Environmental stress increases the entry of cytoplasmic organellar DNA into the nucleus in plants

Yeast EndoG prevents genome instability by degrading extranuclear DNA species

In metazoans mitochondrial DNA (mtDNA) or retrotransposon cDNA released to cytoplasm are degraded by nucleases to prevent sterile inflammation. It remains unknown whether degradation of these DNA also prevents nuclear genome instability. We used an amplicon sequencing-based method in yeast enabling analysis of millions of DSB repair products. In non-dividing stationary phase cells, Pol4-mediated non-homologous end-joining increases, resulting in frequent insertions of 1-3 nucleotides, and insertions of mtDNA (NUMTs) or retrotransposon cDNA. Yeast EndoG (Nuc1) nuclease limits insertion of cDNA and transfer of very long mtDNA ( >10 kb) to the nucleus, where it forms unstable circles, while promoting the formation of short NUMTs (~45-200 bp). Nuc1 also regulates transfer of extranuclear DNA to nucleus in aging or meiosis. We propose that Nuc1 preserves genome stability by degrading retrotransposon cDNA and long mtDNA, while short NUMTs originate from incompletely degraded mtDNA. This work suggests that nucleases eliminating extranuclear DNA preserve genome stability.

The Chrysosplenium sinicum genome provides insights into adaptive evolution of shade plants

Chrysosplenium sinicum, a traditional Tibetan medicinal plant, can successfully thrive in low-light environments for long periods of time. To investigate the adaptive evolution of shade plants in low-light environments, we generated a chromosome-scale genome assembly (~320 Mb) for C. sinicum by combining PacBio sequencing and Hi-C technologies. Based on our results, gene families related to photosynthesis and cell respiration greatly expanded and evolved in C. sinicum genome due to intracellular DNA transfer from organelle genome to nuclear genome. Under positive selective pressure, adaptive evolution of light-harvesting complex II (LHCII) component protein CsLhcb1s resulted in the expansion of threonine residues at the phosphorylation site of STN7 kinase, potentially establishing a crucial genomic foundation for enhancing C. sinicum's adaptability in low-light environments. Through transcriptome and metabolome analysis, we identified chrysosplenol and chrysosplenoside as predominant flavonoid metabolites of C. sinicum and predicted their synthesis pathways. In addition, analysis of alternative splicing (AS) revealed that AS events help regulate state transition and flavonoid biosynthesis. The present study provides new insights into the genomes of shade plants exposed to low-light conditions and adaptive evolution of these genomes; in addition, the results improve our current knowledge on the biosynthetic and regulatory processes of chrysosplenol and chrysosplenoside.

RPA and Rad27 limit templated and inverted insertions at DNA breaks

Formation of templated insertions at DNA double-strand breaks (DSBs) is very common in cancer cells. The mechanisms and enzymes regulating these events are largely unknown. Here, we investigated templated insertions in yeast at DSBs using amplicon sequencing across a repaired locus. We document very short (most ∼5-34 bp), templated inverted duplications at DSBs. They are generated through a foldback mechanism that utilizes microhomologies adjacent to the DSB. Enzymatic requirements suggest a hybrid mechanism wherein one end requires Polδ-mediated synthesis while the other end is captured by nonhomologous end joining (NHEJ). This process is exacerbated in mutants with low levels or mutated RPA ( rtt105 Δ; rfa1 -t33) or extensive resection mutant ( sgs1 Δ exo1 Δ). Templated insertions from various distant genomic locations also increase in these mutants as well as in rad27 Δ and originate from fragile regions of the genome. Among complex insertions, common events are insertions of two sequences, originating from the same locus and with inverted orientation. We propose that these inversions are also formed by microhomology-mediated template switching. Taken together, we propose that a shortage of RPA typical in cancer cells is one possible factor stimulating the formation of templated insertions.

Evolutionary trajectory of organelle-derived nuclear DNAs in the Triticum/Aegilops complex species

Organelle-derived nuclear DNAs, nuclear plastid DNAs (NUPTs), and nuclear mitochondrial DNAs (NUMTs) have been identified in plants. Most, if not all, genes residing in NUPTs/NUMTs (NUPGs/NUMGs) are known to be inactivated and pseudogenized. However, the role of epigenetic control in silencing NUPGs/NUMGs and the dynamic evolution of NUPTs/NUMTs with respect to organismal phylogeny remain barely explored. Based on the available nuclear and organellar genomic resources of wheat (genus Triticum) and goat grass (genus Aegilops) within Triticum/Aegilops complex species, we investigated the evolutionary fates of NUPTs/NUMTs in terms of their epigenetic silencing and their dynamic occurrence rates in the nuclear diploid genomes and allopolyploid subgenomes. NUPTs and NUMTs possessed similar genomic atlas, including (i) predominantly located in intergenic regions and preferential integration to gene regulation regions and (ii) generating sequence variations in the nuclear genome. Unlike nuclear indigenous genes, the alien NUPGs/NUMGs were associated with repressive epigenetic signals, namely high levels of DNA methylation and low levels of active histone modifications. Phylogenomic analyses suggested that the species-specific and gradual accumulation of NUPTs/NUMTs accompanied the speciation processes. Moreover, based on further pan-genomic analyses, we found significant subgenomic asymmetry in the NUPT/NUMT occurrence, which accumulated during allopolyploid wheat evolution. Our findings provide insight into the dynamic evolutionary fates of organelle-derived nuclear DNA in plants.

Spatial and temporal characterization of the rich fraction of plastid DNA present in the nuclear genome of Moringa oleifera reveals unanticipated complexity in NUPTs´ formation

BACKGROUND

Beyond the massive amounts of DNA and genes transferred from the protoorganelle genome to the nucleus during the endosymbiotic event that gave rise to the plastids, stretches of plastid DNA of varying size are still being copied and relocated to the nuclear genome in a process that is ongoing and does not result in the concomitant shrinking of the plastid genome. As a result, plant nuclear genomes feature small, but variable, fraction of their genomes of plastid origin, the so-called nuclear plastid DNA sequences (NUPTs). However, the mechanisms underlying the origin and fixation of NUPTs are not yet fully elucidated and research on the topic has been mostly focused on a limited number of species and of plastid DNA.

RESULTS

Here, we leveraged a chromosome-scale version of the genome of the orphan crop Moringa oleifera, which features the largest fraction of plastid DNA in any plant nuclear genome known so far, to gain insights into the mechanisms of origin of NUPTs. For this purpose, we examined the chromosomal distribution and arrangement of NUPTs, we explicitly modeled and tested the correlation between their age and size distribution, we characterized their sites of origin at the chloroplast genome and their sites of insertion at the nuclear one, as well as we investigated their arrangement in clusters. We found a bimodal distribution of NUPT relative ages, which implies NUPTs in moringa were formed through two separate events. Furthermore, NUPTs from every event showed markedly distinctive features, suggesting they originated through distinct mechanisms.

CONCLUSIONS

Our results reveal an unanticipated complexity of the mechanisms at the origin of NUPTs and of the evolutionary forces behind their fixation and highlight moringa species as an exceptional model to assess the impact of plastid DNA in the evolution of the architecture and function of plant nuclear genomes.

Yeast EndoG prevents genome instability by degrading cytoplasmic DNA

In metazoans release of mitochondrial DNA or retrotransposon cDNA to cytoplasm can cause sterile inflammation and disease 1. Cytoplasmic nucleases degrade these DNA species to limit inflammation 2,3. It remains unknown whether degradation these DNA also prevents nuclear genome instability. To address this question, we decided to identify the nuclease regulating transfer of these cytoplasmic DNA species to the nucleus. We used an amplicon sequencing-based method in yeast enabling analysis of millions of DSB repair products. Nuclear mtDNA (NUMTs) and retrotransposon cDNA insertions increase dramatically in nondividing stationary phase cells. Yeast EndoG (Nuc1) nuclease limits insertions of cDNA and transfer of very long mtDNA (>10 kb) that forms unstable circles or rarely insert in the genome, but it promotes formation of short NUMTs (~45-200 bp). Nuc1 also regulates transfer of cytoplasmic DNA to nucleus in aging or during meiosis. We propose that Nuc1 preserves genome stability by degrading retrotransposon cDNA and long mtDNA, while short NUMTs can originate from incompletely degraded mtDNA. This work suggests that nucleases eliminating cytoplasmic DNA play a role in preserving genome stability.

Comparative Genome Microsynteny Illuminates the Fast Evolution of Nuclear Mitochondrial Segments (NUMTs) in Mammals

The escape of DNA from mitochondria into the nuclear genome (nuclear mitochondrial DNA, NUMT) is an ongoing process. Although pervasively observed in eukaryotic genomes, their evolutionary trajectories in a mammal-wide context are poorly understood. The main challenge lies in the orthology assignment of NUMTs across species due to their fast evolution and chromosomal rearrangements over the past 200 million years. To address this issue, we systematically investigated the characteristics of NUMT insertions in 45 mammalian genomes and established a novel, synteny-based method to accurately predict orthologous NUMTs and ascertain their evolution across mammals. With a series of comparative analyses across taxa, we revealed that NUMTs may originate from nonrandom regions in mtDNA, are likely found in transposon-rich and intergenic regions, and unlikely code for functional proteins. Using our synteny-based approach, we leveraged 630 pairwise comparisons of genome-wide microsynteny and predicted the NUMT orthology relationships across 36 mammals. With the phylogenetic patterns of NUMT presence-and-absence across taxa, we constructed the ancestral state of NUMTs given the mammal tree using a coalescent method. We found support on the ancestral node of Fereuungulata within Laurasiatheria, whose subordinal relationships are still controversial. This study broadens our knowledge on NUMT insertion and evolution in mammalian genomes and highlights the merit of NUMTs as alternative genetic markers in phylogenetic inference.

Yeast EndoG prevents genome instability by degrading cytoplasmic DNA

In metazoans release of mitochondrial DNA or retrotransposon cDNA to cytoplasm can cause sterile inflammation and disease. Cytoplasmic nucleases degrade these DNA species to limit inflammation. It remains unknown whether degradation these DNA also prevents nuclear genome instability. To address this question, we decided to identify the nuclease regulating transfer of these cytoplasmic DNA species to the nucleus. We used an amplicon sequencing-based method in yeast enabling analysis of millions of DSB repair products. Nu clear mt DNA (NUMTs) and retrotransposon cDNA insertions increase dramatically in nondividing stationary phase cells. Yeast EndoG (Nuc1) nuclease limits insertions of cDNA and transfer of very long mtDNA (>10 kb) that forms unstable circles or rarely insert in the genome, but it promotes formation of short NUMTs (∼45-200 bp). Nuc1 also regulates transfer of cytoplasmic DNA to nucleus in aging or during meiosis. We propose that Nuc1 preserves genome stability by degrading retrotransposon cDNA and long mtDNA, while short NUMTs can originate from incompletely degraded mtDNA. This work suggests that nucleases eliminating cytoplasmic DNA play a role in preserving genome stability.

Pangenome-based trajectories of intracellular gene transfers in Poaceae unveil high cumulation in Triticeae

Intracellular gene transfers (IGTs) between the nucleus and organelles, including plastids and mitochondria, constantly reshape the nuclear genome during evolution. Despite the substantial contribution of IGTs to genome variation, the dynamic trajectories of IGTs at the pangenomic level remain elusive. Here, we developed an approach, IGTminer, that maps the evolutionary trajectories of IGTs using collinearity and gene reannotation across multiple genome assemblies. We applied IGTminer to create a nuclear organellar gene (NOG) map across 67 genomes covering 15 Poaceae species, including important crops. The resulting NOGs were verified by experiments and sequencing data sets. Our analysis revealed that most NOGs were recently transferred and lineage specific and that Triticeae species tended to have more NOGs than other Poaceae species. Wheat (Triticum aestivum) had a higher retention rate of NOGs than maize (Zea mays) and rice (Oryza sativa), and the retained NOGs were likely involved in photosynthesis and translation pathways. Large numbers of NOG clusters were aggregated in hexaploid wheat during 2 rounds of polyploidization, contributing to the genetic diversity among modern wheat accessions. We implemented an interactive web server to facilitate the exploration of NOGs in Poaceae. In summary, this study provides resources and insights into the roles of IGTs in shaping interspecies and intraspecies genome variation and driving plant genome evolution.

A Burst of Numt Insertion in the Dasyuridae Family During Marsupial Evolution

Nuclear pseudogenes of mitochondrial origin (numts) are common in all eukaryotes. Our previous scan of numts in sequenced nuclear genomes suggested that the highest numt content currently known in animals is that in the gray short-tailed opossum. The present work sought to determine numt content in marsupials and to compare it to those in placental and monothematic mammals as well as in non-mammalian vertebrates. To achieve this, 70 vertebrate species with available nuclear and mitochondrial genomes were scanned for numt content. An extreme numt content was found in the Dasyuridae, with 3,450 in Sarcophilus harrisii (1,955 kb) and 2,813 in Antechinus flavipes (847 kb). The evolutionarily closest species analyzed, the extinct Thylacinus cynocephalus belonging to the Thylacindae family, had only 435 numts (238 kb). These two Dasyuridae genomes featured the highest numt content identified in animals to date. A phylogenetic analysis of numts longer than 300 bp, using a Diprotodonita mitochondrial tree, indicated a burst of numt insertion that began before the divergence of the Dasyurini and Phascogalini, reaching a peak in the early evolution of the two tribes. No comparable increase was found in the early divergent species T. cynocephalus. Divergence of the Dasyuridae tribes has been previously dated to shortly after the Miocene climate transition, characterized by a rapid temperature decline. Interestingly, deviation from optimal growth temperature is one of the environmental factors reported to increase numt insertions in a laboratory setting.

Evolutionary analysis of the Moringa oleifera genome reveals a recent burst of plastid to nucleus gene duplications

It is necessary to identify suitable alternative crops to ensure the nutritional demands of a growing global population. The genome of Moringa oleifera, a fast-growing drought-tolerant orphan crop with highly valuable agronomical, nutritional and pharmaceutical properties, has recently been reported. We model here gene family evolution in Moringa as compared with ten other flowering plant species. Despite the reduced number of genes in the compact Moringa genome, 101 gene families, grouping 957 genes, were found as significantly expanded. Expanded families were highly enriched for chloroplastidic and photosynthetic functions. Indeed, almost half of the genes belonging to Moringa expanded families grouped with their Arabidopsis thaliana plastid encoded orthologs. Microsynteny analysis together with modeling the distribution of synonymous substitutions rates, supported most plastid duplicated genes originated recently through a burst of simultaneous insertions of large regions of plastid DNA into the nuclear genome. These, together with abundant short insertions of plastid DNA, contributed to the occurrence of massive amounts of plastid DNA in the Moringa nuclear genome, representing 4.71%, the largest reported so far. Our study provides key genetic resources for future breeding programs and highlights the potential of plastid DNA to impact the structure and function of nuclear genes and genomes.

The Transfer of the Ferredoxin Gene From the Chloroplast to the Nuclear Genome Is Ancient Within the Paraphyletic Genus Thalassiosira

Ferredoxins are iron–sulfur proteins essential for a wide range of organisms because they are an electron transfer mediator involved in multiple metabolic pathways. In phytoplankton, these proteins are active in the mature chloroplasts, but the petF gene, encoding for ferredoxin, has been found either to be in the chloroplast genome or transferred to the nuclear genome as observed in the green algae and higher plant lineage. We experimentally determined the location of the petF gene in 12 strains of Thalassiosira covering three species using DNA sequencing and qPCR assays. The results showed that petF gene is located in the nuclear genome of all confirmed Thalassiosira oceanica strains (CCMP0999, 1001, 1005, and 1006) tested. In contrast, all Thalassiosira pseudonana (CCMP1012, 1013, 1014, and 1335) and Thalassiosira weissflogii (CCMP1010, 1049, and 1052) strains studied retained the gene in the chloroplast genome, as generally observed for Bacillariophyceae. Our evolutionary analyses further extend the dataset on the localization of the petF gene in the Thalassiosirales. The realization that the petF gene is nuclear-encoded in the Skeletonema genus allowed us to trace the petF gene transfer back to a single event that occurred within the paraphyletic genus Thalassiosira. Phylogenetic analyses revealed the need to reassess the taxonomic assignment of the Thalassiosira strain CCMP1616, since the genes used in our study did not cluster within the T. oceanica lineage. Our results suggest that this strains’ diversification occurred prior to the ferredoxin gene transfer event. The functional transfer of petF genes provides insight into the evolutionary processes leading to chloroplast genome reduction and suggests ecological adaptation as a driving force for such chloroplast to nuclear gene transfer.

Nuclear Integrants of Organellar DNA Contribute to Genome Structure and Evolution in Plants

The transfer of genetic material from the mitochondria and plastid to the nucleus gives rise to nuclear integrants of mitochondrial DNA (NUMTs) and nuclear integrants of plastid DNA (NUPTs). This frequently occurring DNA transfer is ongoing and has important evolutionary implications. In this review, based on previous studies and the analysis of NUMT/NUPT insertions of more than 200 sequenced plant genomes, we analyzed and summarized the general features of NUMTs/NUPTs and highlighted the genetic consequence of organellar DNA insertions. The statistics of organellar DNA integrants among various plant genomes revealed that organellar DNA-derived sequence content is positively correlated with the nuclear genome size. After integration, the nuclear organellar DNA could undergo different fates, including elimination, mutation, rearrangement, fragmentation, and proliferation. The integrated organellar DNAs play important roles in increasing genetic diversity, promoting gene and genome evolution, and are involved in sex chromosome evolution in dioecious plants. The integrating mechanisms, involving non-homologous end joining at double-strand breaks were also discussed.

Intergenomic gene transfer in diploid and allopolyploid Gossypium

BACKGROUND

Intergenomic gene transfer (IGT) between nuclear and organellar genomes is a common phenomenon during plant evolution. Gossypium is a useful model to evaluate the genomic consequences of IGT for both diploid and polyploid species. Here, we explore IGT among nuclear, mitochondrial, and plastid genomes of four cotton species, including two allopolyploids and their model diploid progenitors (genome donors, G. arboreum: A₂ and G. raimondii: D₅).

RESULTS

Extensive IGT events exist for both diploid and allotetraploid cotton (Gossypium) species, with the nuclear genome being the predominant recipient of transferred DNA followed by the mitochondrial genome. The nuclear genome has integrated 100 times more foreign sequences than the mitochondrial genome has in total length. In the nucleus, the integrated length of chloroplast DNA (cpDNA) was between 1.87 times (in diploids) to nearly four times (in allopolyploids) greater than that of mitochondrial DNA (mtDNA). In the mitochondrion, the length of nuclear DNA (nuDNA) was typically three times than that of cpDNA. Gossypium mitochondrial genomes integrated three nuclear retrotransposons and eight chloroplast tRNA genes, and incorporated chloroplast DNA prior to divergence between the diploids and allopolyploid formation. For mitochondrial chloroplast-tRNA genes, there were 2-6 bp conserved microhomologies flanking their insertion sites across distantly related genera, which increased to 10 bp microhomologies for the four cotton species studied. For organellar DNA sequences, there are source hotspots, e.g., the atp6-trnW intergenic region in the mitochondrion and the inverted repeat region in the chloroplast. Organellar DNAs in the nucleus were rarely expressed, and at low levels. Surprisingly, there was asymmetry in the survivorship of ancestral insertions following allopolyploidy, with most numts (nuclear mitochondrial insertions) decaying or being lost whereas most nupts (nuclear plastidial insertions) were retained.

CONCLUSIONS

This study characterized and compared intracellular transfer among nuclear and organellar genomes within two cultivated allopolyploids and their ancestral diploid cotton species. A striking asymmetry in the fate of IGTs in allopolyploid cotton was discovered, with numts being preferentially lost relative to nupts. Our results connect intergenomic gene transfer with allotetraploidy and provide new insight into intracellular genome evolution.

Cytogenetic and genomic organization analyses of chloroplast DNA invasions in the nuclear genome of Asparagus officinalis L. provides signatures of evolutionary complexity and informativity in sex chromosome evolution

BACKGROUND

The transfer of chloroplast DNA into nuclear genome is a common process in plants. These transfers form nuclear integrants of plastid DNAs (NUPTs), which are thought to be driving forces in genome evolution, including sex chromosome evolution. In this study, NUPTs in the genome of a dioecious plant Asparagus officinalis L. were systematically analyzed, in order to investigate the characteristics of NUPTs in the nuclear genome and the relationship between NUPTs and sex chromosome evolution in this species.

RESULTS

A total of 3155 NUPT insertions were detected, and they represented approximated 0.06% of the nuclear genome. About 45% of the NUPTs were organized in clusters. These clusters were derived from various evolutionary events. The Y chromosome contained the highest number and largest proportion of NUPTs, suggesting more accumulation of NUPTs on sex chromosomes. NUPTs were distributed widely in all of the chromosomes, and some regions preferred these insertions. The highest density of NUPTs was found in a 47 kb region in the Y chromosome; more than 75% of this region was occupied by NUPTs. Further cytogenetic and sequence alignment analysis revealed that this region was likely the centromeric region of the sex chromosomes. On the other hand, the male-specific region of the Y chromosome (MSY) and the adjacent regions did not have NUPT insertions.

CONCLUSIONS

These results indicated that NUPTs were involved in shaping the genome of A. officinalis through complicated process. NUPTs may play important roles in the centromere shaping of the sex chromosomes of A. officinalis, but were not implicated in MSY formation.

Mosaic mitochondrial-plastid insertions into the nuclear genome show evidence of both non-homologous end joining and homologous recombination

Background

Mitochondrial and plastid DNA fragments are continuously transferred into eukaryotic nuclear genomes, giving rise to nuclear copies of mitochondrial DNA (numts) and nuclear copies of plastid DNA (nupts). Numts and nupts are classified as simple if they are composed of a single organelle fragment or as complex if they are composed of multiple fragments. Mosaic insertions are complex insertions composed of fragments of both mitochondrial and plastid DNA. Simple numts and nupts in eukaryotes have been extensively studied, their mechanism of insertion involves non-homologous end joining (NHEJ). Mosaic insertions have been less well-studied and their mechanisms of integration are unknown.

Results

Here we estimated the number of nuclear mosaic insertions (numins) in nine plant genomes. We show that numins compose up to 10% of the total nuclear insertions of organelle DNA in these plant genomes. The NHEJ hallmarks typical for numts and nupts were also identified in mosaic insertions. However, the number of identified insertions that integrated via NHEJ mechanism is underestimated, as NHEJ signatures are conserved only in recent insertions and mutationally eroded in older ones. A few complex insertions show signatures of long homology that cannot be attributed to NHEJ, a novel observation that implicates gene conversion or single strand annealing mechanisms in organelle nuclear insertions.

Conclusions

The common NHEJ signature that was identified here reveals that, in plant cells, mitochondria and plastid fragments in numins must meet during or prior to integration into the nuclear genome.

Electronic supplementary material

The online version of this article (10.1186/s12862-018-1279-x) contains supplementary material, which is available to authorized users.

Evolution of Plant B Chromosome Enriched Sequences

B chromosomes are supernumerary chromosomes found in addition to the normal standard chromosomes (A chromosomes). B chromosomes are well known to accumulate several distinct types of repeated DNA elements. Although the evolution of B chromosomes has been the subject of numerous studies, the mechanisms of accumulation and evolution of repetitive sequences are not fully understood. Recently, new genomic approaches have shed light on the origin and accumulation of different classes of repetitive sequences in the process of B chromosome formation and evolution. Here we discuss the impact of repetitive sequences accumulation on the evolution of plant B chromosomes.

Next generation sequencing reveals packaging of host RNAs by brome mosaic virus

Although RNA viruses evolved the mechanisms of specific encapsidation, miss-packaging of cellular RNAs has been reported in such RNA virus systems as flock house virus or cucumber necrosis virus. To find out if brome mosaic virus (BMV), a tripartite RNA virus, can package cellular RNAs, BMV was propagated in barley and in Nicotiana benthamiana hosts, purified by cesium chloride (CsCl) gradient ultracentrifugation followed by nuclease treatment to remove any contaminating cellular (host) RNAs. The extracted virion RNA was then sequenced by using next-generation sequencing (NGS RNA-Seq) with the Illumina protocol. Bioinformatic analysis revealed the content of host RNAs ranging from 0.07% for BMV extracted from barley to 0.10% for the virus extracted from N. benthamiana. The viruses from two sources appeared to co-encapsidate different patterns of host-RNAs, including ribosomal RNAs (rRNAs), messenger RNAs (mRNAs) but also mitochondrial and plastid RNAs and, interestingly, transposable elements, both transposons and retrotransposons. Our data reveal that BMV virions can carry host RNAs, having a potential to mediate horizontal gene transfer (HGT) in plants.

The Roles of Mitochondrion in Intergenomic Gene Transfer in Plants: A Source and a Pool

Intergenomic gene transfer (IGT) is continuous in the evolutionary history of plants. In this field, most studies concentrate on a few related species. Here, we look at IGT from a broader evolutionary perspective, using 24 plants. We discover many IGT events by assessing the data from nuclear, mitochondrial and chloroplast genomes. Thus, we summarize the two roles of the mitochondrion: a source and a pool. That is, the mitochondrion gives massive sequences and integrates nuclear transposons and chloroplast tRNA genes. Though the directions are opposite, lots of likenesses emerge. First, mitochondrial gene transfer is pervasive in all 24 plants. Second, gene transfer is a single event of certain shared ancestors during evolutionary divergence. Third, sequence features of homologies vary for different purposes in the donor and recipient genomes. Finally, small repeats (or micro-homologies) contribute to gene transfer by mediating recombination in the recipient genome.

Experimental reconstruction of double-stranded break repair-mediated plastid DNA insertion into the tobacco nucleus

The mitochondria and plastids of eukaryotic cells evolved from endosymbiotic prokaryotes. DNA from the endosymbionts has bombarded nuclei since the ancestral prokaryotes were engulfed by a precursor of the nucleated eukaryotic host. An experimental confirmation regarding the molecular mechanisms responsible for organelle DNA incorporation into nuclei has not been performed until the present analysis. Here we introduced double-stranded DNA breaks into the nuclear genome of tobacco through inducible expression of I-SceI, and showed experimentally that tobacco chloroplast DNAs insert into nuclear genomes through double-stranded DNA break repair. Microhomology-mediated linking of disparate segments of chloroplast DNA occurs frequently during healing of induced nuclear double-stranded breaks (DSB) but the resulting nuclear integrants are often immediately unstable. Non-Mendelian inheritance of a selectable marker (neo), used to identify plastid DNA transfer, was observed in the progeny of about 50% of lines emerging from the screen. The instability of these de novo nuclear insertions of plastid DNA (nupts) was shown to be associated with deletion not only of the nupt itself but also of flanking nuclear DNA within one generation of transfer. This deletion of pre-existing nuclear DNA suggests that the genetic impact of organellar DNA transfer to the nucleus is potentially far greater than previously thought.

Quantifying the Number of Independent Organelle DNA Insertions in Genome Evolution and Human Health

Fragments of organelle genomes are often found as insertions in nuclear DNA. These fragments of mitochondrial DNA (numts) and plastid DNA (nupts) are ubiquitous components of eukaryotic genomes. They are, however, often edited out during the genome assembly process, leading to systematic underestimation of their frequency. Numts and nupts, once inserted, can become further fragmented through subsequent insertion of mobile elements or other recombinational events that disrupt the continuity of the inserted sequence relative to the genuine organelle DNA copy. Because numts and nupts are typically identified through sequence comparison tools such as BLAST, disruption of insertions into smaller fragments can lead to systematic overestimation of numt and nupt frequencies. Accurate identification of numts and nupts is important, however, both for better understanding of their role during evolution, and for monitoring their increasingly evident role in human disease. Human populations are polymorphic for 141 numt loci, five numts are causal to genetic disease, and cancer genomic studies are revealing an abundance of numts associated with tumor progression. Here, we report investigation of salient parameters involved in obtaining accurate estimates of numt and nupt numbers in genome sequence data. Numts and nupts from 44 sequenced eukaryotic genomes reveal lineage-specific differences in the number, relative age and frequency of insertional events as well as lineage-specific dynamics of their postinsertional fragmentation. Our findings outline the main technical parameters influencing accurate identification and frequency estimation of numts in genomic studies pertinent to both evolution and human health.

Witnessing Genome Evolution: Experimental Reconstruction of Endosymbiotic and Horizontal Gene Transfer

Present day mitochondria and plastids (chloroplasts) evolved from formerly free-living bacteria that were acquired through endosymbiosis more than a billion years ago. Conversion of the bacterial endosymbionts into cell organelles involved the massive translocation of genetic material from the organellar genomes to the nucleus. The development of transformation technologies for organellar genomes has made it possible to reconstruct this endosymbiotic gene transfer in laboratory experiments and study the mechanisms involved. Recently, the horizontal transfer of genetic information between organisms has also become amenable to experimental investigation. It led to the discovery of horizontal genome transfer as an asexual process generating new species and new combinations of nuclear and organellar genomes. This review describes experimental approaches towards studying endosymbiotic and horizontal gene transfer processes, discusses the new knowledge gained from these approaches about both the evolutionary significance of gene transfer and the underlying molecular mechanisms, and highlights exciting possibilities to exploit gene and genome transfer in biotechnology and synthetic biology.

Numtogenesis as a mechanism for development of cancer

Transfer of genetic material from cytoplasmic organelles to the nucleus, an ongoing process, has implications in evolution, aging, and human pathologies such as cancer. The transferred mitochondrial DNA (mtDNA) fragments in the nuclear genome are called nuclear mtDNA or NUMTs. We have named the process numtogenesis, defining the term as the transfer of mtDNA into the nuclear genome, or, less specifically, the transfer of mitochondria or mitochondrial components into the nucleus. There is increasing evidence of the involvement of NUMTs in human biology and pathology. Although information pertaining to NUMTs and numtogenesis is sparse, the role of this aspect of mitochondrial biology to human cancers is apparent. In this review, we present available knowledge about the origin and mechanisms of numtogenesis, with special emphasis on the role of NUMTs in human malignancies. We describe studies undertaken in our laboratory and in others and discuss the influence of NUMTs in tumor initiation and progression and in survival of cancer patients. We describe suppressors of numtogenesis and evolutionary conserved mechanisms underlying numtogenesis in cancer. An understanding the emerging field of numtogenesis should allow comprehension of this process in various malignancies and other diseases and, more generally, in human health.

Challenges and perspectives in commercializing plastid transformation technology

Plastid transformation has emerged as an alternative platform to generate transgenic plants. Attractive features of this technology include specific integration of transgenes-either individually or as operons-into the plastid genome through homologous recombination, the potential for high-level protein expression, and transgene containment because of the maternal inheritance of plastids. Several issues associated with nuclear transformation such as gene silencing, variable gene expression due to the Mendelian laws of inheritance, and epigenetic regulation have not been observed in the plastid genome. Plastid transformation has been successfully used for the production of therapeutics, vaccines, antigens, and commercial enzymes, and for engineering various agronomic traits including resistance to biotic and abiotic stresses. However, these demonstrations have usually focused on model systems such as tobacco, and the technology per se has not yet reached the market. Technical factors limiting this technology include the lack of efficient protocols for the transformation of cereals, poor transgene expression in non-green plastids, a limited number of selection markers, and the lengthy procedures required to recover fully segregated plants. This article discusses the technology of transforming the plastid genome, the positive and negative features compared with nuclear transformation, and the current challenges that need to be addressed for successful commercialization.

Intracellular mitochondrial DNA transfers to the nucleus in human cancer cells

Genome instability is a well-known hallmark of cancer cells. With the revolution of high-throughput sequencing technologies, our knowledge of somatically acquired genome structural variation (SV) has greatly improved over the last decade. Remarkably, surveys of thousands of human whole-cancer genomes have shown that chromosomal rearrangements are frequently combined with mitochondrial DNA (mtDNA) fragments somatically transferred to the nucleus. The high transfer rate and features of integration breakpoints provide clues for understanding the potential mechanisms underlying these events and provide insights into the role of mtDNA segments transferred into the nucleus. In this review, I discuss our current understanding of somatic nuclear transfer of mitochondrial DNA into the nuclear genome of human cancer cells.

Non-coding RNAs' partitioning in the evolution of photosynthetic organisms via energy transduction and redox signaling

Ars longa, vita brevis -Hippocrates Chloroplasts and mitochondria are genetically semi-autonomous organelles inside the plant cell. These constructions formed after endosymbiosis and keep evolving throughout the history of life. Experimental evidence is provided for active non-coding RNAs (ncRNAs) in these prokaryote-like structures, and a possible functional imprinting on cellular electrophysiology by those RNA entities is described. Furthermore, updated knowledge on RNA metabolism of organellar genomes uncovers novel inter-communication bridges with the nucleus. This class of RNA molecules is considered as a unique ontogeny which transforms their biological role as a genetic rheostat into a synchronous biochemical one that can affect the energetic charge and redox homeostasis inside cells. A hypothesis is proposed where such modulation by non-coding RNAs is integrated with genetic signals regulating gene transfer. The implications of this working hypothesis are discussed, with particular reference to ncRNAs involvement in the organellar and nuclear genomes evolution since their integrity is functionally coupled with redox signals in photosynthetic organisms.

Multiple Origins of Eukaryotic cox15 Suggest Horizontal Gene Transfer from Bacteria to Jakobid Mitochondrial DNA

The most gene-rich and bacterial-like mitochondrial genomes known are those of Jakobida (Excavata). Of these, the most extreme example to date is the Andalucia godoyi mitochondrial DNA (mtDNA), including a cox15 gene encoding the respiratory enzyme heme A synthase (HAS), which is nuclear-encoded in nearly all other mitochondriate eukaryotes. Thus cox15 in eukaryotes appears to be a classic example of mitochondrion-to-nucleus (endosymbiotic) gene transfer, with A. godoyi uniquely retaining the ancestral state. However, our analyses reveal two highly distinct HAS types (encoded by cox15-1 and cox15-2 genes) and identify A. godoyi mitochondrial cox15-encoded HAS as type-1 and all other eukaryotic cox15-encoded HAS as type-2. Molecular phylogeny places the two HAS types in widely separated clades with eukaryotic type-2 HAS clustering with the bulk of α-proteobacteria (>670 sequences), whereas A. godoyi type-1 HAS clusters with an eclectic set of bacteria and archaea including two α-proteobacteria missing from the type-2 clade. This wide phylogenetic separation of the two HAS types is reinforced by unique features of their predicted protein structures. Meanwhile, RNA-sequencing and genomic analyses fail to detect either cox15 type in the nuclear genome of any jakobid including A. godoyi. This suggests that not only is cox15-1 a relatively recent acquisition unique to the Andalucia lineage but also the jakobid last common ancestor probably lacked both cox15 types. These results indicate that uptake of foreign genes by mtDNA is more taxonomically widespread than previously thought. They also caution against the assumption that all α-proteobacterial-like features of eukaryotes are ancient remnants of endosymbiosis.

Odintifier--A computational method for identifying insertions of organellar origin from modern and ancient high-throughput sequencing data based on haplotype phasing

Background

Cellular organelles with genomes of their own (e.g. plastids and mitochondria) can pass genetic sequences to other organellar genomes within the cell in many species across the eukaryote phylogeny. The extent of the occurrence of these organellar-derived inserted sequences (odins) is still unknown, but if not accounted for in genomic and phylogenetic studies, they can be a source of error. However, if correctly identified, these inserted sequences can be used for evolutionary and comparative genomic studies. Although such insertions can be detected using various laboratory and bioinformatic strategies, there is currently no straightforward way to apply them as a standard organellar genome assembly on next-generation sequencing data. Furthermore, most current methods for identification of such insertions are unsuitable for use on non-model organisms or ancient DNA datasets.

Results

We present a bioinformatic method that uses phasing algorithms to reconstruct both source and inserted organelle sequences. The method was tested in different shotgun and organellar-enriched DNA high-throughput sequencing (HTS) datasets from ancient and modern samples. Specifically, we used datasets from lions (Panthera leo ssp. and Panthera leo leo) to characterize insertions from mitochondrial origin, and from common grapevine (Vitis vinifera) and bugle (Ajuga reptans) to characterize insertions derived from plastid genomes. Comparison of the results against other available organelle genome assembly methods demonstrated that our new method provides an improvement in the sequence assembly.

Conclusion

Using datasets from a wide range of species and different levels of complexity we showed that our novel bioinformatic method based on phasing algorithms can be used to achieve the next two goals: i) reference-guided assembly of chloroplast/mitochondrial genomes from HTS data and ii) identification and simultaneous assembly of odins. This method represents the first application of haplotype phasing for automatic detection of odins and reference-based organellar genome assembly.

Electronic supplementary material

The online version of this article (doi:10.1186/s12859-015-0682-1) contains supplementary material, which is available to authorized users.

Organellar maturases: A window into the evolution of the spliceosome

During the evolution of eukaryotic genomes, many genes have been interrupted by intervening sequences (introns) that must be removed post-transcriptionally from RNA precursors to form mRNAs ready for translation. The origin of nuclear introns is still under debate, but one hypothesis is that the spliceosome and the intron-exon structure of genes have evolved from bacterial-type group II introns that invaded the eukaryotic genomes. The group II introns were most likely introduced into the eukaryotic genome from an α-proteobacterial predecessor of mitochondria early during the endosymbiosis event. These self-splicing and mobile introns spread through the eukaryotic genome and later degenerated. Pieces of introns became part of the general splicing machinery we know today as the spliceosome. In addition, group II introns likely brought intron maturases with them to the nucleus. Maturases are found in most bacterial introns, where they act as highly specific splicing factors for group II introns. In the spliceosome, the core protein Prp8 shows homology to group II intron-encoded maturases. While maturases are entirely intron specific, their descendant of the spliceosomal machinery, the Prp8 protein, is an extremely versatile splicing factor with multiple interacting proteins and RNAs. How could such a general player in spliceosomal splicing evolve from the monospecific bacterial maturases? Analysis of the organellar splicing machinery in plants may give clues on the evolution of nuclear splicing. Plants encode various proteins which are closely related to bacterial maturases. The organellar genomes contain one maturase each, named MatK in chloroplasts and MatR in mitochondria. In addition, several maturase genes have been found in the nucleus as well, which are acting on mitochondrial pre-RNAs. All plant maturases show sequence deviation from their progenitor bacterial maturases, and interestingly are all acting on multiple organellar group II intron targets. Moreover, they seem to function in the splicing of group II introns together with a number of additional nuclear-encoded splicing factors, possibly acting as an organellar proto-spliceosome. Together, this makes them interesting models for the early evolution of nuclear spliceosomal splicing. In this review, we summarize recent advances in our understanding of the role of plant maturases and their accessory factors in plants. This article is part of a Special Issue entitled: Chloroplast Biogenesis.

A comparative analysis of insertional effects in genetically engineered plants: considerations for pre-market assessments

During genetic engineering, DNA is inserted into a plant’s genome, and such insertions are often accompanied by the insertion of additional DNA, deletions and/or rearrangements. These genetic changes are collectively known as insertional effects, and they have the potential to give rise to unintended traits in plants. In addition, there are many other genetic changes that occur in plants both spontaneously and as a result of conventional breeding practices. Genetic changes similar to insertional effects occur in plants, namely as a result of the movement of transposable elements, the repair of double-strand breaks by non-homologous end-joining, and the intracellular transfer of organelle DNA. Based on this similarity, insertional effects should present a similar level of risk as these other genetic changes in plants, and it is within the context of these genetic changes that insertional effects must be considered. Increased familiarity with genetic engineering techniques and advances in molecular analysis techniques have provided us with a greater understanding of the nature and impact of genetic changes in plants, and this can be used to refine pre-market assessments of genetically engineered plants and food and feeds derived from genetically engineered plants.

Massively convergent evolution for ribosomal protein gene content in plastid and mitochondrial genomes

Plastid and mitochondrial genomes have undergone parallel evolution to encode the same functional set of genes. These encode conserved protein components of the electron transport chain in their respective bioenergetic membranes and genes for the ribosomes that express them. This highly convergent aspect of organelle genome evolution is partly explained by the redox regulation hypothesis, which predicts a separate plastid or mitochondrial location for genes encoding bioenergetic membrane proteins of either photosynthesis or respiration. Here we show that convergence in organelle genome evolution is far stronger than previously recognized, because the same set of genes for ribosomal proteins is independently retained by both plastid and mitochondrial genomes. A hitherto unrecognized selective pressure retains genes for the same ribosomal proteins in both organelles. On the Escherichia coli ribosome assembly map, the retained proteins are implicated in 30S and 50S ribosomal subunit assembly and initial rRNA binding. We suggest that ribosomal assembly imposes functional constraints that govern the retention of ribosomal protein coding genes in organelles. These constraints are subordinate to redox regulation for electron transport chain components, which anchor the ribosome to the organelle genome in the first place. As organelle genomes undergo reduction, the rRNAs also become smaller. Below size thresholds of approximately 1,300 nucleotides (16S rRNA) and 2,100 nucleotides (26S rRNA), all ribosomal protein coding genes are lost from organelles, while electron transport chain components remain organelle encoded as long as the organelles use redox chemistry to generate a proton motive force.

Transcription of nuclear organellar DNA in a model plant system

Endosymbiotic gene transfer from cytoplasmic organelles (chloroplasts and mitochondria) to the nucleus is an ongoing process in land plants. Although the frequency of organelle DNA migration is high, functional gene transfer is rare because a nuclear promoter is thought necessary for activity in the nucleus. Here we show that a chloroplast promoter, 16S rrn, drives nuclear transcription, suggesting that a transferred organellar gene may become active without obtaining a nuclear promoter. Examining the chromatin status of a known de novo chloroplast integrant indicates that plastid DNA inserts into open chromatin and that this relaxed condition is maintained after integration. Transcription of nuclear organelle DNA integrants was explored at the whole genome level by analyzing RNA-seq data of Oryza sativa subsp. japonica, and utilizing sequence polymorphisms to unequivocally discriminate nuclear organelle DNA transcripts from those of bona fide cytoplasmic organelle DNA. Nuclear copies of organelle DNA that are transcribed show a spectrum of transcriptional activity but at comparatively low levels compared with the majority of other nuclear genes.

B chromosomes of Aegilops speltoides are enriched in organelle genome-derived sequences

B chromosomes (Bs) are dispensable components of the genome exhibiting non-Mendelian inheritance. Chromosome counts and flow cytometric analysis of the grass species Aegilops speltoides revealed a tissue-type specific distribution of the roughly 570 Mbp large B chromosomes. To address the question whether organelle-to-nucleus DNA transfer is a mechanism that drives the evolution of Bs, in situ hybridization was performed with labelled organellar DNA. The observed B-specific accumulation of chloroplast- and mitochondria-derived sequences suggests a reduced selection against the insertion of organellar DNA in supernumerary chromosomes. The distribution of B-localised organellar-derived sequences and other sequences differs between genotypes of different geographical origins.

Evolution and biology of supernumerary B chromosomes

B chromosomes (Bs) are dispensable components of the genome exhibiting non-Mendelian inheritance and have been widely reported on over several thousand eukaryotes, but still remain an evolutionary mystery ever since their first discovery over a century ago [1]. Recent advances in genome analysis have significantly improved our knowledge on the origin and composition of Bs in the last few years. In contrast to the prevalent view that Bs do not harbor genes, recent analysis revealed that Bs of sequenced species are rich in gene-derived sequences. We summarize the latest findings on supernumerary chromosomes with a special focus on the origin, DNA composition, and the non-Mendelian accumulation mechanism of Bs.

Cytoplasmic organelle DNA preferentially inserts into open chromatin

DNA transfer from chloroplasts and mitochondria to the nucleus is ongoing in eukaryotes but the mechanisms involved are poorly understood. Mitochondrial DNA was observed to integrate into the nuclear genome through DNA double-strand break repair in Nicotiana tabacum. Here, 14 nuclear insertions of chloroplast DNA (nupts) that are unique to Oryza sativa subsp. indica were identified. Comparisons with the preinsertion nuclear loci identified in the related subspecies, O. sativa subsp. japonica, which lacked these nupts, indicated that chloroplast DNA had integrated by nonhomologous end joining. Analyzing public DNase-seq data revealed that nupts were significantly more frequent in open chromatin regions of the nucleus. This preference was tested further in the chimpanzee genome by comparing nuclear loci containing integrants of mitochondrial DNA (numts) with their corresponding numt-lacking preinsertion sites in the human genome. Mitochondrial DNAs also tended to insert more frequently into regions of open chromatin revealed by human DNase-seq and Formaldehyde-Assisted Isolation of Regulatory Elements-seq databases.

Patterns of genomic integration of nuclear chloroplast DNA fragments in plant species

The transfer of organelle DNA fragments to the nuclear genome is frequently observed in eukaryotes. These transfers are thought to play an important role in gene and genome evolution of eukaryotes. In plants, such transfers occur from plastid to nuclear [nuclear plastid DNAs (NUPTs)] and mitochondrial to nuclear (nuclear mitochondrial DNAs) genomes. The amount and genomic organization of organelle DNA fragments have been studied in model plant species, such as Arabidopsis thaliana and rice. At present, publicly available genomic data can be used to conduct such studies in non-model plants. In this study, we analysed the amount and genomic organization of NUPTs in 17 plant species for which genome sequences are available. The amount and distribution of NUPTs varied among the species. We also estimated the distribution of NUPTs according to the time of integration (relative age) by conducting sequence similarity analysis between NUPTs and the plastid genome. The age distributions suggested that the present genomic constitutions of NUPTs could be explained by the combination of the rapidly eliminated deleterious parts and few but constantly existing less deleterious parts.

Horizontal gene transfer in plants

Horizontal gene transfer (HGT) describes the transmission of genetic material across species boundaries. HGT often occurs in microbic and eukaryotic genomes. However, the pathways by which HGTs occur in multicellular eukaryotes, especially in plants, are not well understood. We systematically summarized more than ten possible pathways for HGT. The intimate contact which frequently occurs in parasitism, symbiosis, pathogen, epiphyte, entophyte, and grafting interactions could promote HGTs between two species. Besides these direct transfer methods, genes can be exchanged with a vector as a bridge: possible vectors include pollen, fungi, bacteria, viruses, viroids, plasmids, transposons, and insects. HGT, especially when involving horizontal transfer of transposable elements, is recognized as a significant force propelling genomic variation and biological innovation, playing an important functional and evolutionary role in both eukaryotic and prokaryotic genomes. We proposed possible mechanisms by which HGTs can occur, which is useful in understanding the genetic information exchange among distant species or distant cellular components.

Human mitochondrial DNA: roles of inherited and somatic mutations

Mutations in the human mitochondrial genome are known to cause an array of diverse disorders, most of which are maternally inherited, and all of which are associated with defects in oxidative energy metabolism. It is now emerging that somatic mutations in mitochondrial DNA (mtDNA) are also linked to other complex traits, including neurodegenerative diseases, ageing and cancer. Here we discuss insights into the roles of mtDNA mutations in a wide variety of diseases, highlighting the interesting genetic characteristics of the mitochondrial genome and challenges in studying its contribution to pathogenesis.

Evolutionary force of AT-rich repeats to trap genomic and episomal DNAs into the rice genome: lessons from endogenous pararetrovirus

In plant genomes, the incorporation of DNA segments is not a common method of artificial gene transfer. Nevertheless, various segments of pararetroviruses have been found in plant genomes in recent decades. The rice genome contains a number of segments of endogenous rice tungro bacilliform virus-like sequences (ERTBVs), many of which are present between AT dinucleotide repeats (ATrs). Comparison of genomic sequences between two closely related rice subspecies, japonica and indica, allowed us to verify the preferential insertion of ERTBVs into ATrs. In addition to ERTBVs, the comparative analyses showed that ATrs occasionally incorporate repeat sequences including transposable elements, and a wide range of other sequences. Besides the known genomic sequences, the insertion sequences also represented DNAs of unclear origins together with ERTBVs, suggesting that ATrs have integrated episomal DNAs that would have been suspended in the nucleus. Such insertion DNAs might be trapped by ATrs in the genome in a host-dependent manner. Conversely, other simple mono- and dinucleotide sequence repeats (SSR) were less frequently involved in insertion events relative to ATrs. Therefore, ATrs could be regarded as hot spots of double-strand breaks that induce non-homologous end joining. The insertions within ATrs occasionally generated new gene-related sequences or involved structural modifications of existing genes. Likewise, in a comparison between Arabidopsis thaliana and Arabidopsis lyrata, the insertions preferred ATrs to other SSRs. Therefore ATrs in plant genomes could be considered as genomic dumping sites that have trapped various DNA molecules and may have exerted a powerful evolutionary force.

Acquisition of 1,000 eubacterial genes physiologically transformed a methanogen at the origin of Haloarchaea

Archaebacterial halophiles (Haloarchaea) are oxygen-respiring heterotrophs that derive from methanogens--strictly anaerobic, hydrogen-dependent autotrophs. Haloarchaeal genomes are known to have acquired, via lateral gene transfer (LGT), several genes from eubacteria, but it is yet unknown how many genes the Haloarchaea acquired in total and, more importantly, whether independent haloarchaeal lineages acquired their genes in parallel, or as a single acquisition at the origin of the group. Here we have studied 10 haloarchaeal and 1,143 reference genomes and have identified 1,089 haloarchaeal gene families that were acquired by a methanogenic recipient from eubacteria. The data suggest that these genes were acquired in the haloarchaeal common ancestor, not in parallel in independent haloarchaeal lineages, nor in the common ancestor of haloarchaeans and methanosarcinales. The 1,089 acquisitions include genes for catabolic carbon metabolism, membrane transporters, menaquinone biosynthesis, and complexes I-IV of the eubacterial respiratory chain that functions in the haloarchaeal membrane consisting of diphytanyl isoprene ether lipids. LGT on a massive scale transformed a strictly anaerobic, chemolithoautotrophic methanogen into the heterotrophic, oxygen-respiring, and bacteriorhodopsin-photosynthetic haloarchaeal common ancestor.

Nuclear genome diversity in somatic cells is accelerated by environmental stress

DNA transfer to the nucleus from prokaryotic ancestors of the cytoplasmic organelles (mitochondria and plastids) has occurred during endosymbiotic evolution in eukaryotes. In most eukaryotes, organelle DNA transfer to nucleus is a continuing process. The frequency of DNA transposition from plastid (chloroplast) to nucleus has been measured in tobacco plants (Nicotiana tabacum) experimentally. We have monitored the effects of environmental stress on the rate of DNA transfer from plastid to nucleus by exploiting nucleus-specific reporter genes in two transplastomic tobacco lines. DNA migration from plastids to the nucleus is markedly increased by mild heat stress. In addition, insertions of mitochondrial DNA into induced double-strand breaks are observed after heat treatment. These results show that movement of organelle DNA to the nucleus is remarkably increased by heat stress.