The fifth class of Galpha proteins

Deciphering the function of the fifth class of Gα proteins: regulation of ionic homeostasis as unifying hypothesis

Trimeric G proteins transduce signals from a superfamily of receptors and each G protein controls a wide range of cellular and systemic functions. Their highly conserved alpha subunits fall in five classes, four of which have been well investigated (Gs, Gi, G12, Gq). In contrast, the function of the fifth class, Gv is completely unknown, despite its broad occurrence and evolutionary ancient origin (older than metazoans). Here we show a dynamic presence of Gv mRNA in several organs during early development of zebrafish, including the hatching gland, the pronephros and several cartilage anlagen, employing in situ hybridisation. Next, we generated a Gv frameshift mutation in zebrafish and observed distinct phenotypes such as reduced oviposition, premature hatching and craniofacial abnormalities in bone and cartilage of larval zebrafish. These phenotypes could suggest a disturbance in ionic homeostasis as a common denominator. Indeed, we find reduced levels of calcium, magnesium and potassium in the larvae and changes in expression levels of the sodium potassium pump atp1a1a.5 and the sodium/calcium exchanger ncx1b in larvae and in the adult kidney, a major osmoregulatory organ. Additionally, expression of sodium chloride cotransporter slc12a3 and the anion exchanger slc26a4 is altered in complementary ways in adult kidney. It appears that Gv may modulate ionic homeostasis in zebrafish during development and in adults. Our results constitute the first insight into the function of the fifth class of G alpha proteins.

Mammalian type opsin 5 preferentially activates G14 in Gq-type G proteins triggering intracellular calcium response

Mammalian type opsin 5 (Opn5m), a UV-sensitive G protein-coupled receptor opsin highly conserved in vertebrates, would provide a common basis for UV sensing from lamprey to humans. However, G protein coupled with Opn5m remains controversial due to variations in assay conditions and the origin of Opn5m across different reports. Here, we examined Opn5m from diverse species using an aequorin luminescence assay and Gα-KO cell line. Beyond the commonly studied major Gα classes, Gαq, Gα11, Gα14, and Gα15 in the Gq class were individually investigated in this study, as they can drive distinct signaling pathways in addition to a canonical calcium response. UV light triggered a calcium response via all the tested Opn5m proteins in 293T cells, which was abolished by Gq-type Gα deletion and rescued by cotransfection with mouse and medaka Gq-type Gα proteins. Opn5m preferentially activated Gα14 and close relatives. Mutational analysis implicated specific regions, including α3-β5 and αG-α4 loops, αG and α4 helices, and the extreme C terminus, in the preferential activation of Gα14 by Opn5m. FISH revealed co-expression of genes encoding Opn5m and Gα14 in the scleral cartilage of medaka and chicken eyes, supporting their physiological coupling. This suggests that the preferential activation of Gα14 by Opn5m is relevant for UV sensing in specific cell types.

The compact genome of the sponge Oopsacas minuta (Hexactinellida) is lacking key metazoan core genes

BACKGROUND

Explaining the emergence of the hallmarks of bilaterians is a central focus of evolutionary developmental biology-evodevo-and evolutionary genomics. For this purpose, we must both expand and also refine our knowledge of non-bilaterian genomes, especially by studying early branching animals, in particular those in the metazoan phylum Porifera.

RESULTS

We present a comprehensive analysis of the first whole genome of a glass sponge, Oopsacas minuta, a member of the Hexactinellida. Studying this class of sponge is evolutionary relevant because it differs from the three other Porifera classes in terms of development, tissue organization, ecology, and physiology. Although O. minuta does not exhibit drastic body simplifications, its genome is among the smallest of animal genomes sequenced so far, and surprisingly lacks several metazoan core genes (including Wnt and several key transcription factors). Our study also provides the complete genome of a symbiotic Archaea dominating the associated microbial community: a new Thaumarchaeota species.

CONCLUSIONS

The genome of the glass sponge O. minuta differs from all other available sponge genomes by its compactness and smaller number of encoded proteins. The unexpected loss of numerous genes previously considered ancestral and pivotal for metazoan morphogenetic processes most likely reflects the peculiar syncytial tissue organization in this group. Our work further documents the importance of convergence during animal evolution, with multiple convergent evolution of septate-like junctions, electrical-signaling and multiciliated cells in metazoans.

Heterotrimeric G Proteins in Plants: Canonical and Atypical Gα Subunits

Heterotrimeric GTP-binding proteins (G proteins), consisting of Gα, Gβ and Gγ subunits, transduce signals from a diverse range of extracellular stimuli, resulting in the regulation of numerous cellular and physiological functions in Eukaryotes. According to the classic G protein paradigm established in animal models, the bound guanine nucleotide on a Gα subunit, either guanosine diphosphate (GDP) or guanosine triphosphate (GTP) determines the inactive or active mode, respectively. In plants, there are two types of Gα subunits: canonical Gα subunits structurally similar to their animal counterparts and unconventional extra-large Gα subunits (XLGs) containing a C-terminal domain homologous to the canonical Gα along with an extended N-terminal domain. Both Gα and XLG subunits interact with Gβγ dimers and regulator of G protein signalling (RGS) protein. Plant G proteins are implicated directly or indirectly in developmental processes, stress responses, and innate immunity. It is established that despite the substantial overall similarity between plant and animal Gα subunits, they convey signalling differently including the mechanism by which they are activated. This review emphasizes the unique characteristics of plant Gα subunits and speculates on their unique signalling mechanisms.

G Proteins and GPCRs in C. elegans Development: A Story of Mutual Infidelity

Many vital processes during C. elegans development, especially the establishment and maintenance of cell polarity in embryogenesis, are controlled by complex signaling pathways. G protein-coupled receptors (GPCRs), such as the four Frizzled family Wnt receptors, are linchpins in regulating and orchestrating several of these mechanisms. However, despite being GPCRs, which usually couple to G proteins, these receptors do not seem to activate classical heterotrimeric G protein-mediated signaling cascades. The view on signaling during embryogenesis is further complicated by the fact that heterotrimeric G proteins do play essential roles in cell polarity during embryogenesis, but their activity is modulated in a predominantly GPCR-independent manner via G protein regulators such as GEFs GAPs and GDIs. Further, the triggered downstream effectors are not typical. Only very few GPCR-dependent and G protein-mediated signaling pathways have been unambiguously defined in this context. This unusual and highly intriguing concept of separating GPCR function and G-protein activity, which is not restricted to embryogenesis in C. elegans but can also be found in other organisms, allows for essential and multi-faceted ways of regulating cellular communication and response. Although its relevance cannot be debated, its impact is still poorly discussed, and C. elegans is an ideal model to understand the underlying principles.

Tracing the evolution of the heterotrimeric G protein α subunit in Metazoa

BACKGROUND

Heterotrimeric G proteins are fundamental signaling proteins composed of three subunits, Gα and a Gβγ dimer. The role of Gα as a molecular switch is critical for transmitting and amplifying intracellular signaling cascades initiated by an activated G protein Coupled Receptor (GPCR). Despite their biochemical and therapeutic importance, the study of G protein evolution has been limited to the scope of a few model organisms. Furthermore, of the five primary Gα subfamilies, the underlying gene structure of only two families has been thoroughly investigated outside of Mammalia evolution. Therefore our understanding of Gα emergence and evolution across phylogeny remains incomplete.

RESULTS

We have computationally identified the presence and absence of every Gα gene (GNA-) across all major branches of Deuterostomia and evaluated the conservation of the underlying exon-intron structures across these phylogenetic groups. We provide evidence of mutually exclusive exon inclusion through alternative splicing in specific lineages. Variations of splice site conservation and isoforms were found for several paralogs which coincide with conserved, putative motifs of DNA-/RNA-binding proteins. In addition to our curated gene annotations, within Primates, we identified 15 retrotranspositions, many of which have undergone pseudogenization. Most importantly, we find numerous deviations from previous findings regarding the presence and absence of individual GNA- genes, nuanced differences in phyla-specific gene copy numbers, novel paralog duplications and subsequent intron gain and loss events.

CONCLUSIONS

Our curated annotations allow us to draw more accurate inferences regarding the emergence of all Gα family members across Metazoa and to present a new, updated theory of Gα evolution. Leveraging this, our results are critical for gaining new insights into the co-evolution of the Gα subunit and its many protein binding partners, especially therapeutically relevant G protein - GPCR signaling pathways which radiated in Vertebrata evolution.

Early social learning triggers neurogenomic expression changes in a swordtail fish

Mate choice can play a pivotal role in the nature and extent of reproductive isolation between species. Mating preferences are often dependent on an individual's social experience with adult phenotypes throughout development. We show that olfactory preference in a swordtail fish (Xiphophorus malinche) is affected by previous experience with adult olfactory signals. We compare transcriptome-wide gene expression levels of pooled sensory and brain tissues between three treatment groups that differ by social experience: females with no adult exposure, females exposed to conspecifics and females exposed to heterospecifics. We identify potential functionally relevant genes and biological pathways differentially expressed not only between control and exposure groups, but also between groups exposed to conspecifics and heterospecifics. Based on our results, we speculate that vomeronasal receptor type 2 paralogs may detect species-specific pheromone components and thus play an important role in reproductive isolation between species.

Expression of G Proteins in the Eyes and Parietovisceral Ganglion of the Bay Scallop Argopecten irradians

A multitude of image-forming eyes are spread across the bodies of certain invertebrates. Recent efforts have characterized how these eyes function, but less progress has been made toward describing the neural structures associated with them. Scallops, for example, have a distributed visual system that includes dozens of eyes whose optic nerves project to the lateral lobes of the parietovisceral ganglion (PVG). To identify sensory receptors and chemical synapses associated with the scallop visual system, we studied the expression of four G protein α subunits (Gα_i, Gα_o, Gα_q, and Gα_s) in the eyes and PVG of the bay scallop Argopecten irradians (Lamarck, 1819). In the eyes of A. irradians, we noted expression of Gα_o by the ciliary photoreceptors of the distal retina, expression of Gα_q by the rhabdomeric photoreceptors of the proximal retina, and the expression of Gα_o and Gα_q by the cells of the cornea; we did not, however, detect expression of Gα_i or Gα_s in the eyes. In the PVG of A. irradians, we noted widespread expression of Gα_i, Gα_o, and Gα_q. The expression of Gα_s was limited to fine neurites in the lateral and ventral central lobes, as well as large unipolar neurons in the dorsal central lobes. Our findings suggest that light detection by the eyes of A. irradians is conferred primarily by photoreceptors that express Gα_o or Gα_q, that the corneal cells of scallops may contain sensory receptors and/or receive neural input, and that G protein labeling is useful for visualizing substructures and identifying specific populations of cells within the nervous systems of invertebrates.

Deficiency of the G protein Gαq ameliorates experimental autoimmune encephalomyelitis with impaired DC-derived IL-6 production and Th17 differentiation

Many G protein-coupled receptors (GPCRs) are reported to be involved in the pathogenesis of multiple sclerosis (MS), and ~40% of all identified GPCRs rely on the Gαq/11 G protein family to stimulate inositol lipid signaling. However, the function of Gα subunits in MS pathogenesis is still unknown. In this study, we attempted to determine the role of Gαq in the pathogenesis of experimental autoimmune encephalomyelitis (EAE), a well-known mouse model of MS. We discovered that compared with wild-type mice, Gαq-knockout mice exhibited less severe EAE symptoms, with lower clinical scores, reduced leukocyte infiltration and less extensive demyelination. Moreover, a significantly lower percentage of Th17 cells, one of the key players in MS pathogenesis, was observed in Gαq-knockout EAE mice. Studies in vitro demonstrated that deficiency of Gαq in CD4⁺ T cells directly impaired Th17 differentiation. In addition, deficiency of Gαq significantly impaired DC-derived IL-6 production, thus inhibiting Th17 differentiation and the Gαq-PLCβ-PKC and Gαq-MAPKs signaling pathways involved in the reduced IL-6 production by DCs. In summary, our data highlighted the critical role of Gαq in regulating Th17 differentiation and MS pathogenesis.

Gnaq and Gna11 in the Endothelin Signaling Pathway and Melanoma

In this article, we first briefly outline the function of G protein coupled receptors in cancer, and then specifically examine the roles of the seven transmembrane G protein coupled Endothelin B receptor (Ednrb) and the G proteins, GNAQ and GNA11, in both melanocyte development and melanoma. Ednrb plays an essential role in melanocyte development. GNAQ and GNA11 are oncogenes when mutated in certain types of melanocytic lesions, being extremely frequent in uveal melanoma, which forms from melanocytes located in the eye. Previously, we reported that in mice, Schwann cell precursor derived melanocytes colonize the dermis and hair follicles, while the inter-follicular epidermis is populated by other melanocytes. A pattern has emerged whereby melanocytes whose activities are affected by gain-of-function mutations of the Endothelin 3 ligand and Gα_q/11 are the same subset that arise from Schwann cell precursors. Furthermore, the forced expression of the constitutively active human GNAQ^Q209L oncogene in mouse melanocytes only causes hyper-proliferation in the subset that arise from Schwann cell precursors. This has led us to hypothesize that in Schwann cell precursor derived melanocytes, Ednrb signals through Gα_q/11. Ednrb is promiscuous and may signal through other G protein alpha subunits in melanomas located in the inter-follicular epidermis.

Molecular Cloning, mRNA Expression, and Localization of the G-protein Subunit Galphaq in Sheep Testis and Epididymis

The reproductive function of G-protein subunit Galphaq (GNAQ), a member of the G protein alpha subunit family, has been extensively studied in humans and rats. However, no data is available on its status in ruminants. The objectives of this study were to evaluate the expression pattern of the GNAQ in the testis and epididymis of sheep by polymerase chain reaction (PCR). The mRNA expression levels were detected by real-time fluorescent quantitative PCR, and cellular localization of GNAQ in the testis and epididymis was examined by immunohistochemistry. Additionally, GNAQ protein was qualitatively evaluated via western blot, with the results indicating that similarities between GNAQ mRNA levels from sheep was highly conserved with those observed in Bos taurus and Sus scrofa. Our results also indicated that GNAQ exists in the caput and cauda epididymis of sheep, while GNAQ in the testis and epididymis was localized to Leydig cells, spermatogonial stem cells, spermatocytes, Sertoli cells, spermatid, principal cells, and epididymis interstitial cells. The concentrations of GNAQ mRNA and protein in the caput and cauda epididymis were significantly greater than those observed in the corpus epididymis (p<0.01) and testis (p<0.05). Our results indicated that GNAQ exists at high concentrations in the caput and cauda epididymis of sheep, suggesting that GNAQ may play an important role in gonad development and sperm maturation.

Membrane-localized extra-large G proteins and Gbg of the heterotrimeric G proteins form functional complexes engaged in plant immunity in Arabidopsis

In animals, heterotrimeric G proteins, comprising Ga, Gb, and Gg subunits, are molecular switches whose function tightly depends on Ga and Gbg interaction. Intriguingly, in Arabidopsis (Arabidopsis thaliana), multiple defense responses involve Gbg, but not Ga. We report here that the Gbg dimer directly partners with extra-large G proteins (XLGs) to mediate plant immunity. Arabidopsis mutants deficient in XLGs, Gb, and Gg are similarly compromised in several pathogen defense responses, including disease development and production of reactive oxygen species. Genetic analysis of double, triple, and quadruple mutants confirmed that XLGs and Gbg functionally interact in the same defense signaling pathways. In addition, mutations in XLG2 suppressed the seedling lethal and cell death phenotypes of BRASSINOSTEROID INSENSITIVE1-associated receptor kinase1-interacting receptor-like kinase1 mutants in an identical way as reported for Arabidopsis Gb-deficient mutants. Yeast (Saccharomyces cerevisiae) three-hybrid and bimolecular fluorescent complementation assays revealed that XLG2 physically interacts with all three possible Gbg dimers at the plasma membrane. Phylogenetic analysis indicated a close relationship between XLGs and plant Ga subunits, placing the divergence point at the dawn of land plant evolution. Based on these findings, we conclude that XLGs form functional complexes with Gbg dimers, although the mechanism of action of these complexes, including activation/deactivation, must be radically different form the one used by the canonical Ga subunit and are not likely to share the same receptors. Accordingly, XLGs expand the repertoire of heterotrimeric G proteins in plants and reveal a higher level of diversity in heterotrimeric G protein signaling.

The evolution of the GPCR signaling system in eukaryotes: modularity, conservation, and the transition to metazoan multicellularity

The G-protein-coupled receptor (GPCR) signaling system is one of the main signaling pathways in eukaryotes. Here, we analyze the evolutionary history of all its components, from receptors to regulators, to gain a broad picture of its system-level evolution. Using eukaryotic genomes covering most lineages sampled to date, we find that the various components of the GPCR signaling pathway evolved independently, highlighting the modular nature of this system. Our data show that some GPCR families, G proteins, and regulators of G proteins diversified through lineage-specific diversifications and recurrent domain shuffling. Moreover, most of the gene families involved in the GPCR signaling system were already present in the last common ancestor of eukaryotes. Furthermore, we show that the unicellular ancestor of Metazoa already had most of the cytoplasmic components of the GPCR signaling system, including, remarkably, all the G protein alpha subunits, which are typical of metazoans. Thus, we show how the transition to multicellularity involved conservation of the signaling transduction machinery, as well as a burst of receptor diversification to cope with the new multicellular necessities.

Positive Darwinian selection in the singularly large taste receptor gene family of an 'ancient' fish, Latimeria chalumnae

Background

Chemical senses are one of the foremost means by which organisms make sense of their environment, among them the olfactory and gustatory sense of vertebrates and arthropods. Both senses use large repertoires of receptors to achieve perception of complex chemosensory stimuli. High evolutionary dynamics of some olfactory and gustatory receptor gene families result in considerable variance of chemosensory perception between species. Interestingly, both ora/v1r genes and the closely related t2r genes constitute small and rather conserved families in teleost fish, but show rapid evolution and large species differences in tetrapods. To understand this transition, chemosensory gene repertoires of earlier diverging members of the tetrapod lineage, i.e. lobe-finned fish such as Latimeria would be of high interest.

Results

We report here the complete T2R repertoire of Latimeria chalumnae, using thorough data mining and extensive phylogenetic analysis. Eighty t2r genes were identified, by far the largest family reported for any species so far. The genomic neighborhood of t2r genes is enriched in repeat elements, which may have facilitated the extensive gene duplication events resulting in such a large family. Examination of non-synonymous vs. synonymous substitution rates (dN/dS) suggests pronounced positive Darwinian selection in Latimeria T2Rs, conceivably ensuring efficient neo-functionalization of newly born t2r genes. Notably, both traits, positive selection and enrichment of repeat elements in the genomic neighborhood, are absent in the twenty v1r genes of Latimeria. Sequence divergence in Latimeria T2Rs and V1Rs is high, reminescent of the corresponding teleost families. Some conserved sequence motifs of Latimeria T2Rs and V1Rs are shared with the respective teleost but not tetrapod genes, consistent with a potential role of such motifs in detection of aquatic chemosensory stimuli.

Conclusions

The singularly large T2R repertoire of Latimeria may have been generated by facilitating local gene duplication via increased density of repeat elements, and efficient neofunctionalization via positive Darwinian selection.

The high evolutionary dynamics of tetrapod t2r gene families precedes the emergence of tetrapods, i.e. the water-to-land transition, and thus constitutes a basal feature of the lobe-finned lineage of vertebrates.

Electronic supplementary material

The online version of this article (doi:10.1186/1471-2164-15-650) contains supplementary material, which is available to authorized users.

Gαq signalling: the new and the old

In the last few years the interactome of Gαq has expanded considerably, contributing to improve our understanding of the cellular and physiological events controlled by this G alpha subunit. The availability of high-resolution crystal structures has led the identification of an effector-binding region within the surface of Gαq that is able to recognise a variety of effector proteins. Consequently, it has been possible to ascribe different Gαq functions to specific cellular players and to identify important processes that are triggered independently of the canonical activation of phospholipase Cβ (PLCβ), the first identified Gαq effector. Novel effectors include p63RhoGEF, that provides a link between G protein-coupled receptors and RhoA activation, phosphatidylinositol 3-kinase (PI3K), implicated in the regulation of the Akt pathway, or the cold-activated TRPM8 channel, which is directly inhibited upon Gαq binding. Recently, the activation of ERK5 MAPK by Gq-coupled receptors has also been described as a novel PLCβ-independent signalling axis that relies upon the interaction between this G protein and two novel effectors (PKCζ and MEK5). Additionally, the association of Gαq with different regulatory proteins can modulate its effector coupling ability and, therefore, its signalling potential. Regulators include accessory proteins that facilitate effector activation or, alternatively, inhibitory proteins that downregulate effector binding or promote signal termination. Moreover, Gαq is known to interact with several components of the cytoskeleton as well as with important organisers of membrane microdomains, which suggests that efficient signalling complexes might be confined to specific subcellular environments. Overall, the complex interaction network of Gαq underlies an ever-expanding functional diversity that puts forward this G alpha subunit as a major player in the control of physiological functions and in the development of different pathological situations.

Zebrafish crypt neurons project to a single, identified mediodorsal glomerulus

Crypt neurons are a third type of olfactory receptor neurons with a highly unusual "one cell type--one receptor" mode of expression, the same receptor being expressed by the entire population of crypt neurons. Attempts to identify the target region(s) of crypt neurons have been inconclusive so far. We report that TrkA-like immunoreactivity specifically labeled somata, axons, and terminals of zebrafish crypt neurons and reveal a single glomerulus, mdg2 of the dorsomedial group, as target glomerulus of crypt neurons. Injection of a fluorescent tracing dye into the mdg2 glomerulus retrogradely labeled mostly crypt neurons, as assessed by quantitative morphometry, whereas no crypt neurons were found after injections in neighboring glomeruli. Our data provide strong evidence that crypt neurons converge onto a single glomerulus, and thus form a labeled line consisting of a single sensory cell type, a single olfactory receptor and a single target glomerulus.

Semicircular canal morphogenesis in the zebrafish inner ear requires the function of gpr126 (lauscher), an adhesion class G protein-coupled receptor gene

Morphogenesis of the semicircular canal ducts in the vertebrate inner ear is a dramatic example of epithelial remodelling in the embryo, and failure of normal canal development results in vestibular dysfunction. In zebrafish and Xenopus, semicircular canal ducts develop when projections of epithelium, driven by extracellular matrix production, push into the otic vesicle and fuse to form pillars. We show that in the zebrafish, extracellular matrix gene expression is high during projection outgrowth and then rapidly downregulated after fusion. Enzymatic disruption of hyaluronan in the projections leads to their collapse and a failure to form pillars: as a result, the ears swell. We have cloned a zebrafish mutant, lauscher (lau), identified by its swollen ear phenotype. The primary defect in the ear is abnormal projection outgrowth and a failure of fusion to form the semicircular canal pillars. Otic expression of extracellular matrix components is highly disrupted: several genes fail to become downregulated and remain expressed at abnormally high levels into late larval stages. The lau mutations disrupt gpr126, an adhesion class G protein-coupled receptor gene. Expression of gpr126 is similar to that of sox10, an ear and neural crest marker, and is partially dependent on sox10 activity. Fusion of canal projections and downregulation of otic versican expression in a hypomorphic lau allele can be restored by cAMP agonists. We propose that Gpr126 acts through a cAMP-mediated pathway to control the outgrowth and adhesion of canal projections in the zebrafish ear via the regulation of extracellular matrix gene expression.

G-protein alpha subunits distribution in the cyprid of Balanus amphitrite (=Amphibalanus amphitrite) (Cirripedia, Crustacea)

The acorn barnacle Balanus amphitrite is a marine crustacean with six nauplius and one cyprid larval stages and a sessile adult, that represent one of the main constituents of sea biofouling. The cyprid is the last larval stage, specialized for settlement, and the study of its biology is interesting also in the frame of antifouling strategies. In this study, a novel approach to the neurobiology of B. amphitrite cyprid has undertaken, studying immunohistochemically the distribution of some G-protein α subunits (Gαs, Gαo Gαi, and Gαq) on B. amphitrite cyprid. Gαs-like immunoreactivity was observed in the intestinal mucosa, oral cone, epithelial cells along the outer face of the mantle and thorax; Gαo into the fibers of the neuropile of the central nervous system; Gαi in oil cells, epithelial cells, and limbs and thorax muscles; Gαq was not detected. The results suggest the involvement of the G-protein α subunits in different tissues and functions that seem to be in agreement with the distribution of the ones from the same class of G-proteins in vertebrates.

Expansion of transducin subunit gene families in early vertebrate tetraploidizations

Hundreds of gene families expanded in the early vertebrate tetraploidizations including many gene families in the phototransduction cascade. We have investigated the evolution of the heterotrimeric G-proteins of photoreceptors, the transducins, in relation to these events using both phylogenetic analyses and synteny comparisons. Three alpha subunit genes were identified in amniotes and the coelacanth, GNAT1-3; two of these were identified in amphibians and teleost fish, GNAT1 and GNAT2. Most tetrapods have four beta genes, GNB1-4, and teleosts have additional duplicates. Finally, three gamma genes were identified in mammals, GNGT1, GNG11 and GNGT2. Of these, GNGT1 and GNGT2 were found in the other vertebrates. In frog and zebrafish additional duplicates of GNGT2 were identified. Our analyses show all three transducin families expanded during the early vertebrate tetraploidizations and the beta and gamma families gained additional copies in the teleost-specific genome duplication. This suggests that the tetraploidizations contributed to visual specialisations.

Crypt neurons express a single V1R-related ora gene

Both ciliated and microvillous olfactory sensory neuron populations express large families of olfactory receptor genes. However, individual neurons generally express only a single receptor gene according to the "one neuron-one receptor" rule. We report here that crypt neurons, the third type of olfactory neurons in fish species, use an even more restricted mode of expression. We recently identified a novel olfactory receptor family of 6 highly conserved G protein-coupled receptors, the v1r-like ora genes. We show now that a single member of this family, ora4 is expressed in nearly all crypt neurons, whereas the other 5 ora genes are not found in this cell type. Consistent with these findings, ora4 is never coexpressed with any of the remaining 5 ora genes. Furthermore, several lines of evidence indicate the absence of any other olfactory receptor families in crypt neurons. These results suggest that the vast majority of the crypt neuron population may select one and the same olfactory receptor gene, a "one cell type-one receptor" mode of expression. Such an expression pattern is familiar in the visual system, with rhodopsin as the sole light receptor of rod photoreceptor cells, but unexpected in the sense of smell.

Mutually exclusive expression of Gαia and Gα14 reveals diversification of taste receptor cells in zebrafish

A comprehensive reevaluation of the G protein alpha subunit genes specifically expressed in taste buds in the tongue epithelium of rodents revealed that Gq and G14 of the Gq class and Gi2 and Ggust (Gt3, also known as gustducin) of the Gi class are expressed in mammalian taste buds. Meanwhile, a database search of fish genomes revealed the absence of a gene encoding an ortholog of the mammalian Ggust gene, which mediates sweet, umami, and bitter taste signals in mammalian taste receptor cells (TRCs). Histochemical screening identified two G protein alpha subunit genes, zfGia and zfG14, expressed in subsets of TRCs in zebrafish. The expression patterns of zfGia and zfG14 in taste buds were mutually exclusive, and the expression of known T1R and T2R genes in zebrafish was restricted to a subset of zfGia-expressing TRCs. These findings highlight the existence of a novel subset of TRCs in zebrafish that is absent in mammals and suggest that unidentified G protein-coupled receptors are expressed in zfG14-expressing TRCs and in zfGia-expressing TRCs where known T1R and T2R genes were not expressed in zebrafish. The existence of not only generalized but also specialized subsets of TRCs may imply a strong connection between the evolution of the peripheral gustatory system and the evolution of particular species.

The fifth element in animal Galpha protein evolution

Heterotrimeric G proteins are key molecules regulating cellular responses to extracellular stimuli, and are composed of alpha, beta and gamma subunits. All alpha subunits in vertebrates belong to four major classes, Gs, Gi, Gq and G12, which are conserved throughout the animal kingdom. Unexpectedly, now a fifth class of Galpha protein, Gv, has been discovered. Gv is conserved across the animal kingdom and present in vertebrates, arthropods, mollusks, annelids and even sponges. Presumably, Gv has been missed so far, because it has been lost in many lineages in the major model organisms such as nematodes, fruit fly and mammals. On the other hand, gene gains are also observed for Gv, with at least two independent gene duplications, one in sponges and the other in the teleost lineage. Such frequent gene gains and losses fit to a birth-and-death mode of evolution, which is unusual for a well-conserved and ancient gene family like the Galpha proteins. The discovery of a novel major class of Galpha proteins provides new insights in the evolution of the Galpha protein family and opens new possibilities in G protein signaling research.

Central and C-terminal domains of heterotrimeric G protein gamma subunits differentially influence the signaling necessary for primordial germ cell migration

Heterotrimeric G protein signaling is involved in many pathways essential to development including those controlling cell migration, proliferation, differentiation and apoptosis. One key developmental event known to rely on proper heterotrimeric G protein signaling is primordial germ cell (PGC) migration. We previously developed an in vivo PGC migration assay that identified differences in the signaling capacity of G protein gamma subunits. In this study we developed Gγ subunit chimeras to determine the regions of Gγ isoforms that are responsible for these differences. The central section of the Gγ subunit was found to be necessary for the ability of a Gγ subunit to mediate signaling involved in PGC migration. Residues found in the carboxy-terminal segment of Gγ transducin (gngt1) were found to be responsible for the ability of this subunit to disrupt PGC migration. The type of prenylation did not affect the ability of a Gγ subunit to reverse prenylation-deficient-Gγ-induced PGC migration defects. However, a version of gng2, engineered to be farnesylated instead of geranylgeranylated, still lacks the ability to reverse PGC migration defects known to result from treatment of zebrafish with geranylgeranyl transferase inhibitors (GGTI), supporting the notion that Gγ subunits are one of several protein targets that need to be geranylgeranylated to orchestrate the proper long-range migration of PGCs.

Signalling pathway of goldfish melanin-concentrating hormone receptors 1 and 2

Melanin-concentrating hormone (MCH) is the natural ligand for the MCH-1 receptor (MCHR1) and MCH-2 receptor (MCHR2). The MCH-MCHR1 system plays a central role in energy metabolism in rodents. Recently, we identified MCHR1 and MCHR2 orthologues in goldfish, designated gfMCHR1 and gfMCHR2. In a mammalian cell-based assay, calcium mobilization was evoked by gfMCHR2 via both Gαi/o and Gαq, while the gfMCHR1-mediated response was exclusively dependent on Gαq. This coupling capacity to G proteins is in contrast to human MCHR1 and MCHR2. Here, we extended our previous characterization of the two gfMCHRs by examining their different signalling pathway. We found that MCH caused activation of extracellular signal-regulated kinases 1 and 2 (ERK1/2) via both gfMCHR1 and gfMCHR2 in dose-dependent manners. Unlike the case for gfMCHR2, gfMCHR1 signalling was not sensitive to pertussis toxin, suggesting Gαq coupling of gfMCHR1 in the ERK1/2 pathway as well as a calcium mobilization system. Cyclic AMP assays revealed that gfMCHR2 was efficiently coupled to Gαi/o, while gfMCHR1 was weakly coupled to Gαs. Finally, we investigated the transduction features stimulated by two mammalian MCH analogues. As expected, Compound 15, which is a full agonist of human MCHR1, was a potent gfMCHR1 agonist in multiple signalling pathways. On the other hand, Compound 30, which is a human MCHR1-selective antagonist with negligible agonist potency, unexpectedly acted as a selective agonist of gfMCHR1. These results are the first to demonstrate that gfMCHR1 and gfMCHR2 have quite different signalling properties from human MCHRs.

Shared and unique G alpha proteins in the zebrafish versus mammalian senses of taste and smell

Chemosensory systems in vertebrates employ G protein-coupled receptors as sensors. In mammals, several families of olfactory and gustatory receptors as well as specific G alpha proteins coupling to them have been identified, for example, gustducin for taste. Orthologous receptor families have been characterized in fish, but the corresponding G alpha genes have not been well investigated so far. We have performed a comprehensive search of several lower vertebrate genomes to establish the G alpha protein family in these taxa and to identify those genes that may be involved in chemosensory signal transduction in fish. We report that gustducin is absent from the genomes of all teleost and amphibian species analyzed, presumably due to independent gene losses in these lineages. However, 2 other G alpha genes, Gi1b and G14a, are expressed in zebrafish taste buds and 4 G proteins, Go1, Go2, Gi1b, and Golf2, were detected in the olfactory epithelium. Golf2, Gi1b, and G14a are expressed already shortly after hatching, consistent with the physiological and behavioral responses of larvae to odorants and tastants. Our results show general similarity to the mammalian situation but also clear-cut differences and as such are essential for using the zebrafish model system to study chemosensory perception.

Identification and modulation of voltage-gated Ca2+ currents in zebrafish Rohon-Beard neurons

Electrically excitable cells have voltage-dependent ion channels on the plasma membrane that regulate membrane permeability to specific ions. Voltage-gated Ca(2+) channels (VGCCs) are especially important as Ca(2+) serves as both a charge carrier and second messenger. Zebrafish (Danio rerio) are an important model vertebrate for studies of neuronal excitability, circuits, and behavior. However, electrophysiological properties of zebrafish VGCCs remain largely unexplored because a suitable preparation for whole cell voltage-clamp studies is lacking. Rohon-Beard (R-B) sensory neurons represent an attractive candidate for this purpose because of their relatively large somata and functional homology to mammalian dorsal root ganglia (DRG) neurons. Transgenic zebrafish expressing green fluorescent protein in R-B neurons, (Isl2b:EGFP)(ZC7), were used to identify dissociated neurons suitable for whole cell patch-clamp experiments. Based on biophysical and pharmacological properties, zebrafish R-B neurons express both high- and low-voltage-gated Ca(2+) current (HVA- and LVA-I(Ca), respectively). Ni(+)-sensitive LVA-I(Ca) occur in the minority of R-B neurons (30%) and ω-conotoxin GVIA-sensitive Ca(V)2.2 (N-type) Ca(2+) channels underlie the vast majority (90%) of HVA-I(Ca). To identify G protein coupled receptors (GPCRs) that modulate HVA-I(Ca), a panel of neurotransmitters was screened. Application of GABA/baclofen or serotonin produced a voltage-dependent inhibition while application of the mu-opioid agonist DAMGO resulted in a voltage-independent inhibition. Unlike in mammalian neurons, GPCR-mediated voltage-dependent modulation of I(Ca) appears to be transduced primarily via a cholera toxin-sensitive Gα subunit. These results provide the basis for using the zebrafish model system to understanding Ca(2+) channel function, and in turn, how Ca(2+) channels contribute to mechanosensory function.

Toxins-useful biochemical tools for leukocyte research

Leukocytes are a heterogeneous group of cells that display differences in anatomic localization, cell surface phenotype, and function. The different subtypes include e.g., granulocytes, monocytes, dendritic cells, T cells, B cells and NK cells. These different cell types represent the cellular component of innate and adaptive immunity. Using certain toxins such as pertussis toxin, cholera toxin or clostridium difficile toxin, the regulatory functions of Gα_i, Gαs and small GTPases of the Rho family in leukocytes have been reported. A summary of these reports is discussed in this review.