly and form uniform 3D nanostructure with beam size scaled to small 200 μm diameter. In this way, laser scanning is presented as a facile means to embed 3D PC structure within microfluidic channels for integration into an optofluidic lab-on-chip, demonstrating a new laser HIL writing approach for creating multi-scale integrated microsystems.

Recent advancement on micro-/nano-spherical lens photolithography based on monolayer colloidal crystals

Highly ordered nanostructures have gained substantial interest in the research community due to their fascinating properties and wide applications.Micro-/nano-spherical lens photolithography (SLPL) has been recognized as an inexpensive, inherently parallel, and high-throughput approach to the creation of highly ordered nanostructures. SLPL based on monolayer colloidal crystals (MCCs) of self-assembled colloidal micro-/nano-spheres have recently made remarkable progress in overcoming the constraints of conventional photolithography in terms of cost, feature size, tunability, and pattern complexity. In this review, we highlight the current state-of-the-art in this field with an emphasis on the fabrication of a variety of highly ordered nanostructures based on this technique and their demonstrated applications in light emitting diodes, nano-patterning semiconductors, and localized surface plasmon resonance devices. Finally, we present a perspective on the future development of MCC-based SLPL technique, including a discussion on the improvement of the quality of MCCs and the compatibility of this technique with other semiconductor micromachining process for nanofabrication.