Germ cells are essential for sexual dimorphism in the medaka gonad

Gsdf is not indispensable for male differentiation in the medaka species Oryzias hubbsi

Sex determination mechanisms differ widely among vertebrates, particularly in fish species, where diverse sex chromosomes and sex-determining genes have evolved. However, the sex-differentiation pathways activated by these sex-determining genes appear to be conserved. Gonadal soma-derived growth factor (Gsdf) is one of the genes conserved across teleost fish, especially in medaka fishes of the genus Oryzias, and is implicated in testis differentiation and germ cell proliferation. However, its role in sex differentiation remains unclear. In this study, we investigated Gsdf function in Oryzias hubbsi, a species with a ZW sex-determination system. We confirmed its male-dominant expression, as in other species. However, histological analyses revealed no male-to-female sex reversal in Gsdf-knockout fish, contrary to findings in other medaka species. Genetic sex determination remained intact without Gsdf function, indicating a Gsdf-independent sex-differentiation pathway in O. hubbsi. Instead, Gsdf loss led to germ cell overproliferation in both sexes and accelerated onset of meiosis in testes, suggesting a role in germ cell proliferation. Notably, the feminizing effect of germ cells observed in O. latipes was absent, suggesting diverse germ cell-somatic cell relationships in Oryzias gonad development. Our study highlights species-specific variations in the molecular pathways governing sex determination and differentiation, emphasizing the need for further exploration to elucidate the complexities of sexual development.

Somatostatin signalling coordinates energy metabolism allocation to reproduction in zebrafish

BACKGROUND

Energy allocation between growth and reproduction determines puberty onset and fertility. In mammals, peripheral hormones such as leptin, insulin and ghrelin signal metabolic information to the higher centres controlling gonadotrophin-releasing hormone neurone activity. However, these observations could not be confirmed in lower vertebrates, suggesting that other factors may mediate the energetic trade-off between growth and reproduction. A bioinformatic and experimental study suggested co-regulation of the circadian clock, reproductive axis and growth-regulating genes in zebrafish. While loss-of-function of most of the identified co-regulated genes had no effect or only had mild effects on reproduction, no such information existed about the co-regulated somatostatin, well-known for its actions on growth and metabolism.

RESULTS

We show that somatostatin signalling is pivotal in regulating fecundity and metabolism. Knock-out of zebrafish somatostatin 1.1 (sst1.1) and somatostatin 1.2 (sst1.2) caused a 20-30% increase in embryonic primordial germ cells, and sst1.2-/- adults laid 40% more eggs than their wild-type siblings. The sst1.1-/- and sst1.2-/- mutants had divergent metabolic phenotypes: the former had 25% more pancreatic α-cells, were hyperglycaemic and glucose intolerant, and had increased adipocyte mass; the latter had 25% more pancreatic β-cells, improved glucose clearance and reduced adipocyte mass.

CONCLUSIONS

We conclude that somatostatin signalling regulates energy metabolism and fecundity through anti-proliferative and modulatory actions on primordial germ cells, pancreatic insulin and glucagon cells and the hypothalamus. The ancient origin of the somatostatin system suggests it could act as a switch linking metabolism and reproduction across vertebrates. The results raise the possibility of applications in human and animal fertility.

Sex-dependent regulation of vertebrate somatic growth and aging by germ cells

The function of germ cells in somatic growth and aging has been demonstrated in invertebrate models but remains unclear in vertebrates. We demonstrated sex-dependent somatic regulation by germ cells in the short-lived vertebrate model Nothobranchius furzeri. In females, germ cell removal shortened life span, decreased estrogen, and increased insulin-like growth factor 1 (IGF-1) signaling. In contrast, germ cell removal in males improved their health with increased vitamin D signaling. Body size increased in both sexes but was caused by different signaling pathways, i.e., IGF-1 and vitamin D in females and males, respectively. Thus, vertebrate germ cells regulate somatic growth and aging through different pathways of the endocrine system, depending on the sex, which may underlie the sexual difference in reproductive strategies.

The killifish germline regulates longevity and somatic repair in a sex-specific manner

Classical evolutionary theories propose tradeoffs among reproduction, damage repair and lifespan. However, the specific role of the germline in shaping vertebrate aging remains largely unknown. In this study, we used the turquoise killifish (Nothobranchius furzeri) to genetically arrest germline development at discrete stages and examine how different modes of infertility impact life history. We first constructed a comprehensive single-cell gonadal atlas, providing cell-type-specific markers for downstream phenotypic analysis. We show here that germline depletion-but not arresting germline differentiation-enhances damage repair in female killifish. Conversely, germline-depleted males instead showed an extension in lifespan and rejuvenated metabolic functions. Through further transcriptomic analysis, we highlight enrichment of pro-longevity pathways and genes in germline-depleted male killifish and demonstrate functional conservation of how these factors may regulate longevity in germline-depleted Caenorhabditis elegans. Our results, therefore, demonstrate that different germline manipulation paradigms can yield pronounced sexually dimorphic phenotypes, implying alternative responses to classical evolutionary tradeoffs.

Reproductive toxicity of DDT in the Japanese medaka fish model: Revisiting the impacts of DDT+ on female reproductive health

The organochlorine pesticide dichlorodiphenyltrichloroethane (DDT) is an endocrine-disrupting compound (EDC) that has been banned by most countries for decades. However, it continues to be detected in nearly all humans and wildlife due to its biological and environmental persistence. The ovarian dysgenesis syndrome hypothesis speculates that exposure to EDCs during sensitive developmental windows such as early gonadal differentiation lead to reproductive disorders later in life. Yet, mechanisms by which DDT affects developing gonads remain unclear due to the inherent challenge of getting developmental exposure data from adults presenting with reproductive disease. The Japanese medaka (Oryzias latipes) is a valuable fish model for sex-specific toxicological studies due to its chromosomal sex determination, external embryonic development, short generation time, and extensively mapped genome. It is well documented that medaka exposed to DDT and its metabolites and byproducts (herein referred to as DDT+) at different developmental time points experience permanent alterations in gonadal morphology, reproductive success, and molecular and hormonal signaling. However, the overwhelming majority of studies focus primarily on functional and morphological outcomes in males and females and have rarely investigated long-term transcriptional or molecular effects. This review summarizes previous experimental findings and the state of our knowledge concerning toxic effects DDT + on reproductive development, fertility, and health in the valuable medaka model. It also identifies gaps in knowledge, emphasizing a need for more focus on molecular mechanisms of ovarian endocrine disruption using enhanced molecular tools that have become increasingly available over the past few decades. Furthermore, DDT forms a myriad of over 45 metabolites and transformation products in biota and the environment, very few of which have been evaluated for environmental abundance or health effects. This reinforces the demand for high throughput and economical in vivo models for predictive toxicology screening, and the Japanese medaka is uniquely positioned to meet this need.

SDF-1/CXCR4 signal is involved in the induction of Primordial Germ Cell migration in a model marine fish, Japanese anchovy (Engraulis japonicus)

Primordial germ cells (PGCs) are pivotal for gonadal development and reproductive success. Though artificial induction of sterility by targeting PGCs are gaining popularity due to its advantages in fish surrogacy and biodiversity management, it is often skill and time intensive. In this study, we have focused on understanding the role of PGCs and the chemotactic SDF-1/CXCR4 signaling on gonad development of Japanese anchovy (JA, Engraulis japonicus), an upcoming marine model organism with eco-commercial values, with an aim to develop a novel, easy, and versatile gonad sterilization method. Our data showed that PGC migration related genes, i.e., sdf-1a, sdf-1b, cxcr4a, cxcr4b and vasa, are phylogenetically closer relatives of respective herring (Clupea harengus) and zebrafish (Danio rerio) homolog. Subsequently, PGC marking and live tracing experiments confirmed that PGC migration in JA initiates from 16 hours post fertilization (hpf) followed by PGC settlement in the gonadal ridge at 44 hpf. We found that overexpression of zebrafish sdf-1a mRNA in the germ cell suppresses cxcr4a and increases cxcr4b transcription at 8 hpf, dose dependently disrupts PGC migration at 24-48 hpf, induces PGC death and upregulates sdf-1b at 5 days post hatching. 48 h of immersion treatment with CXCR4 antagonist (AMD3100, Abcam) also accelerated PGC mismigration and pushed the PGC away from gonadal ridge in a dose responsive manner, and further when grown to adulthood caused germ cell less gonad formation in some individuals. Cumulatively, our data, for the first time, suggests that JA PGC migration is largely regulated by SDF1/CXCR4 signaling, and modulation of this signaling has strong potential for sterile, germ cell less gonad preparation at a mass scale. However, further in-depth analysis is pertinent to apply this methodology in marine fish species to successfully catapult Japanese anchovy into a true marine fish model.

The killifish germline regulates longevity and somatic repair in a sex-specific manner

Classical evolutionary theories propose tradeoffs between reproduction, damage repair, and lifespan. However, the specific role of the germline in shaping vertebrate aging remains largely unknown. Here, we use the turquoise killifish ( N. furzeri ) to genetically arrest germline development at discrete stages, and examine how different modes of infertility impact life-history. We first construct a comprehensive single-cell gonadal atlas, providing cell-type-specific markers for downstream phenotypic analysis. Next, we show that germline depletion - but not arresting germline differentiation - enhances damage repair in female killifish. Conversely, germline-depleted males instead showed an extension in lifespan and rejuvenated metabolic functions. Through further transcriptomic analysis, we highlight enrichment of pro-longevity pathways and genes in germline-depleted male killifish and demonstrate functional conservation of how these factors may regulate longevity in germline-depleted C. elegans . Our results therefore demonstrate that different germline manipulation paradigms can yield pronounced sexually dimorphic phenotypes, implying alternative responses to classical evolutionary tradeoffs.

Reproductive Characteristics and Suitability of Sterile dead end Knockout Nibe Croaker as a Recipient for Intraperitoneal Germ Cell Transplantation

The use of sterile recipients is crucial for efficiently producing donor-derived offspring through surrogate broodstock technology for practical aquaculture applications. Although knockout (KO) of the dead end (dnd) gene has been used in previous studies as a sterilization method, it has not been reported in marine fish. In this study, nibe croaker was utilized as a model for marine teleosts that produce small pelagic eggs, and the clustered regularly interspaced short palindromic repeat (CRISPR)/CRISPR-associated protein 9 (CRISPR/Cas9) system was utilized to produce dnd KO fish. The F1 generation, which carried a nonsense mutation in the dnd gene, was produced by mating founder individuals with wild-type counterparts. Subsequently, the F2 generation was produced by mating the resulting males and females. Among the F2 generations, 24.0% consisted of homozygous KO individuals. Histological analysis revealed that primordial germ cells (PGCs) were present in homozygous KO individuals at 10 days post-hatching (dph), similar to wild-type individuals. However, by 20 dph, PGCs were absent in KO individuals. Furthermore, no germ cells were observed in the gonads of both sexes of homozygous KO individuals at 6 months old, which is the typical maturity age for wild-type individuals of both sexes. In addition, when cryopreserved donor nibe croaker testicular cells were transplanted, only donor-derived offspring were successfully obtained through the spontaneous mating of homozygous KO recipient parents. Results indicate that dnd KO nibe croaker lacks germ cells and can serve as promising recipients, producing only donor-derived gametes as surrogate broodstock.

Diversity and Convergence of Sex-Determination Mechanisms in Teleost Fish

Sexual reproduction is prevalent across diverse taxa. However, sex-determination mechanisms are so diverse that even closely related species often differ in sex-determination systems. Teleost fish is a taxonomic group with frequent turnovers of sex-determining mechanisms and thus provides us with great opportunities to investigate the molecular and evolutionary mechanisms underlying the turnover of sex-determining systems. Here, we compile recent studies on the diversity of sex-determination mechanisms in fish. We demonstrate that genes in the TGF-β signaling pathway are frequently used for master sex-determining (MSD) genes. MSD genes arise via two main mechanisms, duplication-and-transposition and allelic mutations, with a few exceptions. We also demonstrate that temperature influences sex determination in many fish species, even those with sex chromosomes, with higher temperatures inducing differentiation into males in most cases. Finally, we review theoretical models for the turnover of sex-determining mechanisms and discuss what questions remain elusive.

Modeling the SDF-1/CXCR4 protein using advanced artificial intelligence and antagonist screening for Japanese anchovy

SDF-1/CXCR4 chemokine signaling are indispensable for cell migration, especially the Primordial Germ Cell (PGC) migration towards the gonadal ridge during early development. We earlier found that this signaling is largely conserved in the Japanese anchovy (Engraulis japonicus, EJ), and a mere treatment of CXCR4 antagonist, AMD3100, leads to germ cell depletion and thereafter gonad sterilization. However, the effect of AMD3100 was limited. So, in this research, we scouted for CXCR4 antagonist with higher potency by employing advanced artificial intelligence deep learning-based computer simulations. Three potential candidates, AMD3465, WZ811, and LY2510924, were selected and in vivo validation was conducted using Japanese anchovy embryos. We found that seven transmembrane motif of EJ CXCR4a and EJ CXCR4b were extremely similar with human homolog while the CXCR4 chemokine receptor N terminal (PF12109, essential for SDF-1 binding) was missing in EJ CXCR4b. 3D protein analysis and cavity search predicted the cavity in EJ CXCR4a to be five times larger (6,307 Å³) than that in EJ CXCR4b (1,241 Å³). Docking analysis demonstrated lower binding energy of AMD3100 and AMD3465 to EJ CXCR4a (Vina score -9.6) and EJ CXCR4b (Vina score -8.8), respectively. Furthermore, we observed significant PGC mismigration in microinjected AMD3465 treated groups at 10, 100 and 1 × 105 nM concentration in 48 h post fertilized embryos. The other three antagonists showed various degrees of PGC dispersion, but no significant effect compared to their solvent control at tested concentrations was observed. Cumulatively, our results suggests that AMD3645 might be a better candidate for abnormal PGC migration in Japanese anchovy and warrants further investigation.

Production of all-male non-transgenic zebrafish by conditional primordial germ cell ablation

Many fish species exhibit remarkable sexual dimorphism, with males possessing numerous advantageous traits for commercial production by aquaculture such as faster growth rate, more efficient food energy utilization for muscle development, and better breeding performance. Several studies have shown that a decrease in the number of primordial germ cells (PGCs) during early development leads predominantly to male progeny. In this study, we developed a method to obtain all-male zebrafish (Danio rerio) by targeted PGC ablation using the nitroreductase/metronidazole (NTR/Mtz) system. Embryos generated by female heterozygous Tg(nanos3:nfsB-mCherry-nanos3 3'UTR) and male wild-types (WTs) were treated with vehicle or Mtz. Compared to vehicle-treated controls, 5.0 and 10.0 mM Mtz treatment for 24 h significantly reduced the number of PGCs and yielded an exclusively male phenotype in adulthood. The gonads of offspring treated with 5.0 mM Mtz exhibited relatively normal morphology and histological characteristics. Furthermore, these males were able to chase females, spawn, and produce viable offspring, while about 20.0% of males treated with 10.0 mM Mtz were unable to produce viable offspring. The 5.0 mM Mtz treatment protocol may thus be suitable for large-scale production of fertile male offspring. Moreover, about half of these males were WT as evidenced by the absence of nfsB gene expression. It may thus be possible to breed an all-male WT fish population by Mtz-mediated PGC ablation.

Gonadal transcriptome analysis of paradise fish Macropodus opercularis to reveal sex-related genes

Macropodus opercularis is an ornamental fish species endemic to China, with obvious sexual dimorphism in phenotype. To obtain the gene expression profile of the gonads of M. opercularis and explore its sex-related genes, six cDNA libraries were constructed from the sexually mature M. opercularis, and RNA-seq analysis was performed. The sequenced clean data were assembled by de novo splicing to generate 171,415 unigenes, and differentially expressed genes (DEGs) screening revealed that there were 41,638 DEGs in the gonads of M. opercularis. By comparing those DEGS in the ovary with the testis, we found 29,870 DEGs were upregulated and 11,768 DEGs were downregulated. Kyoto Encyclopedia of Genes and Genomes (KEGG) and gene ontology (GO) enrichment analysis showed that GO terms related to cell cycle and gamete formation were enriched, and pathway signals related to sex differences, such as FoxO signalling pathway and PI3K-Akt signalling pathway, were also detected. Reverse transcript fluorescence quantitative PCR (RT-qPCR) validation of 14 DEGs associated with sex differences showed that the RT-qPCR results were consistent with RNA-Seq analysis, and five genes, foxl2, sox3, foxo, zar1, cyp19a1, were significantly expressed in the ovaries. dmrt1, cyp11b, amh, sf1, sox9, gdf6, dmrt3, fstl1 and hsd11b2, a total of nine genes were significantly expressed in the testis. The results of this study provide a basis for the study of gonadal differentiation, developmental mechanisms and related functional genes in M. opercularis.

Genetic evidence for differential functions of figla and nobox in zebrafish ovarian differentiation and folliculogenesis

FIGLA and NOBOX are important oocyte-specific transcription factors. Both figla-/- and nobox-/- mutants showed all-male phenotype in zebrafish due to increased dominance of the male-promoting pathway. The early diversion towards males in these mutants has precluded analysis of their roles in folliculogenesis. In this study, we attenuated the male-promoting pathway by deleting dmrt1, a key male-promoting gene, in figla-/- and nobox-/- fish, which allows a sufficient display of defects in folliculogenesis. Germ cells in figla-/-;dmrt1-/- double mutant remained in cysts without forming follicles. In contrast, follicles could form well but exhibited deficient growth in nobox-/-;dmrt1-/- double mutants. Follicles in nobox-/-;dmrt1-/- ovary could progress to previtellogenic (PV) stage but failed to enter vitellogenic growth. Such arrest at PV stage suggested a possible deficiency in estrogen signaling. This was supported by lines of evidence in nobox-/-;dmrt1-/-, including reduced expression of ovarian aromatase (cyp19a1a) and level of serum estradiol (E2), regressed genital papilla (female secondary sex characteristics), and more importantly the resumption of vitellogenic growth by E2 treatment. Expression analysis suggested Nobox might regulate cyp19a1a by controlling Gdf9 and/or Bmp15. Our discoveries indicate that Figla is essential for ovarian differentiation and follicle formation whereas Nobox is important for driving subsequent follicle development.

Molecular biological, physiological, cytological, and epigenetic mechanisms of environmental sex differentiation in teleosts: A systematic review

Human activities have been exerting widespread stress and environmental risks in aquatic ecosystems. Environmental stress, including temperature rise, acidification, hypoxia, light pollution, and crowding, had a considerable negative impact on the life histology of aquatic animals, especially on sex differentiation (SDi) and the resulting sex ratios. Understanding how the sex of fish responds to stressful environments is of great importance for understanding the origin and maintenance of sex, the dynamics of the natural population in the changing world, and the precise application of sex control in aquaculture. This review conducted an exhaustive search of the available literature on the influence of environmental stress (ES) on SDi. Evidence has shown that all types of ES can affect SDi and universally result in an increase in males or masculinization, which has been reported in 100 fish species and 121 cases. Then, this comprehensive review aimed to summarize the molecular biology, physiology, cytology, and epigenetic mechanisms through which ES contributes to male development or masculinization. The relationship between ES and fish SDi from multiple aspects was analyzed, and it was found that environmental sex differentiation (ESDi) is the result of the combined effects of genetic and epigenetic factors, self-physiological regulation, and response to environmental signals, which involves a sophisticated network of various hormones and numerous genes at multiple levels and multiple gradations in bipotential gonads. In both normal male differentiation and ES-induced masculinization, the stress pathway and epigenetic regulation play important roles; however, how they co-regulate SDi is unclear. Evidence suggests that the universal emergence or increase in males in aquatic animals is an adaptation to moderate ES. ES-induced sex reversal should be fully investigated in more fish species and extensively in the wild. The potential aquaculture applications and difficulties associated with ESDi have also been addressed. Finally, the knowledge gaps in the ESDi are presented, which will guide the priorities of future research.

A scalable and tunable platform for functional interrogation of peptide hormones in fish

Pituitary hormones play a central role in shaping vertebrate life history events, including growth, reproduction, metabolism, and aging. The regulation of these traits often requires precise control of hormone levels across diverse timescales. However, fine tuning circulating hormones in-vivo has traditionally been experimentally challenging. Here, using the naturally short-lived turquoise killifish (N. furzeri), we describe a high-throughput platform that combines loss- and gain-of-function of peptide hormones. Mutation of three primary pituitary hormones, growth hormone (gh1), follicle stimulating hormone (fshb), and thyroid stimulating hormone (tshb), alters somatic growth and reproduction. Thus, suggesting that while the killifish undergoes extremely rapid growth and maturity, it still relies on vertebrate-conserved genetic networks. As the next stage, we developed a gain-of-function vector system in which a hormone is tagged using a self-cleavable fluorescent reporter, and ectopically expressed in-vivo through intramuscular electroporation. Following a single electroporation, phenotypes, such as reproduction, are stably rescued for several months. Notably, we demonstrate the versatility of this approach by using multiplexing, dose-dependent, and doxycycline-inducible systems to achieve tunable and reversible expression. In summary, this method is relatively high-throughput, and facilitates large-scale interrogation of life-history strategies in fish. Ultimately, this approach could be adapted for modifying aquaculture species and exploring pro-longevity interventions.

Enhancement of zebrafish sperm production via a large body-sized surrogate with germ cell transplantation

Zebrafish (Danio rerio) is a commonly-used vertebrate model species for many research areas. However, its low milt volume limits effective cryopreservation of sperm from a single individual and often precludes dividing a single semen sample to conduct multiple downstream procedures such as genomic DNA/RNA extraction and in-vitro fertilization. Here, we apply germ stem cell transplantation to increase zebrafish sperm production in a closely related larger species from the same subfamily, giant danio Devario aequipinnatus. The endogenous germ cell of the host is depleted by dead-end morpholino antisense oligonucleotide. Histology of the sterile gonad and quantitative PCR of gonadal tissue reveals all sterile giant danio develop the male phenotype. Spermatogonial cells of Tg(ddx4:egfp) transgenic zebrafish are transplanted into sterile giant danio larvae, and 22% of recipients (germline chimera) produce donor-derived sperm at sexual maturation. The germline chimera produce approximately three-fold the volume of sperm and 10-fold the spermatozoon concentration of the donor. The donor-derived sperm is functional and gives rise to viable progeny upon fertilization of donor oocytes. We show that the issue of low milt volume can be effectively addressed by employing a larger surrogate parent.

Development of Ovaries and Sex Change in Fish: Bringing Potential into Action

BACKGROUND

Encompassing about half of the 60,000 species of vertebrates, fish display the greatest diversity of sex determination mechanisms among metazoans. As such that phylum offers a unique playground to study the impressive variety of gonadal morphogenetic strategies, ranging from gonochorism, with either genetic or environmental sex determination, to unisexuality, with either simultaneous or consecutive hermaphroditism.

SUMMARY

From the two main types of gonads, the ovaries embrace the important role to produce the larger and non-motile gametes, which is the basis for the development of a future organism. The production of the egg cells is complex and involves the formation of follicular cells, which are necessary for the maturation of the oocytes and the production of feminine hormones. In this vein, our review focuses on the development of ovaries in fish with special emphasis on the germ cells, including those that transition from one sex to the other as part of their life cycle and those that are capable of transitioning to the opposite sex depending on environmental cues.

KEY MESSAGES

Clearly, establishing an individual as either a female or a male is not accomplished by the sole development of two types of gonads. In most cases, that dichotomy, be it final or transient, is accompanied by coordinated transformations across the entire organism, leading to changes in the physiological sex as a whole. These coordinated transformations require both molecular and neuroendocrine networks, but also anatomical and behavioural adjustments. Remarkably, fish managed to tame the ins and outs of sex reversal mechanisms to take the most advantages of changing sex as adaptive strategies in some situations.

Infertility control of transgenic fluorescent zebrafish with targeted mutagenesis of the dnd1 gene by CRISPR/Cas9 genome editing

Transgenic technology and selective breeding have great potential for the genetic breeding in both edible fish and ornamental fish. The development of infertility control technologies in transgenic fish and farmed fish is the critical issue to prevent the gene flow with wild relatives. In this study, we report the genome editing of the dead end (dnd1) gene in the zebrafish model, using the CRISPR/Cas9 technology to achieve a loss-of-function mutation in both wild-type zebrafish and transgenic fluorescent zebrafish to develop complete infertility control technology of farmed fish and transgenic fish. We effectively performed targeted mutagenesis in the dnd1 gene of zebrafish with a single gRNA, which resulted in a small deletion (-7 bp) or insertion (+41 bp) in exon 2, leading to a null mutation. Heterozygotes and homozygotes of dnd1-knockout zebrafish were both selected by genotyping in the F 1 and F 2 generations. Based on a comparison of histological sections of the gonads between wild-type, heterozygous, and homozygous dnd1 zebrafish mutants, the dnd1 homozygous mutation (aa) resulted in the loss of germ cells. Still, there was no difference between the wild-type (AA) and dnd1 heterozygous (Aa) zebrafish. The homozygous dnd1 mutants of adult zebrafish and transgenic fluorescent zebrafish became all male, which had normal courtship behavior to induce wild-type female zebrafish spawning. However, they both had no sperm to fertilize the spawned eggs from wild-type females. Thus, all the unfertilized eggs died within 10 h. The targeted mutagenesis of the dnd1 gene using the CRISPR/Cas9 technology is stably heritable by crossing of fertile heterozygous mutants to obtain sterile homozygous mutants. It can be applied in the infertility control of transgenic fluorescent fish and genetically improved farmed fish by selective breeding to promote ecologically responsible aquaculture.

Madagascar Leaf-Tail Geckos (Uroplatus spp.) Share Independently Evolved Differentiated ZZ/ZW Sex Chromosomes

Geckos are an excellent group to study the evolution of sex determination, as they possess a remarkable variability ranging from a complete absence of sex chromosomes to highly differentiated sex chromosomes. We explored sex determination in the Madagascar leaf-tail geckos of the genus Uroplatus. The cytogenetic analyses revealed highly heterochromatic W chromosomes in all three examined species (Uroplatus henkeli, U. alluaudi, U. sikorae). The comparative gene coverage analysis between sexes in U. henkeli uncovered an extensive Z-specific region, with a gene content shared with the chicken chromosomes 8, 20, 26 and 28. The genomic region homologous to chicken chromosome 28 has been independently co-opted for the role of sex chromosomes in several vertebrate lineages, including monitors, beaded lizards and monotremes, perhaps because it contains the amh gene, whose homologs were repeatedly recruited as a sex-determining locus. We demonstrate that all tested species of leaf-tail geckos share homologous sex chromosomes despite the differences in shape and size of their W chromosomes, which are not homologous to the sex chromosomes of other closely related genera. The rather old (at least 40 million years), highly differentiated sex chromosomes of Uroplatus geckos can serve as a great system to study the convergence of sex chromosomes evolved from the same genomic region.

Metzincin metalloproteases in PGC migration and gonadal sex conversion

Development of a functional gonad includes migration of primordial germ cells (PGCs), differentiations of somatic and germ cells, formation of primary follicles or spermatogenic cysts with somatic gonadal cells, development and maturation of gametes, and subsequent releasing of mature germ cells. These processes require extensive cellular and tissue remodeling, as well as broad alterations of the surrounding extracellular matrix (ECM). Metalloproteases, including MMPs (matrix metalloproteases), ADAMs (a disintegrin and metalloproteinases), and ADAMTS (a disintegrin and metalloproteinase with thrombospondin motifs), are suggested to have critical roles in the remodeling of the ECM during gonad development. However, few research articles and reviews are available on the functions and mechanisms of metalloproteases in remodeling gonadal ECM, gonadal development, or gonadal differentiation. Moreover, most studies focused on the roles of transcription and growth factors in early gonad development and primary sex determination, leaving a significant knowledge gap on how differentially expressed metalloproteases exert effects on the ECM, cell migration, development, and survival of germ cells during the development and differentiation of ovaries or testes. We will review gonad development with focus on the evidence of metalloprotease involvements, and with an emphasis on zebrafish as a model for studying gonadal sex differentiation and metalloprotease functions.

Gonadal Transcriptome Analysis and Sequence Characterization of Sex-Related Genes in Cranoglanis bouderius

In China, the Cranoglanis bouderius is classified as a national class II-protected animal. The development of C. bouderius populations has been affected by a variety of factors over the past few decades, with severe declines occurring. Considering the likelihood of continued population declines of the C. bouderius in the future, it is critical to investigate the currently unknown characteristics of gonadal differentiation and sex-related genes for C. bouderius conservation. In this study, the Illumina sequencing platform was used to sequence the gonadal transcriptome of the C. bouderius to identify the pathways and genes related to gonadal development and analyze the expression differences in the gonads. A total of 12,002 DEGs were identified, with 7220 being significantly expressed in the ovary and 4782 being significantly expressed in the testis. According to the functional enrichment results, the cell cycle, RNA transport, apoptosis, Wnt signaling pathway, p53 signaling pathway, and prolactin signaling pathway play important roles in sex development in the C. bouderius. Furthermore, the sequence characterization and evolutionary analysis revealed that AMH, DAX1, NANOS1, and AR of the C. bouderius are highly conserved. Specifically, the qRT-PCR results from various tissues showed significant differences in AMH, DAX1, NANOS1, and AR expression levels in the gonads of both sexes of C. bouderius. These analyses indicated that AMH, DAX1, NANOS1, and AR may play important roles in the differentiation and development of C. bouderius gonads. To our best knowledge, this study is the first to analyze the C. bouderius gonadal transcriptome and identify the structures of sex-related genes, laying the foundation for future research.

Sex Lethal Gene Manipulates Gonadal Development of Medaka, Oryzias latipes, through Estrogenic Interventions

Germ cells are pivotal for gonadal sexuality maintenance and reproduction. Sex lethal (sxl), the somatic sex determining gene of Drosophila, is the known regulator and initiator of germ cell femininity in invertebrates. However, the role of the Sxl homologue has rarely been investigated in vertebrates. So, we used medaka to clarify the role of sxl in vertebrate gonadogenesis and sexuality and identified two Sxl homologues, i.e., Sxl1a and Sxl1b. We found that sxl1a specifically expresses in the primordial germ cells (PGC), ovary, (early gonia and oocytes), while sxl1b distributions are ubiquitous. An mRNA overexpression of sxl1a accelerated germ cell numbers in 10 DAH XY fish, and sxl1a knockdown (KD), on the other hand, induced PGC mis-migration, aberrant PGC structuring and ultimately caused significant germ cell reduction in XX fish. Using an in vitro promoter analysis and in vivo steroid treatment, we found a strong link between sxl1a and estrogenic germ cell-population maintenance. Further, using sxl1a-KD and erβ2-knockout fish, we determined that sxl1 acts through erβ2 and controls PGC sexuality. Cumulatively, our study highlights the novel role of sxl1a in germ cell maintenance and sexual identity assignment and thus might become a steppingstone to understanding the commonalities of animal sexual development.

Impact of germ cell ablation on the activation of the brain-pituitary-gonadal axis in precocious Atlantic salmon (Salmo salar L.) males

The germ cells are essential for sexual reproduction by giving rise to the gametes, but the importance of germ cells for gonadal somatic functions varies among vertebrates. The RNA-binding dead end (Dnd) protein is necessary for the specification and migration of primordial germ cells to the future reproductive organs. Here, we ablated the gametes in Atlantic salmon males and females by microinjecting dnd antisense gapmer oligonucleotides at the zygotic stage. Precocious maturation was induced in above 50% of both germ cell-depleted and intact fertile males, but not in females, by exposure to an off-season photoperiod regime. Sterile and fertile males showed similar body growth, but maturing fish tended to be heavier than their immature counterparts. Pituitary fshβ messenger RNA levels strongly increased in maturing sterile and fertile males concomitant with the upregulated expression of Sertoli and Leydig cell markers. Plasma concentrations of 11-ketotestosterone and testosterone in maturing sterile males were significantly higher than the basal levels in immature fish, but lower than those in maturing fertile males. The study demonstrates that germ cells are not a prerequisite for the activation of the brain-pituitary-gonad axis and sex steroidogenesis in Atlantic salmon males, but may be important for the maintenance of gonadal somatic functions.

Becoming female: Ovarian differentiation from an evolutionary perspective

Differentiation of the bipotential gonadal primordium into ovaries and testes is a common process among vertebrate species. While vertebrate ovaries eventually share the same functions of producing oocytes and estrogens, ovarian differentiation relies on different morphogenetic, cellular, and molecular cues depending on species. The aim of this review is to highlight the conserved and divergent features of ovarian differentiation through an evolutionary perspective. From teleosts to mammals, each clade or species has a different story to tell. For this purpose, this review focuses on three specific aspects of ovarian differentiation: ovarian morphogenesis, the evolution of the role of estrogens on ovarian differentiation and the molecular pathways involved in granulosa cell determination and maintenance.

Sex-specific differences in zebrafish brains

In this systematic review, we highlight the differences between the male and female zebrafish brains to understand their differentiation and their use in studying sex-specific neurological diseases. Male and female brains display subtle differences at the cellular level which may be important in driving sex-specific signaling. Sex differences in the brain have been observed in humans as well as in non-human species. However, the molecular mechanisms of brain sex differentiation remain unclear. The classical model of brain sex differentiation suggests that the steroid hormones derived from the gonads are the primary determinants in establishing male and female neural networks. Recent studies indicate that the developing brain shows sex-specific differences in gene expression prior to gonadal hormone action. Hence, genetic differences may also be responsible for differentiating the brain into male and female types. Understanding the signaling mechanisms involved in brain sex differentiation could help further elucidate the sex-specific incidences of certain neurological diseases. The zebrafish model could be appropriate for enhancing our understanding of brain sex differentiation and the signaling involved in neurological diseases. Zebrafish brains show sex-specific differences at the hormonal level, and recent advances in RNA sequencing have highlighted critical sex-specific differences at the transcript level. The differences are also evident at the cellular and metabolite levels, which could be important in organizing sex-specific neuronal signaling. Furthermore, in addition to having one ortholog for 70% of the human gene, zebrafish also shares brain structural similarities with other higher eukaryotes, including mammals. Hence, deciphering brain sex differentiation in zebrafish will help further enhance the diagnostic and pharmacological intervention of neurological diseases.

Functional Modules in Gametogenesis

Gametogenesis, the production of eggs and sperm, is a fundamental process in sexually reproducing animals. Following gametogenesis commitment and sexual fate decision, germ cells undergo several developmental processes to halve their genomic size and acquire sex-specific characteristics of gametes, including cellular size, motility, and cell polarity. However, it remains unclear how different gametogenesis processes are initially integrated. With the advantages of the teleost fish medaka (Oryzias latipes), in which germline stem cells continuously produce eggs and sperm in mature gonads and a sexual switch gene in germ cells is identified, we found that distinct pathways initiate gametogenesis cooperatively after commitment to gametogenesis. This evokes the concept of functional modules, in which functionally interlocked genes are grouped to yield distinct gamete characteristics. The various combinations of modules may allow us to explain the evolution of diverse reproductive systems, such as parthenogenesis and hermaphroditism.

Developmental changes in gene expression and gonad morphology during sex differentiation in Atlantic salmon (Salmo salar)

The Atlantic salmon (Salmo salar) is a globally important species for its value in fisheries and aquaculture, and as a research model. In order to characterise aspects of sex differentiation at the morphological and mRNA level in this species, the present study examined developmental changes in gonad morphology and gene expression in males and females between 0 and 79 days post hatch (dph). Morphological differentiation of the ovary (indicated by the formation of germ cell cysts) became apparent from 52 dph. By 79 dph, ovarian phenotype was evident in 100% of genotypic females. Testes remained in an undifferentiated-like state throughout the experiment, containing germ cells dispersed singularly within the gonadal region distal to the mesentery. There were no significant sex-related differences in gonad cross-section size, germ cell number or germ cell diameter during the experiment. The expression of genes involved in teleost sex differentiation (anti-müllerian hormone (amh), cytochrome P450, family 19, subfamily A, polypeptide 1a (cyp19a1a), forkhead box L2a (foxl2a), gonadal soma-derived factor (gsdf), r-spondin 1 (rspo1), sexually dimorphic on the Y chromosome (sdY)), retinoic acid-signalling (aldehyde dehydrogenase 1a2 (aldh1a2), cytochrome P450 family 26 a1 (cyp26a1), cytochrome P450 family 26 b1 (cyp26b1), t-box transcription factor 1 (tbx1a)) and neuroestrogen production (cytochrome P450, family 19, subfamily A, polypeptide 1b (cyp19a1b)) was investigated. Significant sex-related differences were observed only for the expression of amh, cyp19a1a, gsdf and sdY. In males, amh, gsdf and sdY were upregulated from 34, 59 and 44 dph respectively. In females, cyp19a1a was upregulated from 66 dph. Independent of sex, foxl2a expression was highest at 0 dph and had reduced ∼ 47-fold by the time of morphological sex differentiation at 52 dph. This study provides new insights into the timing and sequence of some physiological changes associated with sex differentiation in Atlantic salmon. These findings also reveal that some aspects of the mRNA sex differentiation pathways in Atlantic salmon are unique compared to other teleost fishes, including other salmonids.

Production of Germ Cell-Less Rainbow Trout by dead end Gene Knockout and their Use as Recipients for Germ Cell Transplantation

In germ cell transplantation experiments, the use of sterile recipients that do not produce their own gametes is an important prerequisite. Triploidization and dnd gene knockdown (KD) methods have been widely used to produce sterile fish. However, triploidization does not produce complete sterility in some fish species, and gene KD is labor and time intensive since it requires microinjection into individual fertilized eggs. To overcome these problems, in this study, we generated homozygous mutants of the dead end (dnd) gene in rainbow trout (Oncorhynchus mykiss) using the clustered regulatory interspaced short palindromic repeats/CRISPR-associated protein 9 (CRISPR/Cas9) system, analyzed their reproductive capacity, and evaluated their suitability as recipients for germ cell transplantation. By crossing F1 heterozygous mutants produced from founders subjected to genome editing, an F2 generation consisting of approximately 1/4 homozygous knockout mutants (dnd KO) was obtained. The dnd KO hatchlings retained the same number of primordial germ cells (PGCs) as the wild-type (WT) individuals, after which the number gradually decreased. At 1 year of age, germ cells were completely absent in all analyzed individuals. To evaluate the dnd KO individuals as recipients for germ cell transplantation, germ cells prepared from donor individuals were transplanted into the abdominal cavity of dnd KO hatchlings. These cells migrated to the recipient gonads, where they initiated gametogenesis. The mature recipient individuals produced only donor-derived sperm and eggs in equivalent numbers to WT rainbow trout. These results indicate that dnd KO rainbow trout are suitable recipient candidates possessing a high capacity to nurse donor-derived germ cells.

Complete Depletion of Primordial Germ Cells Results in Masculinization of Monopterus albus, a Protogynous Hermaphroditic Fish

Primordial germ cells (PGCs) play an important role in sexual fate determination and gonadal development in gonochoristic fish, such as zebrafish and medaka. However, little is known about the function of PGCs in hermaphroditic fish. Rice field eel (Monopterus albus), a protogynous hermaphroditic fish, is an economically valuable aquaculture species. We eliminated PGCs in rice field eels during embryogenesis via morpholino-mediated knockdown dead end (dnd). The PGCs-depleted gonads developed into testis-like structures with Sertoli cells and Leydig cells. The gene expression pattern of 15-month-old PGCs-depleted gonads showed that male-biased genes, dmrt1, sox9a, gsdf, and amh, were significantly higher than that of the WT, whereas female-biased genes, foxl2 and cyp19a1a, were significantly decreased. These results indicate that PGCs are essential for ovarian differentiation in rice field eel, and PGCs-depleted gonads develop into sterile males without undergoing the female and intersex stages. Our study is the first to identify the role of PGCs in sex differentiation in rice field eel, a protogynous hermaphrodite teleost. And it is of great significance in rice field eel for discovering the underlying mechanism of sex differentiation and establishing sex control technology.

Primordial Germ Cell Development in the Poeciliid, Gambusia holbrooki, Reveals Shared Features Between Lecithotrophs and Matrotrophs

Metazoans exhibit two modes of primordial germ cell (PGC) specification that are interspersed across taxa. However, the evolutionary link between the two modes and the reproductive strategies of lecithotrophy and matrotrophy is poorly understood. As a first step to understand this, the spatio-temporal expression of teleostean germ plasm markers was investigated in Gambusia holbrooki, a poecilid with shared lecitho- and matrotrophy. A group of germ plasm components was detected in the ovum suggesting maternal inheritance mode of PGC specification. However, the strictly zygotic activation of dnd-β and nanos1 occurred relatively early, reminiscent of models with induction mode (e.g., mice). The PGC clustering, migration and colonisation patterns of G. holbrooki resembled those of zebrafish, medaka and mice at blastula, gastrula and somitogenesis, respectively—recapitulating features of advancing evolutionary nodes with progressive developmental stages. Moreover, the expression domains of PGC markers in G. holbrooki were either specific to teleost (vasa expression in developing PGCs), murine models (dnd spliced variants) or shared between the two taxa (germline and somatic expression of piwi and nanos1). Collectively, the results suggest that the reproductive developmental adaptations may reflect a transition from lecithotrophy to matrotrophy.

Effects of endocrine disrupting chemicals on gonad development: Mechanistic insights from fish and mammals

Over the past century, evidence has emerged that endocrine disrupting chemicals (EDCs) have an impact on reproductive health. An increased frequency of reproductive disorders has been observed worldwide in both wildlife and humans that is correlated with accidental exposures to EDCs and their increased production. Epidemiological and experimental studies have highlighted the consequences of early exposures and the existence of key windows of sensitivity during development. Such early in life exposures can have an immediate impact on gonadal and reproductive tract development, as well as on long-term reproductive health in both males and females. Traditionally, EDCs were thought to exert their effects by modifying the endocrine pathways controlling reproduction. Advances in knowledge of the mechanisms regulating sex determination, differentiation and gonadal development in fish and rodents have led to a better understanding of the molecular mechanisms underlying the effects of early exposure to EDCs on reproduction. In this manuscript, we review the key developmental stages sensitive to EDCs and the state of knowledge on the mechanisms by which model EDCs affect these processes, based on the roadmap of gonad development specific to fish and mammals.

Advantages, Factors, Obstacles, Potential Solutions, and Recent Advances of Fish Germ Cell Transplantation for Aquaculture-A Practical Review

Simple Summary

This review aims to provide practical information and viewpoints regarding fish germ cell transplantation for enhancing its commercial applications. We reviewed and summarized the data from more than 70 important studies and described the advantages, obstacles, recent advances, and future perspectives of fish germ cell transplantation. We concluded and proposed the critical factors for achieving better success and various options for germ cell transplantation with their pros and cons. Additionally, we discussed why this technology has not actively been utilized for commercial purposes, what barriers need to be overcome, and what potential solutions can advance its applications in aquaculture.

Abstract

Germ cell transplantation technology enables surrogate offspring production in fish. This technology has been expected to mitigate reproductive barriers, such as long generation time, limited fecundity, and complex broodstock management, enhancing seed production and productivity in aquaculture. Many studies of germ cell transplantation in various fish species have been reported over a few decades. So far, surrogate offspring production has been achieved in many commercial species. In addition, the knowledge of fish germ cell biology and the related technologies that can enhance transplantation efficiency and productivity has been developed. Nevertheless, the commercial application of this technology still seems to lag behind, indicating that the established models are neither beneficial nor cost-effective enough to attract potential commercial users of this technology. Furthermore, there are existing bottlenecks in practical aspects such as impractical shortening of generation time, shortage of donor cells with limited resources, low efficiency, and unsuccessful surrogate offspring production in some fish species. These obstacles need to be overcome through further technology developments. Thus, we thoroughly reviewed the studies on fish germ cell transplantation reported to date, focusing on the practicality, and proposed potential solutions and future perspectives.

Characterization of vasa and dnd homologs in summer flounder, Paralichthys dentatus: Expression analysis and colocalization of PGCs during embryogenesis

Specification of primordial germ cells (PGCs) is particularly important for germline formation. Many maternal-effect genes such as vasa, dnd, and nanos have been identified. However, the research on distribution patterns of PGCs in marine fish is limited. Vasa has been widely used as a germ cell marker to identify its origination in teleosts because vasa RNA is a component of germ plasm. Dnd is known to be an RNA binding protein that protects germline-specific RNAs from degradation. In this study, we isolated full-length vasa and dnd cDNA from summer flounder to track germ cell origination and their expression patterns by RT-PCR and ISH. The results demonstrated that deduced amino acid sequence of Pdvas and Pddnd shared typically conserved motifs of their homologues and demonstrated high identities with other teleosts. Both vasa and dnd transcripts were exclusively detected in germ cells of the gonads. During embryogenesis, vasa and dnd RNA were located at the cleavage furrows of early cleavage stages, and then through proliferation and migration they eventually moved to a location at the predetermined genital ridge. Phylogenetic analysis revealed that summer flounder belongs to the Euteleostei species, but vasa/dnd transcripts localized at the cleavage furrows was similar to that in zebrafish (Osteriophysans). This suggests that germ cells differentiating at early embryogenesis have no direct relation with phylogenesis. At the same time, we found the spatio-temporal expression pattern of dnd was highly consistent with vasa during this process, which indicated the important function of dnd in keeping the target RNA from being degraded to maintain germ cell fate. These results will provide further understanding of germ plasm localization and PGC differentiation in teleosts, and facilitate germ cell manipulation in marine fishes.

Sexual determination in zebrafish

Zebrafish have emerged as a major model organism to study vertebrate reproduction due to their high fecundity and external development of eggs and embryos. The mechanisms through which zebrafish determine their sex have come under extensive investigation, as they lack a definite sex-determining chromosome and appear to have a highly complex method of sex determination. Single-gene mutagenesis has been employed to isolate the function of genes that determine zebrafish sex and regulate sex-specific differentiation, and to explore the interactions of genes that promote female or male sexual fate. In this review, we focus on recent advances in understanding of the mechanisms, including genetic and environmental factors, governing zebrafish sex development with comparisons to gene functions in other species to highlight conserved and potentially species-specific mechanisms for specifying and maintaining sexual fate.

Clustering of Sex-Biased Genes and Transposable Elements in the Genome of the Medaka Fish Oryzias latipes

Although genes with similar expression patterns are sometimes found in the same genomic regions, almost nothing is known about the relative organization in genomes of genes and transposable elements (TEs), which might influence each other at the regulatory level. In this study, we used transcriptomic data from male and female gonads of the Japanese medaka Oryzias latipes to define sexually biased genes and TEs and analyze their relative genomic localization. We identified 20,588 genes expressed in the adult gonads of O. latipes. Around 39% of these genes are differentially expressed between male and female gonads. We further analyzed the expression of TEs using the program SQuIRE and showed that more TE copies are overexpressed in testis than in ovaries (36% vs. 10%, respectively). We then developed a method to detect genomic regions enriched in testis- or ovary-biased genes. This revealed that sex-biased genes and TEs are not randomly distributed in the genome and a part of them form clusters with the same expression bias. We also found a correlation of expression between TE copies and their closest genes, which increases with decreasing intervening distance. Such a genomic organization suggests either that TEs hijack the regulatory sequences of neighboring sexual genes, allowing their expression in germ line cells and consequently new insertions to be transmitted to the next generation, or that TEs are involved in the regulation of sexual genes, and might therefore through their mobility participate in the rewiring of sex regulatory networks.

Homozygous mutation of foxh1 arrests oogenesis causing infertility in female Nile tilapia†

Foxh1, a member of fox gene family, was first characterized as a transcriptional partner in the formation of the Smad protein complex. Recent studies have shown foxh1 is highly expressed in the cytoplasm of oocytes in both tilapia and mouse. However, its function in oogenesis remains unexplored. In the present study, foxh1-/- tilapia was created by CRISPR/Cas9. At 180 dah (days after hatching), the foxh1-/- XX fish showed oogenesis arrest and a significantly lower GSI. The transition of oocytes from phase II to phase III and follicle cells from one to two layers was blocked, resulting in infertility of the mutant. Transcriptomic analysis revealed that expression of genes involved in estrogen synthesis and oocyte growth were altered in the foxh1-/- ovaries. Loss of foxh1 resulted in significantly decreased Cyp19a1a and increased Cyp11b2 expression, consistent with significantly lower concentrations of serum estradiol-17β (E2) and higher concentrations of 11-ketotestosterone (11-KT). Moreover, administration of E2 rescued the phenotypes of foxh1-/- XX fish, as indicated by the appearance of phase III and IV oocytes and absence of Cyp11b2 expression. Taken together, these results suggest that foxh1 functions in the oocytes to regulate oogenesis by promoting cyp19a1a expression, and therefore estrogen production. Disruption of foxh1 may block the estrogen synthesis and oocyte growth, leading to the arrest of oogenesis and thus infertility in tilapia.

A sex-linked SNP mutation in amhr2 is responsible for male differentiation in obscure puffer (Takifugu obscurus)

BACKGROUND

Anti-Mullerian hormone receptor type II (Amhr2) is a key receptor of Amh signaling in regulating gonad development. The amhr2 gene has been identified in numerous species, including a few teleost fishes. However, the roles of Amhr2 in Amh signaling in fish are poorly studied.

METHODS AND RESULTS

In this study, an amhr2 homolog from obscure puffer (Takifugu obscurus) was identified, and its molecular characteristics were systematically analyzed. Expression analysis revealed that amhr2 was highly expressed in the gonads of adult pufferfish and significantly upregulated during sex differentiation. Significantly, a sex-linked SNP site was verified in obscure puffer amhr2. Females exhibited a homozygous genotype (C/C), while males possessed a heterozygous genotype (C/G), resulting in an amino acid variation (His/Asp384) in the kinase domain of Amhr2. Then, the functions of the different Amhr2 genotypes were further investigated. The male genotype protein (Amhr2^D384) showed an enhanced ability to interact with the type I receptor (Bmpr1a) compared to the female genotype (Amhr2^H384). The phosphorylation levels of Smads and activity of the target gene (id3) induced by the male genotype were also much higher than those induced by the female genotype. These results confirmed that the male genotype had an enhanced effect on the Amh signaling pathway compared with the female genotype.

CONCLUSIONS

This study provides direct experimental evidence for the roles of different Amhr2 genotypes in pufferfish and suggests that amhr2 is responsible for male sex differentiation in obscure puffer.

Gonadal sex differentiation and early ovarian/testicular development in cultured Pacific bluefin tuna, Thunnus orientalis (Temminck et Schlegel)

Pacific bluefin tuna (PBT), Thunnus orientalis, is one of the most important species for aquaculture in Japan. Recently, the reduction in muscle fat content associated with sexual maturation in farmed PBT has become a serious problem. To develop technologies for inducing sterility, detailed and reliable data on gonadal development in PBT are needed. Here, we demonstrated the process of gonadal sex differentiation, and of early ovarian and testicular development during the immature stages in PBT. Gonadal sex differentiation was first characterized by the formation of the ovarian cavity in female and of the efferent ducts in male 57 days post hatching (dph). The gonads then differentiated into ovaries or testes according to the genotypic sex until 83 dph. During this period, primordial germ cells, oogonia, and type-A spermatogonia were solitarily distributed in the gonads, and the number of germ cells did not differ between sexes. After gonadal sex differentiation, gonads of PBTs developed in a sexually dimorphic manner: proliferation and differentiation of germ cells occurred earlier in the ovaries than in the testes. The oogonia in ovaries formed cysts at 185 dph, but the type-A spermatogonia were solitarily distributed in testes at this stage, and cysts of type-A spermatogonia were first observed at 247 dph. Moreover, the oogonia entered meiosis and differentiated into chromatin-nucleolus stage oocytes until 247 dph, and subsequently into peri-nucleolus stage oocytes until 285 dph, whereas the type-A spermatogonia differentiated into type-B spermatogonia, spermatocytes, spermatids, and spermatozoa from 446 dph onwards. We believe the results of this study provide the necessary basis for future studies on sterile PBT production.

Metabolism and Sex Differentiation in Animals from a Starvation Perspective

Animals determine their sex genetically (GSD: genetic sex determination) and/or environmentally (ESD: environmental sex determination). Medaka (Oryzias latipes) employ a XX/XY GSD system, however, they display female-to-male sex reversal in response to various environmental changes such as temperature, hypoxia, and green light. Interestingly, we found that 5 days of starvation during sex differentiation caused female-to-male sex reversal. In this situation, the metabolism of pantothenate and fatty acid synthesis plays an important role in sex reversal. Metabolism is associated with other biological factors such as germ cells, HPG axis, lipids, and epigenetics, and supplys substances and acts as signal transducers. In this review, we discuss the importance of metabolism during sex differentiation and how metabolism contributes to sex differentiation.

Sex determination without sex chromosomes

With or without sex chromosomes, sex determination is a synthesis of many molecular events that drives a community of cells towards a coordinated tissue fate. In this review, we will consider how a sex determination pathway can be engaged and stabilized without an inherited genetic determinant. In many reptilian species, no sex chromosomes have been identified, yet a conserved network of gene expression is initiated. Recent studies propose that epigenetic regulation mediates the effects of temperature on these genes through dynamic post-transcriptional, post-translational and metabolic pathways. It is likely that there is no singular regulator of sex determination, but rather an accumulation of molecular events that shift the scales towards one fate over another until a threshold is reached sufficient to maintain and stabilize one pathway and repress the alternative pathway. Investigations into the mechanism underlying sex determination without sex chromosomes should focus on cellular processes that are frequently activated by multiple stimuli or can synthesize multiple inputs and drive a coordinated response. This article is part of the theme issue 'Challenging the paradigm in sex chromosome evolution: empirical and theoretical insights with a focus on vertebrates (Part I)'.

Dead-end (dnd) protein in fish-a review

Dead end (dnd) is a germ plasm-specific maternal RNA discovered in zebrafish and then in other vertebrates. Dnd protein is essential for migration and motility of primordial germ cells (PGCs), only cells destined to transfer genetic information to offspring. PGCs arise far from somatic cells of developing gonads and they must migrate to their site of function. Migration of PGCs follows complex path by various developing tissues as their disruption impacts on the fertility. Recently, it has been found that dnd is not required for survival of PGCs and dnd-deficient zebrafish PGCs transdifferentiate into the somatic cells. In fish, targeting dnd causes removal of PGCs that ultimately affects sex differentiation. Sterility in various fish species can be achieved by knockdown or knockout of dnd. In our review, we have discussed dnd as a germ cell-specific molecular marker in fish, its interaction with miRNAs, and its use in aquaculture and fish conservation.

Surrogate broodstock to enhance biotechnology research and applications in aquaculture

Aquaculture is playing an increasingly important role in meeting global demands for seafood, particularly in low and middle income countries. Genetic improvement of aquaculture species has major untapped potential to help achieve this, with selective breeding and genome editing offering exciting avenues to expedite this process. However, limitations to these breeding and editing approaches include long generation intervals of many fish species, alongside both technical and regulatory barriers to the application of genome editing in commercial production. Surrogate broodstock technology facilitates the production of donor-derived gametes in surrogate parents, and comprises transplantation of germ cells of donors into sterilised recipients. There are many successful examples of intra- and inter-species germ cell transfer and production of viable offspring in finfish, and this leads to new opportunities to address the aforementioned limitations. Firstly, surrogate broodstock technology raises the opportunity to improve genome editing via the use of cultured germ cells, to reduce mosaicism and potentially enable in vivo CRISPR screens in the progeny of surrogate parents. Secondly, the technology has pertinent applications in preservation of aquatic genetic resources, and in facilitating breeding of high-value species which are otherwise difficult to rear in captivity. Thirdly, it holds potential to drastically reduce the effective generation interval in aquaculture breeding programmes, expediting the rate of genetic gain. Finally, it provides new opportunities for dissemination of tailored, potentially genome edited, production animals of high genetic merit for farming. This review focuses on the state-of-the-art of surrogate broodstock technology, and discusses the next steps for its applications in research and production. The integration and synergy of genomics, genome editing, and reproductive technologies have exceptional potential to expedite genetic gain in aquaculture species in the coming decades.

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Genetic improvement in aquaculture species has a major role in global food security. Advances in biotechnology provide new opportunities to support aquaculture breeding.

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Advances in biotechnology provide new opportunities to support aquaculture breeding.

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Donor-derived gametes can be produced from surrogate broodstock of several aquaculture species.

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Surrogate broodstock technology provides new opportunities for application of genome editing.

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Surrogate broodstock can accelerate genetic gain, and improve dissemination of elite germplasm.

Effects of busulfan on somatic cells after inhibiting germ cells in the gonads of the young olive flounder Paralichthys olivaceus

Busulfan is widely used in some species to inhibit germ cell proliferation. This study was conducted to evaluate effects of busulfan on germ and somatic cells in gonads of olive flounder, Paralichthys olivaceus, one of the most economically important mariculture fish species. After intraperitoneal injection with 80 (80B) or 120 (120B) mg/kg busulfan, both gonads were atrophied, and ovaries were discolored with adhesion to the visceral mass. Histological results indicated that germ cells in the gonads were detached, and there was a larger nucleus size and smaller cytoplasmic volume in spermatogonia. Numbers of oocytes and somatic cells in the ovary were both less (P < 0.05), while in the testis, numbers of spermatogonia and somatic cells were markedly lesser and greater, respectively (P < 0.05). In ovaries of the flounder treated with 80B and 120B, relative abundance of vasa and cyp19a1a mRNA transcripts was very small in the cytoplasm of oocytes, while the cyp19a1a transcript was still present in theca cells. In the testis of flounder treated with 80B and 120B, abundance of vasa was markedly less (P < 0.05) with there being very little vasa in spermatogonia and disruption of the spermatogonium structure. In the 80B treatment group, amh was in lesser abundance with there being very little amh in spermatogonia, however, with the 120B treatment there was a large amh abundance in spermatogonium with there being disruption of structure of these germ cells and Sertoli cells. Busulfan, therefore, might inhibit the development of spermatogonia in the flounder testis.

Primordial Germ Cell Migration and Histological and Molecular Characterization of Gonadal Differentiation in Pachón Cavefish Astyanax mexicanus

The genetic regulatory network governing vertebrate gonadal differentiation appears less conserved than previously thought. Here, we investigated the gonadal development of Astyanax mexicanus Pachón cavefish by looking at primordial germ cells (PGCs) migration and proliferation, gonad histology, and gene expression patterns. We showed that PGCs are first detected at the 80% epiboly stage and then reach the gonadal primordium at 1 day post-fertilization (dpf). However, in contrast to the generally described absence of PGCs proliferation during their migration phase, PGCs number in cavefish doubles between early neurula and 8-9 somites stages. Combining both gonadal histology and vasa (germ cell marker) expression patterns, we observed that ovarian and testicular differentiation occurs around 65 dpf in females and 90 dpf in males, respectively, with an important inter-individual variability. The expression patterns of dmrt1, gsdf, and amh revealed a conserved predominant male expression during cavefish gonadal development, but none of the ovarian differentiation genes, i. e., foxl2a, cyp19a1a, and wnt4b displayed an early sexually dimorphic expression, and surprisingly all these genes exhibited predominant expression in adult testes. Altogether, our results lay the foundation for further research on sex determination and differentiation in A. mexicanus and contribute to the emerging picture that the vertebrate sex differentiation downstream regulatory network is less conserved than previously thought, at least in teleost fishes.

Cystic proliferation of germline stem cells is necessary to reproductive success and normal mating behavior in medaka

The production of an adequate number of gametes is necessary for normal reproduction, for which the regulation of proliferation from early gonadal development to adulthood is key in both sexes. Cystic proliferation of germline stem cells is an especially important step prior to the beginning of meiosis; however, the molecular regulators of this proliferation remain elusive in vertebrates. Here, we report that ndrg1b is an important regulator of cystic proliferation in medaka. We generated mutants of ndrg1b that led to a disruption of cystic proliferation of germ cells. This loss of cystic proliferation was observed from embryogenic to adult stages, impacting the success of gamete production and reproductive parameters such as spawning and fertilization. Interestingly, the depletion of cystic proliferation also impacted male sexual behavior, with a decrease of mating vigor. These data illustrate why it is also necessary to consider gamete production capacity in order to analyze reproductive behavior.

Nile tilapia CXCR4, the receptor of chemokine CXCL12, is involved in host defense against bacterial infection and chemotactic activity

CXC chemokine receptor 4 (CXCR4), a member of seven-transmembrane (7-TM) G-protein-coupled receptor superfamily, is the receptor of the CXC chemokine ligand 12 (CXCL12), and plays important roles in host defense and inflammation. In the current study, we cloned and identified a homolog of CXCR4 from Nile tilapia (Oreochromis niloticus), designated as OnCXCR4. The open reading frame of OnCXCR4 is 1149 bp encoding a peptide of 382 amino acids, and the predicted molecular weight is 42.65 kDa OnCXCR4 shares common features of CXCR4 family, including a 7-TM domain and a characteristic CXC motif (containing CYC). Expression analysis showed that OnCXCR4 constitutively expresses in various tested tissues of Nile tilapia, with the highest level in the anterior kidney. When stimulated with Streptococcus agalactiae, Aeromonas hydrophila, Poly(I:C), or LPS in vivo and in vitro, the expression of OnCXCR4 was significantly regulated. AMD3100, a CXCR4 antagonist, could not only inhibit the chemotactic activity of the recombinant OnCXCL12 protein on the leukocytes from anterior kidney, but also reduce the expression of OnCXCR4 significantly. Taken together, these results of our study above indicate that OnCXCR4 may play important roles in host defense against bacterial infectionin in Nile tilapia, and being a receptor of OnCXCL12 to exert functions.

High temperature stress response is not sexually dimorphic at the whole-body level and is dependent on androgens to induce sex reversal

The understanding of the molecular and endocrine mechanisms behind environmentally-induced sex reversal in fish is of great importance in the context of predicting the potential effects of climate change, especially increasing temperature. Here, we demonstrate the global effects of high temperature on genome-wide transcription in medaka (Oryzias latipes) during early development. Interestingly, data analysis did not show sexual dimorphic changes, demonstrating that thermal stress is not dependent on genotypic sex. Additionally, our results revealed significant changes in several pathways under high temperature, such as stress response from brain, steroid biosynthesis, epigenetic mechanisms, and thyroid hormone biosynthesis, among others. These microarray data raised the question of what the exact molecular and hormonal mechanisms of action are for female-to-male sex reversal under high temperatures in fish. Complementary gene expression analysis revealed that androgen-related genes increase in females (XX) experiencing high water temperature. To test the involvement of androgens in thermal-induced sex reversal, an androgen antagonist was used to treat XX medaka under a high-temperature setup. Data clearly demonstrated failure of female-to-male sex reversal when androgen action is inhibited, corroborating the importance of androgens in environmentally-induced sex reversal.

Developmental abnormalities and epigenetic alterations in medaka (Oryzias latipes) embryos induced by triclosan exposure

Triclosan (TCS), an antibacterial and antifungal agent present in some consumer products, has been detected in the environment at varying concentrations. TCS exposure has been found to cause developmental abnormalities and endocrine disruption in various species of fish. It is not clearly understood whether TCS exposure causes epigenetic alterations in developing embryos and their germ cells. In the present study, we examined the effects of TCS exposure (0, 50, 100 and, 200 μg/L) on embryonic development and primordial germ cells (PGCs), which are precursors of sperm and eggs, in medaka (Oyzias latipes). Developmental TCS exposure from 8 h post-fertilization through 15 days post-fertilization (dpf) resulted in several developmental abnormalities, including enlarged yolk sac, decreased head trunk angle (HTA), and severe edema in the pericardial region. The male ratio increased in the 100 μg/L TCS exposure group, which was negatively correlated with the expression of cyp19ala (a gene encoding aromatase) and arα (androgen receptor alpha). Developmental 50 μg/L TCS exposure resulted in global hypomethylation in the whole body but not in the isolated PGCs. Expression of the gene encoding DNA methyltransferases (dnmt1 and dnmt3aa) was decreased by 50 μg/L TCS exposure both in the whole body and PGCs. TCS altered the expression of genes encoding enzymes involved in DNA methylation and demethylation in PGCs, suggesting epigenetic effects on germ cells. The present results demonstrate that the embryos exposed to the tested concentrations of TCS develop deformities during the early life stages and that the TCS within this range possesses endocrine disrupting properties potential enough to alter sex ratios of developing embryos.

Production of donor-derived eggs after ovarian germ cell transplantation into the gonads of adult, germ cell-less, triploid hybrid fish†

In animals, spermatogonial transplantation in sterile adult males is widely developed; however, despite its utility, ovarian germ cell transplantation is not well developed. We previously showed that the interspecific hybrid offspring of sciaenid was a suitable model for germ cell transplantation studies as they have germ cell-less gonads. However, all these gonads have testis-like characteristics. Here, we tested whether triploidization in hybrid embryos could result in germ cell-less ovary development. Gonadal structure dimorphism and sex-specific gene expression patterns were examined in 6-month-old triploid hybrids (3nHybs). Thirty-one percent of 3nHybs had germ cell-less gonads with an ovarian cavity. cyp19a1a and foxl2, ovarian differentiation-related genes, were expressed in these gonads, whereas dmrt1 and vasa were not expressed, suggesting ovary-like germ cell-less gonad development. Some (26%) 3nHybs had testis-like germ cell-less gonads. Ovarian germ cells collected from homozygous green fluorescent protein (GFP) transgenic blue drum (BD) (Nibea mitsukurii) were transplanted into 6-month-old 3nHybs gonads via the urogenital papilla or oviduct. After 9 months, the recipients were crossed with wild type BD. Among the six 3nHyb recipients that survived, one female and one male produced fertile eggs and motile sperm carrying gfp-specific DNA sequences. Progeny tests revealed that all F1 offspring possessed gfp-specific DNA sequences, suggesting that these recipients produced only donor-derived eggs or sperm. Histological observation confirmed donor-derived gametogenesis in the 3nHyb recipients' gonads. Overall, triploidization reduces male-biased sex differentiation in germ cell-less gonads. We report, for the first time, donor-derived egg production in an animal via direct ovarian germ cell transplantation into a germ cell-less ovary.