Selection of HSV capsids for envelopment involves interaction between capsid surface components pUL31, pUL17, and pUL25

Human herpesvirus 6A nuclear matrix protein U37 interacts with heat shock transcription factor 1 and activates the heat shock response

Nascent nucleocapsids of herpesviruses acquire a primary envelope during their nuclear export by budding through the inner nuclear membrane into the perinuclear space between the inner and outer nuclear membranes. This process is mediated by a conserved viral heterodimeric complex designated the nuclear egress complex, which consists of the nuclear matrix protein and the nuclear membrane protein. In addition to its essential roles during nuclear egress, the nuclear matrix protein has been shown to interact with intracellular signaling pathway molecules including NF-κB and IFN-β to affect viral or cellular gene expression. The human herpesvirus 6A (HHV-6A) U37 gene encodes a nuclear matrix protein, the role of which has not been analyzed. Here, we show that HHV-6A U37 activates the heat shock element promoter and induces the accumulation of the molecular chaperone Hsp90. Mechanistically, HHV-6A U37 interacts with heat shock transcription factor 1 (HSF1) and induces its phosphorylation at Ser-326. We report that pharmacological inhibition of HSF1, Hsp70, or Hsp90 decreases viral protein accumulation and viral replication. Taken together, our results lead us to propose a model in which HHV-6A U37 activates the heat shock response to support viral gene expression and replication. IMPORTANCE Human herpesvirus 6A (HHV-6A) is a dsDNA virus belonging to the Roseolovirus genus within the Betaherpesvirinae subfamily. It is frequently found in patients with neuroinflammatory disease, although its pathogenetic role, if any, awaits elucidation. The heat shock response is important for cell survival under stressful conditions that disrupt homeostasis. Our results indicate that HHV-6A U37 activates the heat shock element promoter and leads to the accumulation of heat shock proteins. Next, we show that the heat shock response is important for viral replication. Overall, our findings provide new insights into the function of HHV-6A U37 in host cell signaling and identify potential cellular targets involved in HHV-6A pathogenesis and replication.

Manipulation of Oxidative Stress Responses by Non-Thermal Plasma to Treat Herpes Simplex Virus Type 1 Infection and Disease

Herpes simplex virus type 1 (HSV-1) is a contagious pathogen with a large global footprint, due to its ability to cause lifelong infection in patients. Current antiviral therapies are effective in limiting viral replication in the epithelial cells to alleviate clinical symptoms, but ineffective in eliminating latent viral reservoirs in neurons. Much of HSV-1 pathogenesis is dependent on its ability to manipulate oxidative stress responses to craft a cellular environment that favors HSV-1 replication. However, to maintain redox homeostasis and to promote antiviral immune responses, the infected cell can upregulate reactive oxygen and nitrogen species (RONS) while having a tight control on antioxidant concentrations to prevent cellular damage. Non-thermal plasma (NTP), which we propose as a potential therapy alternative directed against HSV-1 infection, is a means to deliver RONS that affect redox homeostasis in the infected cell. This review emphasizes how NTP can be an effective therapy for HSV-1 infections through the direct antiviral activity of RONS and via immunomodulatory changes in the infected cells that will stimulate anti-HSV-1 adaptive immune responses. Overall, NTP application can control HSV-1 replication and address the challenges of latency by decreasing the size of the viral reservoir in the nervous system.

RNA helicase DDX3X modulates herpes simplex virus 1 nuclear egress

DDX3X is a mammalian RNA helicase that regulates RNA metabolism, cancers, innate immunity and several RNA viruses. We discovered that herpes simplex virus 1, a nuclear DNA replicating virus, redirects DDX3X to the nuclear envelope where it surprisingly modulates the exit of newly assembled viral particles. DDX3X depletion also leads to an accumulation of virions in intranuclear herniations. Mechanistically, we show that DDX3X physically and functionally interacts with the virally encoded nuclear egress complex at the inner nuclear membrane. DDX3X also binds to and stimulates the incorporation in mature particles of pUs3, a herpes kinase that promotes viral nuclear release across the outer nuclear membrane. Overall, the data highlights two unexpected roles for an RNA helicase during the passage of herpes simplex viral particles through the nuclear envelope. This reveals a highly complex interaction between DDX3X and viruses and provides new opportunities to target viral propagation.

Role of the Orphan Transporter SLC35E1 in the Nuclear Egress of Herpes Simplex Virus 1

This study developed a system consisting of two rounds of screening cellular proteins involved in the nuclear egress of herpes simplex virus 1 (HSV-1). Using this system, we first screened cellular proteins that interacted with the HSV-1 nuclear egress complex (NEC) consisting of UL34 and UL31 in HSV-1-infected cells, which are critical for the nuclear egress of HSV-1, by tandem affinity purification coupled with mass spectrometry-based proteomics technology. Next, we performed CRISPR/Cas9-based screening of live HSV-1-infected reporter cells under fluorescence microscopy using single guide RNAs targeting the cellular proteins identified in the first proteomic screening to detect the mislocalization of the lamin-associated protein emerin, which is a phenotype for defects in HSV-1 nuclear egress. This study focused on a cellular orphan transporter SLC35E1, one of the cellular proteins identified by the screening system. Knockout of SLC35E1 reduced HSV-1 replication and induced membranous invaginations containing perinuclear enveloped virions (PEVs) adjacent to the nuclear membrane (NM), aberrant accumulation of PEVs in the perinuclear space between the inner and outer NMs and the invagination structures, and mislocalization of the NEC. These effects were similar to those of previously reported mutation(s) in HSV-1 proteins and depletion of cellular proteins that are important for HSV-1 de-envelopment, one of the steps required for HSV-1 nuclear egress. Our newly established screening system enabled us to identify a novel cellular protein required for efficient HSV-1 de-envelopment. IMPORTANCE The identification of cellular protein(s) that interact with viral effector proteins and function in important viral procedures is necessary for enhancing our understanding of the mechanics of various viral processes. In this study, we established a new system consisting of interactome screening for the herpes simplex virus 1 (HSV-1) nuclear egress complex (NEC), followed by loss-of-function screening to target the identified putative NEC-interacting cellular proteins to detect a defect in HSV-1 nuclear egress. This newly established system identified SLC35E1, an orphan transporter, as a novel cellular protein required for efficient HSV-1 de-envelopment, providing an insight into the mechanisms involved in this viral procedure.

Human Cytomegalovirus Nuclear Egress Complex Subunit, UL53, Associates with Capsids and Myosin Va, but Is Not Important for Capsid Localization towards the Nuclear Periphery

After herpesviruses encapsidate their genomes in replication compartments (RCs) within the nuclear interior, capsids migrate to the inner nuclear membrane (INM) for nuclear egress. For human cytomegalovirus (HCMV), capsid migration depends at least in part on nuclear myosin Va. It has been reported for certain herpesviruses that the nucleoplasmic subunit of the viral nuclear egress complex (NEC) is important for this migration. To address whether this is true for HCMV, we used mass spectrometry and multiple other methods to investigate associations among the HCMV NEC nucleoplasmic subunit, UL53, myosin Va, major capsid protein, and/or capsids. We also generated complementing cells to derive and test HCMV mutants null for UL53 or the INM NEC subunit, UL50, for their importance for these associations and, using electron microscopy, for intranuclear distribution of capsids. We found modest associations among the proteins tested, which were enhanced in the absence of UL50. However, we found no role for UL53 in the interactions of myosin Va with capsids or the percentage of capsids outside RC-like inclusions in the nucleus. Thus, UL53 associates somewhat with myosin Va and capsids, but, contrary to reports regarding its homologs in other herpesviruses, is not important for migration of capsids towards the INM.

Infection-induced chromatin modifications facilitate translocation of herpes simplex virus capsids to the inner nuclear membrane

Herpes simplex virus capsids are assembled and packaged in the nucleus and move by diffusion through the nucleoplasm to the nuclear envelope for egress. Analyzing their motion provides conclusions not only on capsid transport but also on the properties of the nuclear environment during infection. We utilized live-cell imaging and single-particle tracking to characterize capsid motion relative to the host chromatin. The data indicate that as the chromatin was marginalized toward the nuclear envelope it presented a restrictive barrier to the capsids. However, later in infection this barrier became more permissive and the probability of capsids to enter the chromatin increased. Thus, although chromatin marginalization initially restricted capsid transport to the nuclear envelope, a structural reorganization of the chromatin counteracted that to promote capsid transport later. Analyses of capsid motion revealed that it was subdiffusive, and that the diffusion coefficients were lower in the chromatin than in regions lacking chromatin. In addition, the diffusion coefficient in both regions increased during infection. Throughout the infection, the capsids were never enriched at the nuclear envelope, which suggests that instead of nuclear export the transport through the chromatin is the rate-limiting step for the nuclear egress of capsids. This provides motivation for further studies by validating the importance of intranuclear transport to the life cycle of HSV-1.

Cell Culture Evolution of a Herpes Simplex Virus 1 (HSV-1)/Varicella-Zoster Virus (VZV) UL34/ORF24 Chimeric Virus Reveals Novel Functions for HSV Genes in Capsid Nuclear Egress

Herpes simplex virus (HSV) and varicella-zoster virus (VZV) are both members of the alphaherpesvirus subfamily but belong to different genera. Substitution of the HSV-1 UL34 coding sequence with that of its VZV homolog, open reading frame 24 (ORF24), results in a virus that has defects in viral growth, spread, capsid egress, and nuclear lamina disruption very similar to those seen in a UL34-null virus despite normal interaction between ORF24 protein and HSV pUL31 and proper localization of the nuclear egress complex at the nuclear envelope. Minimal selection for growth in cell culture resulted in viruses that grew and spread much more efficiently that the parental chimeric virus. These viruses varied in their ability to support nuclear lamina disruption, normal nuclear egress complex localization, and capsid de-envelopment. Single mutations that suppress the growth defect were mapped to the coding sequences of ORF24, ICP22, and ICP4, and one virus carried single mutations in each of the ICP22 and US3 coding sequences. The phenotypes of these viruses support a role for ICP22 in nuclear lamina disruption and a completely unexpected role for the major transcriptional regulator, ICP4, in capsid nuclear egress. IMPORTANCE Interactions among virus proteins are critical for assembly and egress of virus particles, and such interactions are attractive targets for antiviral therapy. Identification of critical functional interactions can be slow and tedious. Capsid nuclear egress of herpesviruses is a critical event in the assembly and egress pathway and is mediated by two proteins, pUL31 and pUL34, that are conserved among herpesviruses. Here, we describe a cell culture evolution approach to identify other viral gene products that functionally interact with pUL34.

pUL21 regulation of pUs3 kinase activity influences the nature of nuclear envelope deformation by the HSV-2 nuclear egress complex

It is well established that the herpesvirus nuclear egress complex (NEC) has an intrinsic ability to deform membranes. During viral infection, the membrane-deformation activity of the NEC must be precisely regulated to ensure efficient nuclear egress of capsids. One viral protein known to regulate herpes simplex virus type 2 (HSV-2) NEC activity is the tegument protein pUL21. Cells infected with an HSV-2 mutant lacking pUL21 (ΔUL21) produced a slower migrating species of the viral serine/threonine kinase pUs3 that was shown to be a hyperphosphorylated form of the enzyme. Investigation of the pUs3 substrate profile in ΔUL21-infected cells revealed a prominent band with a molecular weight consistent with that of the NEC components pUL31 and pUL34. Phosphatase sensitivity and retarded mobility in phos-tag SDS-PAGE confirmed that both pUL31 and pUL34 were hyperphosphorylated by pUs3 in the absence of pUL21. To gain insight into the consequences of increased phosphorylation of NEC components, the architecture of the nuclear envelope in cells producing the HSV-2 NEC in the presence or absence of pUs3 was examined. In cells with robust NEC production, invaginations of the inner nuclear membrane were observed that contained budded vesicles of uniform size. By contrast, nuclear envelope deformations protruding outwards from the nucleus, were observed when pUs3 was included in transfections with the HSV-2 NEC. Finally, when pUL21 was included in transfections with the HSV-2 NEC and pUs3, decreased phosphorylation of NEC components was observed in comparison to transfections lacking pUL21. These results demonstrate that pUL21 influences the phosphorylation status of pUs3 and the HSV-2 NEC and that this has consequences for the architecture of the nuclear envelope.

During all herpesvirus infections, the nuclear envelope undergoes deformation in order to enable viral capsids assembled within the nucleus of the infected cell to gain access to the cytoplasm for further maturation and spread to neighbouring cells. These nuclear envelope deformations are orchestrated by the viral nuclear egress complex (NEC), which, in HSV, is composed of two viral proteins, pUL31 and pUL34. How the membrane-deformation activity of the NEC is controlled during infection is incompletely understood. The studies in this communication reveal that the phosphorylation status of pUL31 and pUL34 can determine the nature of nuclear envelope deformations and that the viral protein pUL21 can modulate the phosphorylation status of both NEC components. These findings provide an explanation for why HSV-2 strains lacking pUL21 are defective in nuclear egress. A thorough understanding of how NEC activity is controlled during infection may yield strategies to disrupt this fundamental step in the herpesvirus lifecycle, providing the basis for novel antiviral strategies.

Host and Viral Factors Involved in Nuclear Egress of Herpes Simplex Virus 1

Herpes simplex virus 1 (HSV-1) replicates its genome and packages it into capsids within the nucleus. HSV-1 has evolved a complex mechanism of nuclear egress whereby nascent capsids bud on the inner nuclear membrane to form perinuclear virions that subsequently fuse with the outer nuclear membrane, releasing capsids into the cytosol. The viral-encoded nuclear egress complex (NEC) plays a crucial role in this vesicle-mediated nucleocytoplasmic transport. Nevertheless, similar system mediates the movement of other cellular macromolecular complexes in normal cells. Therefore, HSV-1 may utilize viral proteins to hijack the cellular machinery in order to facilitate capsid transport. However, little is known about the molecular mechanisms underlying this phenomenon. This review summarizes our current understanding of the cellular and viral factors involved in the nuclear egress of HSV-1 capsids.

Virus-derived peptide inhibitors of the herpes simplex virus type 1 nuclear egress complex

Herpesviruses infect a majority of the human population, establishing lifelong latent infections for which there is no cure. Periodic viral reactivation spreads infection to new hosts while causing various disease states particularly detrimental in the immunocompromised. Efficient viral replication, and ultimately the spread of infection, is dependent on the nuclear egress complex (NEC), a conserved viral heterodimer that helps translocate viral capsids from the nucleus to the cytoplasm where they mature into infectious virions. Here, we have identified peptides, derived from the capsid protein UL25, that are capable of inhibiting the membrane-budding activity of the NEC from herpes simplex virus type 1 in vitro. We show that the inhibitory ability of the peptides depends on their length and the propensity to form an α-helix but not on the exact amino acid sequence. Current therapeutics that target viral DNA replication machinery are rendered ineffective by drug resistance due to viral mutations. Our results establish a basis for the development of an alternative class of inhibitors against nuclear egress, an essential step in herpesvirus replication, potentially expanding the current repertoire of available therapeutics.

Proteomics of Herpes Simplex Virus Type 1 Nuclear Capsids

Herpes simplex virus replicates in the nucleus, where new capsids are assembled. It produces procapsids devoid of nucleic acid but containing the preVP22a scaffold protein. These thermo-unstable particles then mature into A-, B- or C-nuclear icosahedral capsids, depending on their ability to shed the proteolytically processed scaffold and incorporation of the viral genome. To study how these viral capsids differ, we performed proteomics studies of highly enriched HSV-1 A-, B- and C-nuclear capsids, relying in part on a novel and powerful flow virometry approach to purify C-capsids. We found that the viral particles contained the expected capsid components and identified several tegument proteins in the C-capsid fraction (pU_L21, pU_L36, pU_L46, pU_L48, pU_L49, pU_L50, pU_L51 and pU_S10). Moreover, numerous ribosomal, hnRNPs and other host proteins, absent from the uninfected controls, were detected on the capsids with some of them seemingly specific to C-capsids (glycogen synthase, four different keratin-related proteins, fibronectin 1 and PCBP1). A subsequent proteomics analysis was performed to rule out the presence of protein complexes that may share similar density as the viral capsids but do not otherwise interact with them. Using pUL25 or VP5 mutant viruses incapable of assembling C-nuclear or all nuclear capsids, respectively, we confirmed the bulk of our initial findings. Naturally, it will next be important to address the functional relevance of these proteins.IMPORTANCE Much is known about the biology of herpesviruses. This includes their unique ability to traverse the two nuclear envelopes by sequential budding and fusion steps. For HSV-1, this implies the pU_L31/pU_L34 and pU_L17/pU_L25 complexes that may favor C-capsid egress. However, this selection process is not clear, nor are all the differences that distinguish A-, B- and C-capsids. The present study probes what proteins compose these capsids, including host proteins. This should open up new research avenues to clarify the biology of this most interesting family of viruses. It also reiterates the use of flow virometry as an innovative tool to purify viral particles.

"Non-Essential" Proteins of HSV-1 with Essential Roles In Vivo: A Comprehensive Review

Viruses encode for structural proteins that participate in virion formation and include capsid and envelope proteins. In addition, viruses encode for an array of non-structural accessory proteins important for replication, spread, and immune evasion in the host and are often linked to virus pathogenesis. Most virus accessory proteins are non-essential for growth in cell culture because of the simplicity of the infection barriers or because they have roles only during a state of the infection that does not exist in cell cultures (i.e., tissue-specific functions), or finally because host factors in cell culture can complement their absence. For these reasons, the study of most nonessential viral factors is more complex and requires development of suitable cell culture systems and in vivo models. Approximately half of the proteins encoded by the herpes simplex virus 1 (HSV-1) genome have been classified as non-essential. These proteins have essential roles in vivo in counteracting antiviral responses, facilitating the spread of the virus from the sites of initial infection to the peripheral nervous system, where it establishes lifelong reservoirs, virus pathogenesis, and other regulatory roles during infection. Understanding the functions of the non-essential proteins of herpesviruses is important to understand mechanisms of viral pathogenesis but also to harness properties of these viruses for therapeutic purposes. Here, we have provided a comprehensive summary of the functions of HSV-1 non-essential proteins.

Distinguishing Features of High- and Low-Dose Vaccine against Ocular HSV-1 Infection Correlates with Recognition of Specific HSV-1-Encoded Proteins

The protective efficacy of a live-attenuated HSV type 1 (HSV-1) vaccine, HSV-1 0∆ nuclear location signal (NLS), was evaluated in mice prophylactically in response to ocular HSV-1 challenge. Mice vaccinated with the HSV-1 0∆NLS were found to be more resistant to subsequent ocular virus challenge in terms of viral shedding, spread, the inflammatory response, and ocular pathology in a dose-dependent fashion. Specifically, a strong neutralizing Ab profile associated with low virus titers recovered from the cornea and trigeminal ganglia was observed in vaccinated mice in a dose-dependent fashion with doses ranging from 1 × 10³ to 1 × 10⁵ PFU HSV-1 0∆NLS. This correlation also existed in terms of viral latency in the trigeminal ganglia, corneal neovascularization, and leukocyte infiltration and expression of inflammatory cytokines and chemokines in infected tissue with the higher doses (1 × 10⁴-1 × 10⁵ PFU) of the HSV-1 0∆NLS-vaccinated mice, displaying reduced viral latency, ocular pathology, or inflammation in comparison with the lowest dose (1 × 10³ PFU) or vehicle vaccine employed. Fifteen HSV-1-encoded proteins were uniquely recognized by antisera from high-dose (1 × 10⁵ PFU)-vaccinated mice in comparison with low-dose (1 × 10³ PFU)- or vehicle-vaccinated animals. Passive immunization using high-dose-vaccinated, but not low-dose-vaccinated, mouse sera showed significant efficacy against ocular pathology in HSV-1-challenged animals. In summary, we have identified the minimal protective dose of HSV-1 0∆NLS vaccine in mice to prevent HSV-mediated disease and identified candidate proteins that may be useful in the development of a noninfectious prophylactic vaccine against the insidious HSV-1 pathogen.

Generation and characterization of monoclonal antibodies specific for the Pseudorabies Virus nuclear egress complex

During herpesvirus replication, newly synthesized nucleocapsids exit the nucleus by a vesicle-mediated transport, which requires the nuclear egress complex (NEC), composed of the conserved viral proteins designated as pUL31 and pUL34 in the alphaherpesviruses pseudorabies virus (PrV) and herpes simplex viruses. Oligomerization of the heterodimeric NEC at the inner nuclear membrane (INM) results in membrane bending and budding of virus particles into the perinuclear space. The INM-derived primary envelope then fuses with the outer nuclear membrane to release nucleocapsids into the cytoplasm. The two NEC components are necessary and sufficient for induction of vesicle budding and scission as shown after co-expression in eukaryotic cells or in synthetic membranes. However, where and when the NEC is formed, how membrane curvature is mediated and how it is regulated, remains unclear. While monospecific antisera raised against the different components of the PrV NEC aided in the characterization and intracellular localization of the individual proteins, no NEC specific tools have been described yet for any herpesvirus. To gain more insight into vesicle budding and scission, we aimed at generating NEC specific monoclonal antibodies (mAbs). To this end, mice were immunized with bacterially expressed soluble PrV NEC, which was previously used for structure determination. Besides pUL31- and pUL34-specific mAbs, we also identified mAbs, which reacted only in the presence of both proteins indicating specificity for the complex. Confocal microscopy with those NEC-specific mAbs revealed small puncta (approx. 0.064 μm²) along the nuclear rim in PrV wild type infected cells. In contrast, ca. 5-fold larger speckles (approx. 0.35 μm²) were detectable in cells infected with a PrV mutant lacking the viral protein kinase pUS3, which is known to accumulate primary enveloped virions in the PNS within large invaginations of the INM, or in cells co-expressing pUL31 and pUL34. Kinetic experiments showed that while the individual proteins were detectable already between 2-4 hours after infection, the NEC-specific mAbs produced significant staining only after 4-6 hours in accordance with timing of nuclear egress. Taken together, the data indicate that these mAbs specifically label the PrV NEC.

Nuclear Egress

During viral replication, herpesviruses utilize a unique strategy, termed nuclear egress, to translocate capsids from the nucleus into the cytoplasm. This initial budding step transfers a newly formed capsid from within the nucleus, too large to fit through nuclear pores, through the inner nuclear membrane to the perinuclear space. The perinuclear enveloped virion must then fuse with the outer nuclear membrane to be released into the cytoplasm for further maturation, undergoing budding once again at the trans-Golgi network or early endosomes, and ultimately exit the cell non-lytically to spread infection. This first budding process is mediated by two conserved viral proteins, UL31 and UL34, that form a heterodimer called the nuclear egress complex (NEC). This review focuses on what we know about how the NEC mediates capsid transport to the perinuclear space, including steps prior to and after this budding event. Additionally, we discuss the involvement of other viral proteins in this process and how NEC-mediated budding may be regulated during infection.

Structural basis for capsid recruitment and coat formation during HSV-1 nuclear egress

During herpesvirus infection, egress of nascent viral capsids from the nucleus is mediated by the viral nuclear egress complex (NEC). NEC deforms the inner nuclear membrane (INM) around the capsid by forming a hexagonal array. However, how the NEC coat interacts with the capsid and how curved coats are generated to enable budding is yet unclear. Here, by structure-guided truncations, confocal microscopy, and cryoelectron tomography, we show that binding of the capsid protein UL25 promotes the formation of NEC pentagons rather than hexagons. We hypothesize that during nuclear budding, binding of UL25 situated at the pentagonal capsid vertices to the NEC at the INM promotes formation of NEC pentagons that would anchor the NEC coat to the capsid. Incorporation of NEC pentagons at the points of contact with the vertices would also promote assembly of the curved hexagonal NEC coat around the capsid, leading to productive egress of UL25-decorated capsids.

Nuclear Egress Complexes of HCMV and Other Herpesviruses: Solving the Puzzle of Sequence Coevolution, Conserved Structures and Subfamily-Spanning Binding Properties

Herpesviruses uniquely express two essential nuclear egress-regulating proteins forming a heterodimeric nuclear egress complex (core NEC). These core NECs serve as hexameric lattice-structured platforms for capsid docking and recruit viral and cellular NEC-associated factors that jointly exert nuclear lamina as well as membrane-rearranging functions (multicomponent NEC). The regulation of nuclear egress has been profoundly analyzed for murine and human cytomegaloviruses (CMVs) on a mechanistic basis, followed by the description of core NEC crystal structures, first for HCMV, then HSV-1, PRV and EBV. Interestingly, the highly conserved structural domains of these proteins stand in contrast to a very limited sequence conservation of the key amino acids within core NEC-binding interfaces. Even more surprising, although a high functional consistency was found when regarding the basic role of NECs in nuclear egress, a clear specification was identified regarding the limited, subfamily-spanning binding properties of core NEC pairs and NEC multicomponent proteins. This review summarizes the evolving picture of the relationship between sequence coevolution, structural conservation and properties of NEC interaction, comparing HCMV to α-, β- and γ-herpesviruses. Since NECs represent substantially important elements of herpesviral replication that are considered as drug-accessible targets, their putative translational use for antiviral strategies is discussed.

Mutational Functional Analysis of the Pseudorabies Virus Nuclear Egress Complex-Nucleocapsid Interaction

Herpesvirus nucleocapsids leave the nucleus by a vesicle-mediated translocation mediated by the viral nuclear egress complex (NEC). The NEC is composed of two conserved viral proteins, designated pUL34 and pUL31 in the alphaherpesvirus pseudorabies virus (PrV). It is required for efficient nuclear egress and is sufficient for vesicle formation and scission from the inner nuclear membrane (INM). Structure-based mutagenesis identified a lysine at position 242 (K242) in pUL31, located in the most membrane distal part of the NEC, to be crucial for efficient nucleocapsid incorporation into budding vesicles. Replacing the lysine by alanine (K242A) resulted in accumulations of empty vesicles in the perinuclear space, despite the presence of excess nucleocapsids in the nucleus. However, it remained unclear whether the defect in capsid incorporation was due to interference with a direct, electrostatic interaction between the capsid and the NEC or structural restrictions. To test this, we replaced K242 with several amino acids, thereby modifying the charge, size, and side chain orientation. In addition, virus recombinants expressing pUL31-K242A were passaged and screened for second-site mutations. Compensatory mutations at different locations in pUL31 or pUL34 were identified, pointing to an inherent flexibility of the NEC. In summary, our data suggest that the amino acid at position 242 does not directly interact with the nucleocapsid but that rearrangements in the NEC coat are required for efficient nucleocapsid envelopment at the INM.IMPORTANCE Herpesviruses encode an exceptional vesicle formation and scission machinery, which operates at the inner nuclear membrane, translocating the viral nucleocapsid from the nucleus into the perinuclear space. The conserved herpesviral nuclear egress complex (NEC) orchestrates this process. High-resolution imaging approaches as well as the recently solved crystal structures of the NEC provided deep insight into the molecular details of vesicle formation and scission. Nevertheless, the molecular mechanism of nucleocapsid incorporation remained unclear. In accordance with structure-based predictions, a basic amino acid could be pinpointed in the most membrane-distal domain of the NEC (pUL31-K242), indicating that capsid incorporation might depend on a direct electrostatic interaction. Our follow-up study, described here, however, shows that the positive charge is not relevant but that the overall structure matters.

Identification of the Capsid Binding Site in the Herpes Simplex Virus 1 Nuclear Egress Complex and Its Role in Viral Primary Envelopment and Replication

During nuclear egress of nascent progeny herpesvirus nucleocapsids, the nucleocapsids acquire a primary envelope by budding through the inner nuclear membrane of infected cells into the perinuclear space between the inner and outer nuclear membranes. Herpes simplex virus 1 (HSV-1) U_L34 and U_L31 proteins form a nuclear egress complex (NEC) and play critical roles in this budding process, designated primary envelopment. To clarify the role of NEC binding to progeny nucleocapsids in HSV-1 primary envelopment, we established an assay system for HSV-1 NEC binding to nucleocapsids and capsid proteins in vitro Using this assay system, we showed that HSV-1 NEC bound to nucleocapsids and to capsid protein U_L25 but not to the other capsid proteins tested (i.e., VP5, VP23, and U_L17) and that HSV-1 NEC binding of nucleocapsids was mediated by the interaction of NEC with U_L25. U_L31 residues arginine-281 (R281) and aspartic acid-282 (D282) were required for efficient NEC binding to nucleocapsids and U_L25. We also showed that alanine substitution of U_L31 R281 and D282 reduced HSV-1 replication, caused aberrant accumulation of capsids in the nucleus, and induced an accumulation of empty vesicles that were similar in size and morphology to primary envelopes in the perinuclear space. These results suggested that NEC binding via U_L31 R281 and D282 to nucleocapsids, and probably to U_L25 in the nucleocapsids, has an important role in HSV-1 replication by promoting the incorporation of nucleocapsids into vesicles during primary envelopment.IMPORTANCE Binding of HSV-1 NEC to nucleocapsids has been thought to promote nucleocapsid budding at the inner nuclear membrane and subsequent incorporation of nucleocapsids into vesicles during nuclear egress of nucleocapsids. However, data to directly support this hypothesis have not been reported thus far. In this study, we have present data showing that two amino acids in the membrane-distal face of the HSV-1 NEC, which contains the putative capsid binding site based on the solved NEC structure, were in fact required for efficient NEC binding to nucleocapsids and for efficient incorporation of nucleocapsids into vesicles during primary envelopment. This is the first report showing direct linkage between NEC binding to nucleocapsids and an increase in nucleocapsid incorporation into vesicles during herpesvirus primary envelopment.

Structure of the herpes simplex virus 1 capsid with associated tegument protein complexes

Herpes simplex viruses (HSVs) rely on capsid-associated tegument complex (CATC) for long-range axonal transport of their genome-containing capsids between sites of infection and neuronal cell bodies. Here we report cryo-electron microscopy structures of the HSV-1 capsid with CATC up to 3.5-angstrom resolution and atomic models of multiple conformers of capsid proteins VP5, VP19c, VP23, and VP26 and tegument proteins pUL17, pUL25, and pUL36. Crowning every capsid vertex are five copies of heteropentameric CATC, each containing a pUL17 monomer supporting the coiled-coil helix bundle of a pUL25 dimer and a pUL36 dimer, thus positioning their flexible domains for potential involvement in nuclear capsid egress and axonal capsid transport. Notwithstanding newly discovered fold conservation between triplex proteins and bacteriophage λ protein gpD and the previously recognized bacteriophage HK97 gp5-like fold in VP5, HSV-1 capsid proteins exhibit extraordinary diversity in forms of domain insertion and conformational polymorphism, not only for interactions with tegument proteins but also for encapsulation of large genomes.

Human Cytomegalovirus Nuclear Capsids Associate with the Core Nuclear Egress Complex and the Viral Protein Kinase pUL97

The nuclear phase of herpesvirus replication is regulated through the formation of regulatory multi-component protein complexes. Viral genomic replication is followed by nuclear capsid assembly, DNA encapsidation and nuclear egress. The latter has been studied intensely pointing to the formation of a viral core nuclear egress complex (NEC) that recruits a multimeric assembly of viral and cellular factors for the reorganization of the nuclear envelope. To date, the mechanism of the association of human cytomegalovirus (HCMV) capsids with the NEC, which in turn initiates the specific steps of nuclear capsid budding, remains undefined. Here, we provide electron microscopy-based data demonstrating the association of both nuclear capsids and NEC proteins at nuclear lamina budding sites. Specifically, immunogold labelling of the core NEC constituent pUL53 and NEC-associated viral kinase pUL97 suggested an intranuclear NEC-capsid interaction. Staining patterns with phospho-specific lamin A/C antibodies are compatible with earlier postulates of targeted capsid egress at lamina-depleted areas. Important data were provided by co-immunoprecipitation and in vitro kinase analyses using lysates from HCMV-infected cells, nuclear fractions, or infectious virions. Data strongly suggest that nuclear capsids interact with pUL53 and pUL97. Combined, the findings support a refined concept of HCMV nuclear trafficking and NEC-capsid interaction.

Virus Assembly and Egress of HSV

The assembly and egress of herpes simplex virus (HSV) is a complicated multistage process that involves several different cellular compartments and the activity of many viral and cellular proteins. The process begins in the nucleus, with capsid assembly followed by genome packaging into the preformed capsids. The DNA-filled capsids (nucleocapsids) then exit the nucleus by a process of envelopment at the inner nuclear membrane followed by fusion with the outer nuclear membrane. In the cytoplasm nucleocapsids associate with tegument proteins, which form a complicated protein network that links the nucleocapsid to the cytoplasmic domains of viral envelope proteins. Nucleocapsids and associated tegument then undergo secondary envelopment at intracellular membranes originating from late secretory pathway and endosomal compartments. This leads to assembled virions in the lumen of large cytoplasmic vesicles, which are then transported to the cell periphery to fuse with the plasma membrane and release virus particles from the cell. The details of this multifaceted process are described in this chapter.

Venture from the Interior-Herpesvirus pUL31 Escorts Capsids from Nucleoplasmic Replication Compartments to Sites of Primary Envelopment at the Inner Nuclear Membrane

Herpesviral capsid assembly is initiated in the nucleoplasm of the infected cell. Size constraints require that newly formed viral nucleocapsids leave the nucleus by an evolutionarily conserved vescular transport mechanism called nuclear egress. Mature capsids released from the nucleoplasm are engaged in a membrane-mediated budding process, composed of primary envelopment at the inner nuclear membrane and de-envelopment at the outer nuclear membrane. Once in the cytoplasm, the capsids receive their secondary envelope for maturation into infectious virions. Two viral proteins conserved throughout the herpesvirus family, the integral membrane protein pUL34 and the phosphoprotein pUL31, form the nuclear egress complex required for capsid transport from the infected nucleus to the cytoplasm. Formation of the nuclear egress complex results in budding of membrane vesicles revealing its function as minimal virus-encoded membrane budding and scission machinery. The recent structural analysis unraveled details of the heterodimeric nuclear egress complex and the hexagonal coat it forms at the inside of budding vesicles to drive primary envelopment. With this review, I would like to present the capsid-escort-model where pUL31 associates with capsids in nucleoplasmic replication compartments for escort to sites of primary envelopment thereby coupling capsid maturation and nuclear egress.

Lysine 242 within Helix 10 of the Pseudorabies Virus Nuclear Egress Complex pUL31 Component Is Critical for Primary Envelopment of Nucleocapsids

Newly assembled herpesvirus nucleocapsids are translocated from the nucleus to the cytosol by a vesicle-mediated process engaging the nuclear membranes. This transport is governed by the conserved nuclear egress complex (NEC), consisting of the alphaherpesviral pUL34 and pUL31 homologs. The NEC is not only required for efficient nuclear egress but also sufficient for vesicle formation from the inner nuclear membrane (INM), as well as from synthetic lipid bilayers. The recently solved crystal structures for the NECs from different herpesviruses revealed molecular details of this membrane deformation and scission machinery uncovering the interfaces involved in complex and coat formation. However, the interaction domain with the nucleocapsid remained undefined. Since the NEC assembles a curved hexagonal coat on the nucleoplasmic side of the INM consisting of tightly interwoven pUL31/pUL34 heterodimers arranged in hexamers, only the membrane-distal end of the NEC formed by pUL31 residues appears to be accessible for interaction with the nucleocapsid cargo. To identify the amino acids involved in capsid incorporation, we mutated the corresponding regions in the alphaherpesvirus pseudorabies virus (PrV). Site-specifically mutated pUL31 homologs were tested for localization, interaction with pUL34, and complementation of PrV-ΔUL31. We identified a conserved lysine residue at amino acid position 242 in PrV pUL31 located in the alpha-helical domain H10 exposed on the membrane-distal end of the NEC as a key residue for nucleocapsid incorporation into the nascent primary particle.IMPORTANCE Vesicular transport through the nuclear envelope is a focus of research but is still not well understood. Herpesviruses pioneered this mechanism for translocation of the newly assembled nucleocapsid from the nucleus into the cytosol via vesicles derived from the inner nuclear membrane which fuse in a well-tuned process with the outer nuclear membrane to release their content. The structure of the viral nuclear membrane budding and scission machinery has been solved recently, providing in-depth molecular details. However, how cargo is incorporated remained unclear. We identified a conserved lysine residue in the membrane-distal portion of the nuclear egress complex required for capsid uptake into inner nuclear membrane-derived vesicles.

A Domain of Herpes Simplex Virus pUL33 Required To Release Monomeric Viral Genomes from Cleaved Concatemeric DNA

Monomeric herpesvirus DNA is cleaved from concatemers and inserted into preformed capsids through the actions of the viral terminase. The terminase of herpes simplex virus (HSV) is composed of three subunits encoded by UL15, UL28, and UL33. The UL33-encoded protein (pUL33) interacts with pUL28, but its precise role in the DNA cleavage and packaging reaction is unclear. To investigate the function of pUL33, we generated a panel of recombinant viruses with either deletions or substitutions in the most conserved regions of UL33 using a bacterial artificial chromosome system. Deletion of 11 amino acids (residues 50 to 60 or residues 110 to 120) precluded viral replication, whereas the truncation of the last 10 amino acids from the pUL33 C terminus did not affect viral replication or the interaction of pUL33 with pUL28. Mutations that replaced the lysine at codon 110 and the arginine at codon 111 with alanine codons failed to replicate, and the pUL33 mutant interacted with pUL28 less efficiently. Interestingly, genomic termini of the large (L) and small (S) components were detected readily in cells infected with these mutants, indicating that concatemeric DNA was cleaved efficiently. However, the release of monomeric genomes as assessed by pulsed-field gel electrophoresis was greatly diminished, and DNA-containing capsids were not observed. These results suggest that pUL33 is necessary for one of the two viral DNA cleavage events required to release individual genomes from concatemeric viral DNA.IMPORTANCE This paper shows a role for pUL33 in one of the two DNA cleavage events required to release monomeric genomes from concatemeric viral DNA. This is the first time that such a phenotype has been observed and is the first identification of a function of this protein relevant to DNA packaging other than its interaction with other terminase components.

The human cytomegalovirus nuclear egress complex unites multiple functions: Recruitment of effectors, nuclear envelope rearrangement, and docking to nuclear capsids

BACKGROUND

Nuclear replication represents a common hallmark of herpesviruses achieved by a number of sequentially unrolled regulatory processes. A rate-limiting step is provided by nucleo-cytoplasmic capsid export, for which a defined multiregulatory protein complex, namely, the nuclear egress complex (NEC), is assembled comprising both viral and cellular components. The NEC regulates at least 3 aspects of herpesviral nuclear replication: (1) multimeric recruitment of NEC-associated effector proteins, (2) reorganization of the nuclear lamina and membranes, and (3) the docking to nuclear capsids. Here, we review published data and own experimental work that characterizes the NEC of HCMV and other herpesviruses.

METHODS

A systematic review of information on nuclear egress of HCMV compared to selected alpha-, beta-, and gamma-herpesviruses: proteomics-based approaches, high-resolution imaging techniques, and functional investigations.

RESULTS

A large number of reports on herpesviral NECs have been published during the last two decades, focusing on protein-protein interactions, nuclear localization, regulatory phosphorylation, and functional validation. The emerging picture provides an illustrated example of well-balanced and sophisticated protein networking in virus-host interaction.

CONCLUSIONS

Current evidence refined the view about herpesviral NECs. Datasets published for HCMV, murine CMV, herpes simplex virus, and Epstein-Barr virus illustrate the marked functional consistency in the way herpesviruses achieve nuclear egress. However, this compares with only limited sequence conservation of core NEC proteins and a structural conservation restricted to individual domains. The translational use of this information might help to define a novel antiviral strategy on the basis of NEC-directed small molecules.

The Primary Enveloped Virion of Herpes Simplex Virus 1: Its Role in Nuclear Egress

Many viruses migrate between different cellular compartments for successive stages of assembly. The HSV-1 capsid assembles in the nucleus and then transfers into the cytoplasm. First, the capsid buds through the inner nuclear membrane, becoming coated with nuclear egress complex (NEC) protein. This yields a primary enveloped virion (PEV) whose envelope fuses with the outer nuclear membrane, releasing the capsid into the cytoplasm. We investigated the associated molecular mechanisms by isolating PEVs from US3-null-infected cells and imaging them by cryo-electron microscopy and tomography. (pUS3 is a viral protein kinase in whose absence PEVs accumulate in the perinuclear space.) Unlike mature extracellular virions, PEVs have very few glycoprotein spikes. PEVs are ~20% smaller than mature virions, and the little space available between the capsid and the NEC layer suggests that most tegument proteins are acquired later in the egress pathway. Previous studies have proposed that NEC is organized as hexamers in honeycomb arrays in PEVs, but we find arrays of heptameric rings in extracts from US3-null-infected cells. In a PEV, NEC contacts the capsid predominantly via the pUL17/pUL25 complexes which are located close to the capsid vertices. Finally, the NEC layer dissociates from the capsid as it leaves the nucleus, possibly in response to pUS3-mediated phosphorylation. Overall, nuclear egress emerges as a process driven by a program of multiple weak interactions.IMPORTANCE On its maturation pathway, the newly formed HSV-1 nucleocapsid must traverse the nuclear envelope, while respecting the integrity of that barrier. Nucleocapsids (125 nm in diameter) are too large to pass through the nuclear pore complexes that conduct most nucleocytoplasmic traffic. It is now widely accepted that the process involves envelopment/de-envelopment of a key intermediate-the primary enveloped virion. In wild-type infections, PEVs are short-lived, which has impeded study. Using a mutant that accumulates PEVs in the perinuclear space, we were able to isolate PEVs in sufficient quantity for structural analysis by cryo-electron microscopy and tomography. The findings not only elucidate the maturation pathway of an important human pathogen but also have implications for cellular processes that involve the trafficking of large macromolecular complexes.

Herpes Simplex Virus 1 UL34 Protein Regulates the Global Architecture of the Endoplasmic Reticulum in Infected Cells

Upon herpes simplex virus 1 (HSV-1) infection, the CD98 heavy chain (CD98hc) is redistributed around the nuclear membrane (NM), where it promotes viral de-envelopment during the nuclear egress of nucleocapsids. In this study, we attempted to identify the factor(s) involved in CD98hc accumulation and demonstrated the following: (i) the null mutation of HSV-1 UL34 caused specific dispersion throughout the cytoplasm of CD98hc and the HSV-1 de-envelopment regulators, glycoproteins B and H (gB and gH); (ii) as observed with CD98hc, gB, and gH, wild-type HSV-1 infection caused redistribution of the endoplasmic reticulum (ER) markers calnexin and ERp57 around the NM, whereas the UL34-null mutation caused cytoplasmic dispersion of these markers; (iii) the ER markers colocalized efficiently with CD98hc, gB, and gH in the presence and absence of UL34 in HSV-1-infected cells; (iv) at the ultrastructural level, wild-type HSV-1 infection caused ER compression around the NM, whereas the UL34-null mutation caused cytoplasmic dispersion of the ER; and (v) the UL34-null mutation significantly decreased the colocalization efficiency of lamin protein markers of the NM with CD98hc and gB. Collectively, these results indicate that HSV-1 infection causes redistribution of the ER around the NM, with resulting accumulation of ER-associated CD98hc, gB, and gH around the NM and that UL34 is required for ER redistribution, as well as for efficient recruitment to the NM of the ER-associated de-envelopment factors. Our study suggests that HSV-1 induces remodeling of the global ER architecture for recruitment of regulators mediating viral nuclear egress to the NM.IMPORTANCE The ER is an important cellular organelle that exists as a complex network extending throughout the cytoplasm. Although viruses often remodel the ER to facilitate viral replication, information on the effects of herpesvirus infections on ER morphological integrity is limited. Here, we showed that HSV-1 infection led to compression of the global ER architecture around the NM, resulting in accumulation of ER-associated regulators associated with nuclear egress of HSV-1 nucleocapsids. We also identified HSV-1 UL34 as a viral factor that mediated ER remodeling. Furthermore, we demonstrated that UL34 was required for efficient targeting of these regulators to the NM. To our knowledge, this is the first report showing that a herpesvirus remodels ER global architecture. Our study also provides insight into the mechanism by which the regulators for HSV-1 nuclear egress are recruited to the NM, where this viral event occurs.

The Herpesvirus Nuclear Egress Complex Component, UL31, Can Be Recruited to Sites of DNA Damage Through Poly-ADP Ribose Binding

The herpes simplex virus (HSV) UL31 gene encodes a conserved member of the herpesvirus nuclear egress complex that not only functions in the egress of DNA containing capsids from the nucleus, but is also required for optimal replication of viral DNA and its packaging into capsids. Here we report that the UL31 protein from HSV-2 can be recruited to sites of DNA damage by sequences found in its N-terminus. The N-terminus of UL31 contains sequences resembling a poly (ADP-ribose) (PAR) binding motif suggesting that PAR interactions might mediate UL31 recruitment to damaged DNA. Whereas PAR polymerase inhibition prevented UL31 recruitment to damaged DNA, inhibition of signaling through the ataxia telangiectasia mutated DNA damage response pathway had no effect. These findings were further supported by experiments demonstrating direct and specific interaction between HSV-2 UL31 and PAR using purified components. This study reveals a previously unrecognized function for UL31 and may suggest that the recognition of PAR by UL31 is coupled to the nuclear egress of herpesvirus capsids, influences viral DNA replication and packaging, or possibly modulates the DNA damage response mounted by virally infected cells.

Quantitative Evaluation of Protein Heterogeneity within Herpes Simplex Virus 1 Particles

Several virulence genes have been identified thus far in the herpes simplex virus 1 genome. It is also generally accepted that protein heterogeneity among virions further impacts viral fitness. However, linking this variability directly with infectivity has been challenging at the individual viral particle level. To address this issue, we resorted to flow cytometry (flow virometry), a powerful approach we recently employed to analyze individual viral particles, to identify which tegument proteins vary and directly address if such variability is biologically relevant. We found that the stoichiometry of the UL37, ICP0, and VP11/12 tegument proteins in virions is more stable than the VP16 and VP22 tegument proteins, which varied significantly among viral particles. Most interestingly, viruses sorted for their high VP16 or VP22 content yielded modest but reproducible increases in infectivity compared to their corresponding counterparts containing low VP16 or VP22 content. These findings were corroborated for VP16 in short interfering RNA experiments but proved intriguingly more complex for VP22. An analysis by quantitative Western blotting revealed substantial alterations of virion composition upon manipulation of individual tegument proteins and suggests that VP22 protein levels acted indirectly on viral fitness. These findings reaffirm the interdependence of the virion components and corroborate that viral fitness is influenced not only by the genome of viruses but also by the stoichiometry of proteins within each virion.IMPORTANCE The ability of viruses to spread in animals has been mapped to several viral genes, but other factors are clearly involved, including virion heterogeneity. To directly probe whether the latter influences viral fitness, we analyzed the protein content of individual herpes simplex virus 1 particles using an innovative flow cytometry approach. The data confirm that some viral proteins are incorporated in more controlled amounts, while others vary substantially. Interestingly, this correlates with the VP16 trans-activating viral protein and indirectly with VP22, a second virion component whose modulation profoundly alters virion composition. This reaffirms that not only the presence but also the amount of specific tegument proteins is an important determinant of viral fitness.

The Product of the Herpes Simplex Virus 2 UL16 Gene Is Critical for the Egress of Capsids from the Nuclei of Infected Cells

The herpes simplex virus (HSV) UL16 gene is conserved throughout the Herpesviridae and encodes a poorly understood tegument protein. The HSV-1 UL16 protein forms complexes with several viral proteins, including UL11, gE, VP22, and UL21. We previously demonstrated that HSV-2 UL21 was essential for virus propagation due to the failure of DNA-containing capsids (C capsids) to exit the nucleus. We hypothesized that if a UL16/UL21 complex was required for nuclear egress, HSV-2 lacking UL16 would have a phenotype similar to that of HSV-2 lacking UL21. Deletion of HSV-2 UL16 (Δ16) resulted in a 950-fold reduction in virus propagation in mouse L cell fibroblasts and a 200-fold reduction in virus propagation in Vero cells that was fully reversed upon the repair of Δ16 (Δ16R) and partially reversed by infecting UL16-expressing cells with Δ16. The kinetics of viral gene expression in cells infected with Δ16 were indistinguishable from those of cells infected with Δ16R or the parental virus. Additionally, similar numbers of capsids were isolated from the nuclei of cells infected with Δ16 and the parental virus. However, transmission electron microscopy, fluorescence in situ hybridization experiments, and fluorescent capsid localization assays all indicated a reduction in the ability of Δ16 C capsids to exit the nucleus of infected cells. Taken together, these data indicate that, like UL21, UL16 is critical for HSV-2 propagation and suggest that the UL16 and UL21 proteins may function together to facilitate the nuclear egress of capsids.IMPORTANCE HSV-2 is a highly prevalent sexually transmitted human pathogen that is the main cause of genital herpes infections and is fueling the epidemic transmission of HIV in sub-Saharan Africa. Despite important differences in the pathological features of HSV-1 and HSV-2 infections, HSV-2 is understudied compared to HSV-1. Here we demonstrate that a deletion of the HSV-2 UL16 gene results in a substantial inhibition of virus replication due to a reduction in the ability of DNA-containing capsids to exit the nucleus of infected cells. The phenotype of this UL16 mutant resembles that of an HSV-2 UL21 mutant described previously by our laboratory. Because UL16 and UL21 interact, these findings suggest that a complex containing both proteins may function together in nuclear egress.

Incorporation of the Kaposi's sarcoma-associated herpesvirus capsid vertex-specific component (CVSC) into self-assembled capsids

Self-assembly of herpesvirus capsids can be accomplished in heterologous expression systems provided all six capsid proteins are present. We have demonstrated the assembly of icosahedral Kaposi's sarcoma-associated herpesvirus (KSHV) capsids in insect cells using the baculovirus expression system. Using this self-assembly system we investigated whether we could add additional capsid associated proteins and determine their incorporation into the assembled capsid. We chose the capsid vertex-specific component (CVSC) proteins encoded by open reading frames (ORFs) 19 and 32 to test this. This complex sits on the capsid vertex and is important for capsid maturation in herpesvirus-infected cells. Co-immunoprecipitation assays were used to initially confirm a bi-molecular interaction between ORF19 and ORF32. Both proteins also precipitated the triplex proteins of the capsid shell (ORF26 and ORF62) as well as the major capsid protein (ORF25). Capsid immunoprecipitation assays revealed the incorporation of ORF19 as well as ORF32 into assembled capsids. Similar experiments also showed that the incorporation of each protein occurred independent of the other. These studies reveal biochemically how the KSHV CVSC interacts with the capsid shell.

Herpesvirus Nuclear Egress

Herpesviruses assemble and package their genomes into capsids in the nucleus, but complete final assembly of the mature virion in the cell cytoplasm. This requires passage of the genome-containing capsid across the double-membrane nuclear envelope. Herpesviruses have evolved a mechanism that relies on a pair of conserved viral gene products to shuttle the capsids from the nucleus to the cytoplasm by way of envelopment and de-envelopment at the inner and outer nuclear membranes, respectively. This complex process requires orchestration of the activities of viral and cellular factors to alter the architecture of the nuclear membrane, select capsids at the appropriate stage for egress, and accomplish efficient membrane budding and fusion events. The last few years have seen major advances in our understanding of the membrane budding mechanism and helped clarify the roles of viral and cellular proteins in the other, more mysterious steps. Here, we summarize and place into context this recent research and, hopefully, clarify both the major advances and major gaps in our understanding.

Vesicular Nucleo-Cytoplasmic Transport-Herpesviruses as Pioneers in Cell Biology

Herpesviruses use a vesicle-mediated transfer of intranuclearly assembled nucleocapsids through the nuclear envelope (NE) for final maturation in the cytoplasm. The molecular basis for this novel vesicular nucleo-cytoplasmic transport is beginning to be elucidated in detail. The heterodimeric viral nuclear egress complex (NEC), conserved within the classical herpesviruses, mediates vesicle formation from the inner nuclear membrane (INM) by polymerization into a hexagonal lattice followed by fusion of the vesicle membrane with the outer nuclear membrane (ONM). Mechanisms of capsid inclusion as well as vesicle-membrane fusion, however, are largely unclear. Interestingly, a similar transport mechanism through the NE has been demonstrated in nuclear export of large ribonucleoprotein complexes during Drosophila neuromuscular junction formation, indicating a widespread presence of a novel concept of cellular nucleo-cytoplasmic transport.

Have NEC Coat, Will Travel: Structural Basis of Membrane Budding During Nuclear Egress in Herpesviruses

Herpesviruses are unusual among enveloped viruses because they bud twice yet acquire a single envelope. Furthermore, unlike other DNA viruses that replicate in the nucleus, herpesviruses do not exit it by passing through the nuclear pores or by rupturing the nuclear envelope. Instead, herpesviruses have a complex mechanism of nuclear escape whereby nascent capsids bud at the inner nuclear membrane to form perinuclear virions that subsequently fuse with the outer nuclear membrane, releasing capsids into the cytosol. This makes them some of the very few known viruses that bud into the nuclear envelope. The envelope acquired during nuclear budding does not end up in the mature viral particle but instead allows the capsid to translocate from the nucleus into the cytosol. The viral nuclear egress complex (NEC) is a critical player in the nuclear egress, yet its function and mechanism have remained enigmatic. Recent studies have demonstrated that the NEC buds membranes without the help of other proteins by forming a honeycomb coat, which established the NEC as the first virally encoded budding machine that operates at the nuclear, as opposed to cytoplasmic, membrane. This review discusses our current understanding of the NEC budding mechanism, with the emphasis on studies that illuminated the structure of the NEC coat and its role in capsid budding during herpesvirus nuclear escape.

Herpes Simplex Virus Capsid Localization to ESCRT-VPS4 Complexes in the Presence and Absence of the Large Tegument Protein UL36p

UL36p (VP1/2) is the largest protein encoded by herpes simplex virus 1 (HSV-1) and resides in the innermost layer of tegument, the complex protein layer between the capsid and envelope. UL36p performs multiple functions in the HSV life cycle, including a critical but unknown role in capsid cytoplasmic envelopment. We tested whether UL36p is essential for envelopment because it is required to engage capsids with the cellular ESCRT/Vps4 apparatus. A green fluorescent protein (GFP)-fused form of the dominant negative ATPase Vps4-EQ was used to irreversibly tag ESCRT envelopment sites during infection by UL36p-expressing and UL36-null HSV strains. Using fluorescence microscopy and scanning electron microscopy, we quantitated capsid/Vps4-EQ colocalization and examined the ultrastructure of the corresponding viral assembly intermediates. We found that loss of UL36p resulted in a two-thirds reduction in the efficiency of capsid/Vps4-EQ association but that the remaining UL36p-null capsids were still able to engage the ESCRT envelopment apparatus. It appears that although UL36p helps to couple HSV capsids to the ESCRT pathway, this is likely not the sole reason for its absolute requirement for envelopment.

IMPORTANCE

Envelopment of the HSV capsid is essential for the assembly of an infectious virion and requires the complex interplay of a large number of viral and cellular proteins. Critical to envelope assembly is the virally encoded protein UL36p, whose function is unknown. Here we test the hypothesis that UL36p is essential for the recruitment of cellular ESCRT complexes, which are also known to be required for envelopment.

Human Cytomegalovirus pUL93 Links Nucleocapsid Maturation and Nuclear Egress

Human cytomegalovirus (HCMV) pUL93 and pUL77 are both essential for virus growth, but their functions in the virus life cycle remain mostly unresolved. Homologs of pUL93 and pUL77 in herpes simplex virus 1 (HSV-1) and pseudorabies virus (PRV) are known to interact to form a complex at capsid vertices known as the capsid vertex-specific component (CVSC), which likely stabilizes nucleocapsids during virus maturation and also aids in nuclear egress. In herpesviruses, nucleocapsids assemble and partially mature in nuclear replication compartments and then travel to the inner nuclear membrane (INM) for nuclear egress. The factors governing the recruitment of nucleocapsids to the INM are not known. Kinetic analysis of pUL93 demonstrates that this protein is expressed late during infection and localizes primarily to the nucleus of infected cells. pUL93 associates with both virions and capsids and interacts with the components of the nuclear egress complex (NEC), namely, pUL50, pUL53, and pUL97, during infection. Also, multiple regions in pUL93 can independently interact with pUL77, which has been shown to help retain viral DNA during capsid assembly. These studies, combined with our earlier report of an essential role of pUL93 in viral DNA packaging, indicate that pUL93 serves as an important link between nucleocapsid maturation and nuclear egress.

IMPORTANCE

HCMV causes life-threatening disease and disability in immunocompromised patients and congenitally infected newborns. In this study, we investigated the functions of HCMV essential tegument protein pUL93 and determined that it interacts with the components of the nuclear egress complex, namely, pUL50, pUL53, and pUL97. We also found that pUL93 specifically interacts with pUL77, which helps retain viral DNA during capsid assembly. Together, our data point toward an important role of pUL93 in linking virus maturation to nuclear egress. In addition to expanding our knowledge of the process of HCMV maturation, information from these studies will also be utilized to develop new antiviral therapies.

Nuclear Exodus: Herpesviruses Lead the Way

Most DNA viruses replicate in the nucleus and exit it either by passing through the nuclear pores or by rupturing the nuclear envelope. Unusually, herpesviruses have evolved a complex mechanism of nuclear escape whereby nascent capsids bud at the inner nuclear membrane to form perinuclear virions that subsequently fuse with the outer nuclear membrane, releasing capsids into the cytosol. Although this general scheme is accepted in the field, the players and their roles are still debated. Recent studies illuminated critical mechanistic features of this enigmatic process and uncovered surprising parallels with a novel cellular nuclear export process. This review summarizes our current understanding of nuclear egress in herpesviruses, examines the experimental evidence and models, and outlines outstanding questions with the goal of stimulating new research in this area.

The Essential Human Cytomegalovirus Proteins pUL77 and pUL93 Are Structural Components Necessary for Viral Genome Encapsidation

Several essential viral proteins are proposed to participate in genome encapsidation of human cytomegalovirus (HCMV), among them pUL77 and pUL93, which remain largely uncharacterized. To gain insight into their properties, we generated an HCMV mutant expressing a pUL77-monomeric enhanced green fluorescent protein (mGFP) fusion protein and a pUL93-specific antibody. Immunoblotting demonstrated that both proteins are incorporated into capsids and virions. Conversely to data suggesting internal translation initiation sites within the UL93 open reading frame (ORF), we provide evidence that pUL93 synthesis commences at the first start codon. In infected cells, pUL77-mGFP was found in nuclear replication compartments and dot-like structures, colocalizing with capsid proteins. Immunogold labeling of nuclear capsids revealed that pUL77 is present on A, B, and C capsids. Pulldown of pUL77-mGFP revealed copurification of pUL93, indicating interaction between these proteins, which still occurred when capsid formation was prevented. Correct subnuclear distribution of pUL77-mGFP required pUL93 as well as the major capsid protein (and thus probably the presence of capsids), but not the tegument protein pp150 or the encapsidation protein pUL52, demonstrating that pUL77 nuclear targeting occurs independently of the formation of DNA-filled capsids. When pUL77 or pUL93 was missing, generation of unit-length genomes was not observed, and only empty B capsids were produced. Taken together, these results show that pUL77 and pUL93 are capsid constituents needed for HCMV genome encapsidation. Therefore, the task of pUL77 seems to differ from that of its alphaherpesvirus orthologue pUL25, which exerts its function subsequent to genome cleavage-packaging.

IMPORTANCE

The essential HCMV proteins pUL77 and pUL93 were suggested to be involved in viral genome cleavage-packaging but are poorly characterized both biochemically and functionally. By producing a monoclonal antibody against pUL93 and generating an HCMV mutant in which pUL77 is fused to a fluorescent protein, we show that pUL77 and pUL93 are capsid constituents, with pUL77 being similarly abundant on all capsid types. Each protein is required for genome encapsidation, as the absence of either pUL77 or pUL93 results in a genome packaging defect with the formation of empty capsids only. This distinguishes pUL77 from its alphaherpesvirus orthologue pUL25, which is enriched on DNA-filled capsids and exerts its function after the viral DNA is packaged. Our data for the first time describe an HCMV mutant with a fluorescent capsid and provide insight into the roles of pUL77 and pUL93, thus contributing to a better understanding of the HCMV encapsidation network.

Nuclear Egress of Herpesviruses: The Prototypic Vesicular Nucleocytoplasmic Transport

Herpesvirus particles mature in two different cellular compartments. While capsid assembly and packaging of the genomic linear double-stranded DNA occur in the nucleus, virion formation takes place in the cytoplasm by the addition of numerous tegument proteins as well as acquisition of the viral envelope by budding into cellular vesicles derived from the trans-Golgi network containing virally encoded glycoproteins. To gain access to the final maturation compartment, herpesvirus nucleocapsids have to cross a formidable barrier, the nuclear envelope (NE). Since the ca. 120 nm diameter capsids are unable to traverse via nuclear pores, herpesviruses employ a vesicular transport through both leaflets of the NE. This process involves proteins which support local dissolution of the nuclear lamina to allow access of capsids to the inner nuclear membrane (INM), drive vesicle formation from the INM and mediate inclusion of the capsid as well as scission of the capsid-containing vesicle (also designated as "primary virion"). Fusion of the vesicle membrane (i.e., the "primary envelope") with the outer nuclear membrane subsequently results in release of the nucleocapsid into the cytoplasm for continuing virion morphogenesis. While this process has long been thought to be unique for herpesviruses, a similar pathway for nuclear egress of macromolecular complexes has recently been observed in Drosophila. Thus, herpesviruses may have coopted a hitherto unrecognized cellular mechanism of vesicle-mediated nucleocytoplasmic transport. This could have far reaching consequences for our understanding of cellular functions as again unraveled by the study of viruses.

Structural basis of membrane budding by the nuclear egress complex of herpesviruses

During nuclear egress, herpesvirus capsids bud at the inner nuclear membrane forming perinuclear viral particles that subsequently fuse with the outer nuclear membrane, releasing capsids into the cytoplasm. This unusual budding process is mediated by the nuclear egress complex (NEC) composed of two conserved viral proteins, UL31 and UL34. Earlier, we discovered that the herpesvirus nuclear egress complex (NEC) could bud synthetic membranes in vitro without the help of other proteins by forming a coat-like hexagonal scaffold inside the budding membrane. To understand the structural basis of NEC-mediated membrane budding, we determined the crystal structures of the NEC from two herpesviruses. The hexagonal lattice observed in the NEC crystals recapitulates the honeycomb coats within the budded vesicles. Perturbation of the oligomeric interfaces through mutagenesis blocks budding in vitro confirming that NEC oligomerization into a honeycomb lattice drives budding. The structure represents the first atomic-level view of an oligomeric array formed by a membrane-deforming protein, making possible the dissection of its unique budding mechanism and the design of inhibitors to block it.

Identification of molecular determinants for the nuclear import of pseudorabies virus UL31

Herpes simplex virus 1 (HSV-1) UL31 is a multifunctional protein and important for HSV-1 infection. Pseudorabies virus (PRV) UL31 is a late protein homologous to HSV-1 UL31. Previous studies showed that PRV UL31 is predominantly localized to nucleus, however, the molecular determinants for its nuclear import were unclear to date. Here, by utilizing live cells fluorescent microscopy, UL31 fused with enhanced yellow fluorescent protein was transiently expressed in live cells and confirmed to exclusively target to the nucleus in the absence of other viral proteins. Furthermore, the nuclear import of UL31 was found to be dependent on the Ran-, importin α1-, α3-, α5-, α7-, β1-and transportin-1-mediated pathway. Therefore, these results would open up new avenues for depicting the biological functions of UL31 during PRV infection.

Human Cytomegalovirus pUL93 Is Required for Viral Genome Cleavage and Packaging

Human cytomegalovirus (HCMV) pUL93 is essential for virus growth, but its precise function in the virus life cycle is unknown. Here, we characterize a UL93 stop mutant virus (UL93st-TB40/E-BAC) to demonstrate that the absence of this protein does not restrict viral gene expression; however, cleavage of viral DNA into unit-length genomes as well as genome packaging is abolished. Thus, pUL93 is required for viral genome cleavage and packaging.

Tegument Assembly and Secondary Envelopment of Alphaherpesviruses

Alphaherpesviruses like herpes simplex virus are large DNA viruses characterized by their ability to establish lifelong latent infection in neurons. As for all herpesviruses, alphaherpesvirus virions contain a protein-rich layer called "tegument" that links the DNA-containing capsid to the glycoprotein-studded membrane envelope. Tegument proteins mediate a diverse range of functions during the virus lifecycle, including modulation of the host-cell environment immediately after entry, transport of virus capsids to the nucleus during infection, and wrapping of cytoplasmic capsids with membranes (secondary envelopment) during virion assembly. Eleven tegument proteins that are conserved across alphaherpesviruses have been implicated in the formation of the tegument layer or in secondary envelopment. Tegument is assembled via a dense network of interactions between tegument proteins, with the redundancy of these interactions making it challenging to determine the precise function of any specific tegument protein. However, recent studies have made great headway in defining the interactions between tegument proteins, conserved across alphaherpesviruses, which facilitate tegument assembly and secondary envelopment. We summarize these recent advances and review what remains to be learned about the molecular interactions required to assemble mature alphaherpesvirus virions following the release of capsids from infected cell nuclei.

Characterization of the nuclear import and export signals of pseudorabies virus UL31

The pseudorabies virus (PRV) UL31 protein (pUL31) is a homologue of the herpes simplex virus 1 pUL31, which is a multifunctional protein that is important for HSV-1 infection. However, little is known concerning the subcellular localization signal of PRV UL31. Here, by transfection with a series of PRV UL31 deletion mutants fused to an enhanced yellow fluorescent protein (EYFP) gene, a bipartite nuclear localization signal (NLS) and a PY motif NLS of UL31 were identified and mapped to amino acids (aa) 4 to 20 (RRRLLRRKSSAARRKTL) and aa 21 to 34 (TRAARDRYAPYFAY), respectively. Additionally, the predicted nuclear export signal (NES) was shown to be nonfunctional. Taken together, this information opens up new avenues for investigating the biological functions of UL31 during PRV infection.

The Herpes Simplex Virus Protein pUL31 Escorts Nucleocapsids to Sites of Nuclear Egress, a Process Coordinated by Its N-Terminal Domain

Progeny capsids of herpesviruses leave the nucleus by budding through the nuclear envelope. Two viral proteins, the membrane protein pUL34 and the nucleo-phosphoprotein pUL31 form the nuclear egress complex that is required for capsid egress out of the nucleus. All pUL31 orthologs are composed of a diverse N-terminal domain with 1 to 3 basic patches and a conserved C-terminal domain. To decipher the functions of the N-terminal domain, we have generated several Herpes simplex virus mutants and show here that the N-terminal domain of pUL31 is essential with basic patches being critical for viral propagation. pUL31 and pUL34 entered the nucleus independently of each other via separate routes and the N-terminal domain of pUL31 was required to prevent their premature interaction in the cytoplasm. Unexpectedly, a classical bipartite nuclear localization signal embedded in this domain was not required for nuclear import of pUL31. In the nucleus, pUL31 associated with the nuclear envelope and newly formed capsids. Viral mutants lacking the N-terminal domain or with its basic patches neutralized still associated with nucleocapsids but were unable to translocate them to the nuclear envelope. Replacing the authentic basic patches with a novel artificial one resulted in HSV1(17⁺)Lox-UL31-hbpmp1mp2, that was viable but delayed in nuclear egress and compromised in viral production. Thus, while the C-terminal domain of pUL31 is sufficient for the interaction with nucleocapsids, the N-terminal domain was essential for capsid translocation to sites of nuclear egress and a coordinated interaction with pUL34. Our data indicate an orchestrated sequence of events with pUL31 binding to nucleocapsids and escorting them to the inner nuclear envelope. We propose a common mechanism for herpesviral nuclear egress: pUL31 is required for intranuclear translocation of nucleocapsids and subsequent interaction with pUL34 thereby coupling capsid maturation with primary envelopment.

Herpesviral capsid assembly is initiated in the host nucleus. Due to size constraints, newly formed nucleocapsids are unable to leave the nucleus through the nuclear pore complex. Instead herpesviruses apply an evolutionarily conserved mechanism for nuclear export of capsids called nuclear egress. This process is initiated by docking of capsids at the inner nuclear membrane, budding of enveloped capsids into the perinuclear space followed by de-envelopment and release of capsids to the cytoplasm where further maturation occurs. Two viral proteins conserved throughout the herpesvirus family, the membrane protein pUL34 and the phosphoprotein pUL31 form the nuclear egress complex that is critical for primary envelopment. We show here that pUL31 and pUL34 enter the nucleus independently of each other. pUL31 is targeted to the nucleoplasm where it binds to nucleocapsids via the conserved C-terminal domain, while its N-terminal domain is important for capsid translocation to the nuclear envelope and for a coordinated interaction with pUL34. Our data suggest a mechanism that is apparently conserved among all herpesviruses with pUL31 escorting nucleocapsids to the nuclear envelope in order to couple capsid maturation with primary envelopment.

Herpes Simplex Virus 1 Recruits CD98 Heavy Chain and β1 Integrin to the Nuclear Membrane for Viral De-Envelopment

Herpesviruses have evolved a unique mechanism for nucleocytoplasmic transport of nascent nucleocapsids: the nucleocapsids bud through the inner nuclear membrane (INM; primary envelopment), and the enveloped nucleocapsids then fuse with the outer nuclear membrane (de-envelopment). Little is known about the molecular mechanism of herpesviral de-envelopment. We show here that the knockdown of both CD98 heavy chain (CD98hc) and its binding partner β1 integrin induced membranous structures containing enveloped herpes simplex virus 1 (HSV-1) virions that are invaginations of the INM into the nucleoplasm and induced aberrant accumulation of enveloped virions in the perinuclear space and in the invagination structures. These effects were similar to those of the previously reported mutation(s) in HSV-1 proteins gB, gH, UL31, and/or Us3, which were shown here to form a complex(es) with CD98hc in HSV-1-infected cells. These results suggested that cellular proteins CD98hc and β1 integrin synergistically or independently regulated HSV-1 de-envelopment, probably by interacting directly and/or indirectly with these HSV-1 proteins.

IMPORTANCE

Certain cellular and viral macromolecular complexes, such as Drosophila large ribonucleoprotein complexes and herpesvirus nucleocapsids, utilize a unique vesicle-mediated nucleocytoplasmic transport: the complexes acquire primary envelopes by budding through the inner nuclear membrane into the space between the inner and outer nuclear membranes (primary envelopment), and the enveloped complexes then fuse with the outer nuclear membrane to release de-enveloped complexes into the cytoplasm (de-envelopment). However, there is a lack of information on the molecular mechanism of de-envelopment fusion. We report here that HSV-1 recruited cellular fusion regulatory proteins CD98hc and β1 integrin to the nuclear membrane for viral de-envelopment fusion. This is the first report of cellular proteins required for efficient de-envelopment of macromolecular complexes during their nuclear egress.

Gammaherpesvirus Tegument Protein ORF33 Is Associated With Intranuclear Capsids at an Early Stage of the Tegumentation Process

Herpesvirus nascent capsids, after assembly in the nucleus, must acquire a variety of tegument proteins during maturation. However, little is known about the identity of the tegument proteins that are associated with capsids in the nucleus or the molecular mechanisms involved in the nuclear egress of capsids into the cytoplasm, especially for the two human gammaherpesviruses Epstein-Barr virus (EBV) and Kaposi's sarcoma-associated herpesvirus (KSHV), due to a lack of efficient lytic replication systems. Murine gammaherpesvirus 68 (MHV-68) is genetically related to human gammaherpesviruses and serves as an excellent model to study the de novo lytic replication of gammaherpesviruses. We have previously shown that open reading frame 33 (ORF33) of MHV-68 is a tegument protein of mature virions and is essential for virion assembly and egress. However, it remains unclear how ORF33 is incorporated into virions. In this study, we first show that the endogenous ORF33 protein colocalizes with capsid proteins at discrete areas in the nucleus during viral infection. Cosedimentation analysis as well as an immunoprecipitation assay demonstrated that ORF33 is associated with both nuclear and cytoplasmic capsids. An immunogold labeling experiment using an anti-ORF33 monoclonal antibody revealed that ORF33-rich areas in the nucleus are surrounded by immature capsids. Moreover, ORF33 is associated with nucleocapsids prior to primary envelopment as well as with mature virions in the cytoplasm. Finally, we show that ORF33 interacts with two capsid proteins, suggesting that nucleocapsids may interact with ORF33 in a direct manner. In summary, we identified ORF33 to be a tegument protein that is associated with intranuclear capsids prior to primary envelopment, likely through interacting with capsid proteins in a direct manner.

IMPORTANCE

Morphogenesis is an essential step in virus propagation that leads to the generation of progeny virions. For herpesviruses, this is a complicated process that starts in the nucleus. Although the process of capsid assembly and genome packaging is relatively well understood, how capsids acquire tegument (the layer between the capsid and the envelope in a herpesvirus virion) and whether the initial tegumentation process takes place in the nucleus remain unclear. We previously showed that ORF33 of MHV-68 is a tegument protein and functions in both the nuclear egress of capsids and final virion maturation in the cytoplasm. In the present study, we show that ORF33 is associated with intranuclear capsids prior to primary envelopment and identify novel interactions between ORF33 and two capsid proteins. Our work provides new insights into the association between tegument proteins and nucleocapsids at an early stage of the virion maturation process for herpesviruses.

Herpesvirus nuclear egress: Pseudorabies Virus can simultaneously induce nuclear envelope breakdown and exit the nucleus via the envelopment-deenvelopment-pathway

Herpesvirus replication takes place in the nucleus and in the cytosol. After entering the cell, nucleocapsids are transported to nuclear pores where viral DNA is released into the nucleus. After gene expression and DNA replication new nucleocapsids are assembled which have to exit the nucleus for virion formation in the cytosol. Since nuclear pores are not wide enough to allow passage of the nucleocapsid, nuclear egress occurs by vesicle-mediated transport through the nuclear envelope. To this end, nucleocapsids bud at the inner nuclear membrane (INM) recruiting a primary envelope which then fuses with the outer nuclear membrane (ONM). In the absence of this regulated nuclear egress, mutants of the alphaherpesvirus pseudorabies virus have been described that escape from the nucleus after virus-induced nuclear envelope breakdown. Here we review these exit pathways and demonstrate that both can occur simultaneously under appropriate conditions.