Natalisin, a tachykinin-like signaling system, regulates sexual activity and fecundity in insects

Exploratory comparative transcriptomic analysis reveals potential gene targets associated with Cry1A.105 and Cry2Ab2 resistance in fall armyworm (Spodoptera frugiperda)

Genetically modified (GM) crops, expressing Bacillus thuringiensis (Bt) insecticidal toxins, have substantially transformed agriculture. Despite rapid adoption, their environmental and economic benefits face scrutiny due to unsustainable agricultural practices and the emergence of resistant pests like Spodoptera frugiperda, known as the fall armyworm (FAW). FAW's adaptation to Bt technology in corn and cotton compromises the long-term efficacy of Bt crops. To advance the understanding of the genetic foundations of resistance mechanisms, we conducted an exploratory comparative transcriptomic analysis of two divergent FAW populations. One population exhibited practical resistance to the Bt insecticidal proteins Cry1A.105 and Cry2Ab2, expressed in the genetically engineered MON-89Ø34 - 3 maize, while the other population remained susceptible to these proteins. Differential expression analysis supported that Cry1A.105 and Cry2Ab2 significantly affect the FAW physiology. A total of 247 and 254 differentially expressed genes were identified in the Cry-resistant and susceptible populations, respectively. By integrating our findings with established literature and databases, we underscored 53 gene targets potentially involved in FAW's resistance to Cry1A.105 and Cry2Ab2. In particular, we considered and discussed the potential roles of the differentially expressed genes encoding ABC transporters, G protein-coupled receptors, the P450 enzymatic system, and other Bt-related detoxification genes. Based on these findings, we emphasize the importance of exploratory transcriptomic analyses to uncover potential gene targets involved with Bt insecticidal proteins resistance, and to support the advantages of GM crops in the face of emerging challenges.

Neuropeptide natalisin regulates reproductive behaviors in Spodoptera frugiperda

Natalisin (NTL) is a conserved neuropeptide, only present in insects, that has been reported to regulate their sexual activity. In this study, we investigated the involvement of NTL in the reproductive behaviors of a major invasive pest, Spodoptera frugiperda. We identified NTL precursor-encoded transcripts, and evaluated their transcript levels in different stages and tissues of S. frugiperda. The results showed that the NTL transcript level was expressed in both male and female pupae and both male and female adults in the later stage. It was highly expressed in male pupae, 3-day-old male and female adults, and 5-day-old male adults. In different tissues, the expression level is higher in the male and female adult brain and male testis. Immunohistochemical staining of the brain of S. frugiperda female and male adults revealed that three pairs of brain neurons of S. frugiperda adults of both sexes secreted and expressed NTL. To study the role of NTL in reproductive behaviors, NTL was silenced in S. frugiperda male and female adults by RNA interference (RNAi) technology, the results showed that silencing NTL could significantly affect the sexual activity behavior of the adults, reducing the calling rate of females, the courtship rate of males, and the mating rate. In summary, this study emphasizes the important role of NTL in regulating the mating behavior and sexual activity of S. frugiperda in both male and female adults, potentially laying a foundation to employ NTL as a new insect-specific target to control populations of pest insects.

Neurotransmitter classification from electron microscopy images at synaptic sites in Drosophila melanogaster

High-resolution electron microscopy of nervous systems has enabled the reconstruction of synaptic connectomes. However, we do not know the synaptic sign for each connection (i.e., whether a connection is excitatory or inhibitory), which is implied by the released transmitter. We demonstrate that artificial neural networks can predict transmitter types for presynapses from electron micrographs: a network trained to predict six transmitters (acetylcholine, glutamate, GABA, serotonin, dopamine, octopamine) achieves an accuracy of 87% for individual synapses, 94% for neurons, and 91% for known cell types across a D. melanogaster whole brain. We visualize the ultrastructural features used for prediction, discovering subtle but significant differences between transmitter phenotypes. We also analyze transmitter distributions across the brain and find that neurons that develop together largely express only one fast-acting transmitter (acetylcholine, glutamate, or GABA). We hope that our publicly available predictions act as an accelerant for neuroscientific hypothesis generation for the fly.

Neuropeptidomics of the American Lobster Homarus americanus

The American lobster, Homarus americanus, is not only of considerable economic importance but has also emerged as a premier model organism in neuroscience research. Neuropeptides, an important class of cell-to-cell signaling molecules, play crucial roles in a wide array of physiological and psychological processes. Leveraging the recently sequenced high-quality draft genome of the American lobster, our study sought to profile the neuropeptidome of this model organism. Employing advanced mass spectrometry techniques, we identified 24 neuropeptide precursors and 101 unique mature neuropeptides in Homarus americanus. Intriguingly, 67 of these neuropeptides were discovered for the first time. Our findings provide a comprehensive overview of the peptidomic attributes of the lobster's nervous system and highlight the tissue-specific distribution of these neuropeptides. Collectively, this research not only enriches our understanding of the neuronal complexities of the American lobster but also lays a foundation for future investigations into the functional roles that these peptides play in crustacean species. The mass spectrometry data have been deposited in the PRIDE repository with the identifier PXD047230.

Neural mechanisms involved in female mate choice in invertebrates

Mate choice is a critical decision with direct implications for fitness. Although it has been recognized for over 150 years, our understanding of its underlying mechanisms is still limited. Most studies on mate choice focus on the evolutionary causes of behavior, with less attention given to the physiological and molecular mechanisms involved. This is especially true for invertebrates, where research on mate choice has largely focused on male behavior. This review summarizes the current state of knowledge on the neural, molecular and neurohormonal mechanisms of female choice in invertebrates, including behaviors before, during, and after copulation. We identify areas of research that have not been extensively explored in invertebrates, suggesting potential directions for future investigation. We hope that this review will stimulate further research in this area.

Blue Light Exposure Caused Large-Scale Transcriptional Changes in the Abdomen and Reduced the Reproductive Fitness of the Fall Armyworm Spodoptera frugiperda

In the present study, we found that blue light stress negatively affected the development periods, body weight, survival and reproduction of Spodoptera frugiperda, and it showed a dose-dependent reaction, as longer irradiation caused severer effects. Further transcriptome analysis found blue light stress induced fast and large-scale transcriptional changes in the head, thorax and, particularly, the abdomen of female S. frugiperda adults. A functional enrichment analysis indicated that shorter durations of blue light irradiation induced the upregulation of more stress response- and defense-related genes or pathways, such as abiotic stimuli detection and response, oxidative stress, ion channels and protein-kinase-based signal pathways. In the abdomen, however, different durations of blue-light-exposure treatments all induced the downregulation of a large number genes and pathways related to cellular processes, metabolism, catalysis and reproduction, which may be a trade-off between antistress defense and other processes or a strategy to escape stressful conditions. These results indicate irradiation duration- and tissue-specific blue light stress responses and consequences, as well as suggest that the stress that results in transcriptional alterations is associated with the stress that causes a fitness reduction in S. frugiperda females.

System-wide mapping of peptide-GPCR interactions in C. elegans

Neuropeptides and peptide hormones are ancient, widespread signaling molecules that underpin almost all brain functions. They constitute a broad ligand-receptor network, mainly by binding to G protein-coupled receptors (GPCRs). However, the organization of the peptidergic network and roles of many peptides remain elusive, as our insight into peptide-receptor interactions is limited and many peptide GPCRs are still orphan receptors. Here we report a genome-wide peptide-GPCR interaction map in Caenorhabditis elegans. By reverse pharmacology screening of over 55,384 possible interactions, we identify 461 cognate peptide-GPCR couples that uncover a broad signaling network with specific and complex combinatorial interactions encoded across and within single peptidergic genes. These interactions provide insights into peptide functions and evolution. Combining our dataset with phylogenetic analysis supports peptide-receptor co-evolution and conservation of at least 14 bilaterian peptidergic systems in C. elegans. This resource lays a foundation for system-wide analysis of the peptidergic network.

Involvement of neuronal tachykinin-like receptor at 86C in Drosophila disc repair via regulation of kynurenine metabolism

Neurons contribute to the regeneration of projected tissues; however, it remains unclear whether they are involved in the non-innervated tissue regeneration. Herein, we showed that a neuronal tachykinin-like receptor at 86C (TkR86C) is required for the repair of non-innervated wing discs in Drosophila. Using a genetic tissue repair system in Drosophila larvae, we performed genetic screening for G protein-coupled receptors to search for signal mediatory systems for remote tissue repair. An evolutionarily conserved neuroinflammatory receptor, TkR86C, was identified as the candidate receptor. Neuron-specific knockdown of TkR86C impaired disc repair without affecting normal development. We investigated the humoral metabolites of the kynurenine (Kyn) pathway regulated in the fat body because of their role as tissue repair-mediating factors. Neuronal knockdown of TkR86C hampered injury-dependent changes in the expression of vermillion in the fat body and humoral Kyn metabolites. Our data indicate the involvement of TkR86C neurons upstream of Kyn metabolism in non-autonomous tissue regeneration.

Comparative study of neuropeptide signaling systems in Hemiptera

Numerous physiological processes in insects are tightly regulated by neuropeptides and their receptors. Although they form an ancient signaling system, there is still a great deal of variety in neuropeptides and their receptors among different species within the same order. Neuropeptides and their receptors have been documented in many hemipteran insects, but the differences among them have been poorly characterized. Commercial grapevines worldwide are plagued by the bug Daktulosphaira vitifoliae (Hemiptera: Sternorrhyncha). Here, 33 neuropeptide precursors and 48 putative neuropeptide G protein-coupled receptor (GPCR) genes were identified in D. vitifoliae. Their expression profiles at the probe and feeding stages reflected potential regulatory roles in probe behavior. By comparison, we found that the Releasing Hormone-Related Peptides (GnRHs) system of Sternorrhyncha was differentiated from those of the other 2 suborders in Hemiptera. Independent secondary losses of the adipokinetic hormone/corazonin-related peptide receptor (ACP) and corazonin (CRZ) occurred during the evolution of Sternorrhyncha. Additionally, we discovered that the neuropeptide signaling systems of Sternorrhyncha were very different from those of Heteroptera and Auchenorrhyncha, which was consistent with Sternorrhyncha's phylogenetic position at the base of the order. This research provides more knowledge on neuropeptide systems and sets the groundwork for the creation of novel D. vitifoliae management strategies that specifically target these signaling pathways.

History of Drosophila neurogenetic research in South Korea

Neurogenetic research using the Drosophila model has immensely expanded around the world. Likewise, scientists in South Korea have leveraged the advantages of Drosophila genetic tools to understand various neurobiological processes. In this special issue, we will overview the history of Drosophila neurogenetic research in South Korea that led to significant discoveries and notably implications. We will describe how Drosophila system was first introduced to elevate neural developmental studies in 1990s. Establishing Drosophila-related resources has been a key venture, which led to the generation of over 100,000 mutant lines and the launch of the K-Gut initiative with Korea Drosophila Research Center (KDRC). These resources have supported the pioneer studies in modeling human disease and understanding genes and neural circuits that regulate animal behavior and physiology.

Endocrine cybernetics: neuropeptides as molecular switches in behavioural decisions

Plasticity in animal behaviour relies on the ability to integrate external and internal cues from the changing environment and hence modulate activity in synaptic circuits of the brain. This context-dependent neuromodulation is largely based on non-synaptic signalling with neuropeptides. Here, we describe select peptidergic systems in the Drosophila brain that act at different levels of a hierarchy to modulate behaviour and associated physiology. These systems modulate circuits in brain regions, such as the central complex and the mushroom bodies, which supervise specific behaviours. At the top level of the hierarchy there are small numbers of large peptidergic neurons that arborize widely in multiple areas of the brain to orchestrate or modulate global activity in a state and context-dependent manner. At the bottom level local peptidergic neurons provide executive neuromodulation of sensory gain and intrinsically in restricted parts of specific neuronal circuits. The orchestrating neurons receive interoceptive signals that mediate energy and sleep homeostasis, metabolic state and circadian timing, as well as external cues that affect food search, aggression or mating. Some of these cues can be triggers of conflicting behaviours such as mating versus aggression, or sleep versus feeding, and peptidergic neurons participate in circuits, enabling behaviour choices and switches.

The Neuromodulatory Basis of Aggression: Lessons From the Humble Fruit Fly

Aggression is an intrinsic trait that organisms of almost all species, humans included, use to get access to food, shelter, and mating partners. To maximize fitness in the wild, an organism must vary the intensity of aggression toward the same or different stimuli. How much of this variation is genetic and how much is externally induced, is largely unknown but is likely to be a combination of both. Irrespective of the source, one of the principal physiological mechanisms altering the aggression intensity involves neuromodulation. Any change or variation in aggression intensity is most likely governed by a complex interaction of several neuromodulators acting via a meshwork of neural circuits. Resolving aggression-specific neural circuits in a mammalian model has proven challenging due to the highly complex nature of the mammalian brain. In that regard, the fruit fly model Drosophila melanogaster has provided insights into the circuit-driven mechanisms of aggression regulation and its underlying neuromodulatory basis. Despite morphological dissimilarities, the fly brain shares striking similarities with the mammalian brain in genes, neuromodulatory systems, and circuit-organization, making the findings from the fly model extremely valuable for understanding the fundamental circuit logic of human aggression. This review discusses our current understanding of how neuromodulators regulate aggression based on findings from the fruit fly model. We specifically focus on the roles of Serotonin (5-HT), Dopamine (DA), Octopamine (OA), Acetylcholine (ACTH), Sex Peptides (SP), Tachykinin (TK), Neuropeptide F (NPF), and Drosulfakinin (Dsk) in fruit fly male and female aggression.

Neuropeptides in Rhipicephalus microplus and other hard ticks

The synganglion is the central nervous system of ticks and, as such, controls tick physiology. It does so through the production and release of signaling molecules, many of which are neuropeptides. These peptides can function as neurotransmitters, neuromodulators and/or neurohormones, although in most cases their functions remain to be established. We identified and performed in silico characterization of neuropeptides present in different life stages and organs of Rhipicephalus microplus, generating transcriptomes from ovary, salivary glands, fat body, midgut and embryo. Annotation of synganglion transcripts led to the identification of 32 functional categories of proteins, of which the most abundant were: secreted, energetic metabolism and oxidant metabolism/detoxification. Neuropeptide precursors are among the sequences over-represented in R. microplus synganglion, with at least 5-fold higher transcription compared with other stages/organs. A total of 52 neuropeptide precursors were identified: ACP, achatin, allatostatins A, CC and CCC, allatotropin, bursicon A/B, calcitonin A and B, CCAP, CCHamide, CCRFamide, CCH/ITP, corazonin, DH31, DH44, eclosion hormone, EFLamide, EFLGGPamide, elevenin, ETH, FMRFamide myosuppressin-like, glycoprotein A2/B5, gonadulin, IGF, inotocin, insulin-like peptides, iPTH, leucokinin, myoinhibitory peptide, NPF 1 and 2, orcokinin, proctolin, pyrokinin/periviscerokinin, relaxin, RYamide, SIFamide, sNPF, sulfakinin, tachykinin and trissin. Several of these neuropeptides have not been previously reported in ticks, as the presence of ETH that was first clearly identified in Parasitiformes, which include ticks and mites. Prediction of the mature neuropeptides from precursor sequences was performed using available information about these peptides from other species, conserved domains and motifs. Almost all neuropeptides identified are also present in other tick species. Characterizing the role of neuropeptides and their respective receptors in tick physiology can aid the evaluation of their potential as drug targets.

Identification of a tachykinin receptor and its implication in carbohydrate and lipid homeostasis in Rhodnius prolixus, a chagas disease vector

Neuropeptides and their receptors are fundamentally important in regulating many physiological and behavioural processes in insects. In this work, we have identified, cloned, and sequenced the tachykinin receptor (Rhopr-TKR) from Rhodnius prolixus, a vector of Chagas disease. The receptor is a G protein-coupled receptor belonging to the Rhodopsin Family A. The total length of the open reading frame of the Rhopr-TKR transcript is 1110 bp, which translates into a receptor of 338 amino acids. Fluorescent in-situ RNA-hybridization (FISH) for the Rhopr-TKR transcript shows a signal in a group of six bilaterally paired neurons in the protocerebrum of the brain, localized in a similar region as the insulin producing cells. To examine the role of tachykinin signaling in lipid and carbohydrate homeostasis we used RNA interference. Downregulation of the Rhopr-TKR transcript led to a decrease in the size of blood meal consumed and a significant increase in circulating carbohydrate and lipid levels. Further investigation revealed a close relationship between tachykinin and insulin signaling since the downregulation of the Rhopr-TKR transcript negatively affected the transcript expression for insulin-like peptide 1 (Rhopr-ILP1), insulin-like growth factor (Rhopr-IGF) and insulin receptor 1 (Rhopr-InR1) in both the central nervous system and fat body. Taken together, these findings suggest that tachykinin signaling regulates lipid and carbohydrate homeostasis via the insulin signaling pathway.

Cholecystokinin/sulfakinin peptide signaling: conserved roles at the intersection between feeding, mating and aggression

Neuropeptides are the most diverse messenger molecules in metazoans and are involved in regulation of daily physiology and a wide array of behaviors. Some neuropeptides and their cognate receptors are structurally and functionally well conserved over evolution in bilaterian animals. Among these are peptides related to gastrin and cholecystokinin (CCK). In mammals, CCK is produced by intestinal endocrine cells and brain neurons, and regulates gall bladder contractions, pancreatic enzyme secretion, gut functions, satiety and food intake. Additionally, CCK plays important roles in neuromodulation in several brain circuits that regulate reward, anxiety, aggression and sexual behavior. In invertebrates, CCK-type peptides (sulfakinins, SKs) are, with a few exceptions, produced by brain neurons only. Common among invertebrates is that SKs mediate satiety and regulate food ingestion by a variety of mechanisms. Also regulation of secretion of digestive enzymes has been reported. Studies of the genetically tractable fly Drosophila have advanced our understanding of SK signaling mechanisms in regulation of satiety and feeding, but also in gustatory sensitivity, locomotor activity, aggression and reproductive behavior. A set of eight SK-expressing brain neurons plays important roles in regulation of these competing behaviors. In males, they integrate internal state and external stimuli to diminish sex drive and increase aggression. The same neurons also diminish sugar gustation, induce satiety and reduce feeding. Although several functional roles of CCK/SK signaling appear conserved between Drosophila and mammals, available data suggest that the underlying mechanisms differ.

Identification and characterization of G protein-coupled receptors in Spodoptera frugiperda (Insecta: Lepidoptera)

Spodoptera frugiperda (Insecta: Lepidoptera) is a destructive invasive pest feeding on various plants and causing serious damage to several economically-important crops. G protein-coupled receptors (GPCRs) are cellular receptors that coordinate diverse signaling processes, associated with many physiological processes and disease states. However, less information about GPCRs had been reported in S. frugiperda, limiting the recognition of signaling system and in-depth studies of this pest. Here, a total of 167 GPCRs were identified in S. frugiperda. Compared with other insects, the GPCRs of S. frugiperda were significantly expanded. A large of tandem duplication and segmental duplication events were observed, which may be the key factor to increase the size of GPCR family. In detail, these expansion events mainly concentrate on biogenic amine receptors, neuropeptide and protein hormone receptors, which may be involved in feeding, reproduction, life span, and tolerance of S. frugiperda. Additionally, 17 Mth/Mthl members were identified in S. frugiperda, which may be similar to the evolutionary pattern of 16 Mth/Mthl members in Drosophila. Moreover, the expression patterns across different developmental stages of all GPCR genes were also analyzed. Among these, most of the GPCR genes are poorly expressed in S. frugiperda and some highly expressed GPCR genes help S. frugiperda adapt to the environment better, such as Rh6 and AkhR. In this study, all GPCRs in S. frugiperda were identified for the first time, which provided a basis for further revealing the role of these receptors in the physiological and behavioral regulation of this pest.

Crustacean cardioactive peptide and its receptor modulate the ecdysis behavior in the pea aphid, Acyrthosiphon pisum

Insects must undergo ecdysis for successful development and growth, in which crustacean cardioactive peptide (CCAP) is a master hormone. However, the function of CCAP signaling in pea aphid, Acyrthosiphon pisum, remains unclear. In this study, we determined the sequence of the CCAP precursor and its receptor in A. pisum. We identified the functional receptor ApCCAPR, and then expressed this receptor in Chinese hamster ovary (CHO) cells, which in consequence exhibited high sensitivity to the ApCCAP mature peptide. The ApCCAP transcript was detected in the central nervous system of A. pisum. Neurons containing CCAP were also identified by immunohistochemical staining against insect CCAP. RNAi silencing of ApCCAP or ApCCAP-R signals caused developmental failure during nymph-adult ecdysis. The dsRNA-treated fourth-instar nymphs could not shed their old cuticle and died. Taking these findings together, we conclude that ApCCAP, via the activation of ApCCAP-R, plays an essential role in regulating the process of nymph-adult ecdysis in A. pisum. Our results deepen our understanding of the regulation of early ecdysis in A. pisum.

Multiple tachykinins and their receptors characterized in the gastropod mollusk Pacific abalone: Expression, signaling cascades, and potential role in regulating lipid metabolism

Tachykinin (TK) families, including the first neuropeptide substance P, have been intensively explored in bilaterians. Knowledge of signaling of TK receptors (TKRs) has enabled the comprehension of diverse physiological processes. However, TK signaling systems are largely unknown in Lophotrochozoa. This study identified two TK precursors and two TKR isoforms in the Pacific abalone Haliotis discus hannai (Hdh), and characterized Hdh-TK signaling. Hdh-TK peptides harbored protostomian TK-specific FXGXRamide or unique YXGXRamide motifs at the C-termini. A phylogenetic analysis showed that lophotrochozoan TKRs, including Hdh-TKRs, form a monophyletic group distinct from arthropod TKRs and natalisin receptor groups. Although reporter assays demonstrated that all examined Hdh-TK peptides activate intracellular cAMP accumulation and Ca²⁺ mobilization in Hdh-TKR-expressing mammalian cells, Hdh-TK peptides with N-terminal aromatic residues and C-terminal FXGXRamide motifs were more active than shorter or less aromatic Hdh-TK peptides with a C-terminal YXGXRamide. In addition, we showed that ligand-stimulated Hdh-TKRs mediate ERK1/2 phosphorylation in HEK293 cells and that ERK1/2 phosphorylation is inhibited by PKA and PKC inhibitors. In three-dimensional in silico Hdh-TKR binding modeling, higher docking scores of Hdh-TK peptides were consistent with the lower EC50 values in the reporter assays. The transcripts for Hdh-TK precursors and Hdh-TKR were highly expressed in the neural ganglia, with lower expression levels in peripheral tissues. When abalone were starved for 3 weeks, Hdh-TK1 transcript levels, but not Hdh-TK2, were increased in the cerebral ganglia (CG), intestine, and hepatopancreas, contrasting with the decreased lipid content and transcript levels of sterol regulatory element-binding protein (SREBP). At 24 h post-injection in vivo, the lower dose of Hdh-TK1 mixture increased SREBP transcript levels in the CG and hepatopancreas and accumulative food consumption of abalone. Higher doses of Hdh-TK1 and Hdh-TK2 mixtures decreased the SREBP levels in the CG. When Hdh-TK2-specific siRNA was injected into abalone, intestinal SREBP levels were significantly increased, whereas administration of both Hdh-TK1 and Hdh-TK2 siRNA led to decreased SREBP expression in the CG. Collectively, our results demonstrate the first TK signaling system in gastropod mollusks and suggest a possible role for TK peptides in regulating lipid metabolism in the neural and peripheral tissues of abalone.

Pharmacological importance of TG12 from tachykinin and its toxicological behavior against multidrug-resistant bacteria Klebsiella pneumonia

Development of antimicrobial drugs against multidrug-resistant (MDR) bacteria is a great focus in recent years. TG12, a short peptide molecule used in this study was screened from tachykinin (Tac) protein of an established teleost Channa striatus (Cs) transcriptome. Tachykinin cDNA has 345 coding sequence, that denotes a protein contained 115 amino acids; in which a short peptide (TG12) was identified at 83-94. Tachykinin mRNA upregulated in C. striatus treated with Aeromonas hydrophila and Escherichia coli lipopolysaccharide (LPS). The mRNA up-regulation was studied using real-time PCR. The up-regulation tachykinin mRNA pattern confirmed the immune involvement of tachykinin in C. striatus during infection. Further, the identified peptide, TG12 was synthesized and its toxicity was demonstrated in hemolytic and cytotoxic assays using human erythrocytes and human dermal fibroblast cells, respectively. The toxicity study exhibited that the toxicity of TG12 was similar to negative control, phosphate buffer saline (PBS). Moreover, the antibiogram of TG12 was active against Klebsiella pneumonia ATCC 27736, a major MDR bacterial pathogen. Further, the antimicrobial activity of TG12 against pathogenic bacteria was screened using minimum inhibitory concentration (MIC) and anti-biofilm assays, altogether TG12 showed potential activity against K. pneumonia. Fluorescence assisted cell sorter flow cytometer analysis (FACS) and field emission scanning electron microscopy (FESEM) was carried on TG12 with K. pneumonia; the results showed that TG12 significantly reduced K. pneumonia viability as well as TG12 disrupt its membrane. In conclusion, TG12 of CsTac is potentially involved in the antibacterial immune mechanisms, which has a prospectus efficiency in pharma industry against MDR strains, especially K. pneumonia.

G-Protein Coupled Receptors (GPCRs) in Insects-A Potential Target for New Insecticide Development

G-protein coupled receptors (GPCRs) play important roles in cell biology and insects' physiological processes, toxicological response and the development of insecticide resistance. New information on genome sequences, proteomic and transcriptome analysis and expression patterns of GPCRs in organs such as the central nervous system in different organisms has shown the importance of these signaling regulatory GPCRs and their impact on vital cell functions. Our growing understanding of the role played by GPCRs at the cellular, genome, transcriptome and tissue levels is now being utilized to develop new targets that will sidestep many of the problems currently hindering human disease control and insect pest management. This article reviews recent work on the expression and function of GPCRs in insects, focusing on the molecular complexes governing the insect physiology and development of insecticide resistance and examining the genome information for GPCRs in two medically important insects, mosquitoes and house flies, and their orthologs in the model insect species Drosophila melanogaster. The tissue specific distribution and expression of the insect GPCRs is discussed, along with fresh insights into practical aspects of insect physiology and toxicology that could be fundamental for efforts to develop new, more effective, strategies for pest control and resistance management.

G-Protein Coupled Receptors (GPCRs): Signaling Pathways, Characterization, and Functions in Insect Physiology and Toxicology

G-protein-coupled receptors (GPCRs) are known to play central roles in the physiology of many organisms. Members of this seven α-helical transmembrane protein family transduce the extracellular signals and regulate intracellular second messengers through coupling to heterotrimeric G-proteins, adenylate cyclase, cAMPs, and protein kinases. As a result of the critical function of GPCRs in cell physiology and biochemistry, they not only play important roles in cell biology and the medicines used to treat a wide range of human diseases but also in insects’ physiological functions. Recent studies have revealed the expression and function of GPCRs in insecticide resistance, improving our understanding of the molecular complexes governing the development of insecticide resistance. This article focuses on the review of G-protein coupled receptor (GPCR) signaling pathways in insect physiology, including insects’ reproduction, growth and development, stress responses, feeding, behaviors, and other physiological processes. Hormones and polypeptides that are involved in insect GPCR regulatory pathways are reviewed. The review also gives a brief introduction of GPCR pathways in organisms in general. At the end of the review, it provides the recent studies on the function of GPCRs in the development of insecticide resistance, focusing in particular on our current knowledge of the expression and function of GPCRs and their downstream regulation pathways and their roles in insecticide resistance and the regulation of resistance P450 gene expression. The latest insights into the exciting technological advances and new techniques for gene expression and functional characterization of the GPCRs in insects are provided.

Bacterial-mediated RNAi and functional analysis of Natalisin in a moth

The neuropeptide natalisin (NTL) has been determined to play essential roles in reproduction in two Diptera and one Coleoptera species. Whether NTL has similar or even different functions in Lepidoptera remains to be determined. Here, we cloned the NTL transcript in the common cutworm moth Spodoptera litura. This transcript encodes a 438-amino acid protein. Twelve putative Sl-NTL neuropeptides were defined by cleavage sites. These NTL peptides share a DDPFWxxRamide C-terminal motif. The expressions of Sl-NTL is low during the egg and larval stages, which increased to a higher level during the pupal stage, and then reached the maximum during the adult stage. Moreover, the expression pattern during the pupal stage is similar between sexes while during the adult stage, it is dimorphic. To explore the function of Sl-NTL and assess its potential as a target for pest control, we knocked down the expression of Sl-NTL in both sexes by using bacteria-mediated RNAi. This technique significantly down regulated (reduced up to 83%) the expression of Sl-NTL in both sexes. Knocking down Sl-NTL expression did not significantly affect its development, survival and morphology but significantly reduced adults' reproductive behavior (including female calling, male courtship, mating and remating patterns and rates) and reproductive output (offspring gain reduced more than 70%).

Enlisting the Ixodes scapularis Embryonic ISE6 Cell Line to Investigate the Neuronal Basis of Tick-Pathogen Interactions

Neuropeptides are small signaling molecules expressed in the tick central nervous system, i.e., the synganglion. The neuronal-like Ixodes scapularis embryonic cell line, ISE6, is an effective tool frequently used for examining tick–pathogen interactions. We detected 37 neuropeptide transcripts in the I. scapularis ISE6 cell line using in silico methods, and six of these neuropeptide genes were used for experimental validation. Among these six neuropeptide genes, the tachykinin-related peptide (TRP) of ISE6 cells varied in transcript expression depending on the infection strain of the tick-borne pathogen, Anaplasma phagocytophilum. The immunocytochemistry of TRP revealed cytoplasmic expression in a prominent ISE6 cell subpopulation. The presence of TRP was also confirmed in A. phagocytophilum-infected ISE6 cells. The in situ hybridization and immunohistochemistry of TRP of I. scapularis synganglion revealed expression in distinct neuronal cells. In addition, TRP immunoreaction was detected in axons exiting the synganglion via peripheral nerves as well as in hemal nerve-associated lateral segmental organs. The characterization of a complete Ixodes neuropeptidome in ISE6 cells may serve as an effective in vitro tool to study how tick-borne pathogens interact with synganglion components that are vital to tick physiology. Therefore, our current study is a potential stepping stone for in vivo experiments to further examine the neuronal basis of tick–pathogen interactions.

Genomics, transcriptomics, and peptidomics of Spodoptera frugiperda (Lepidoptera, Noctuidae) neuropeptides

Neuropeptides control many physiological and behavioral processes, and so they are functionally important classes of cell-to-cell signaling molecules. Nowadays, the fall armyworm, Spodoptera frugiperda, is one of the most destructive agricultural pests in the world. In this study, we mined the publicly accessible genome assembly data for S. frugiperda, and the transcriptomic and proteomic data of the larval central nervous system (CNS) for putative neuropeptide-encoding, and subsequently we used these to anticipate a peptidome for this species. In essence, we could identify 57 orthologs of insect neuropeptides, including Allatotropin, CCHamide, Corazonin, pheromone biosynthesis activating neuropeptide, short neuropeptide F, Trissin, and Natalisin. Interesting features for S. frugiperda were the absence of genes coding for CNMamide, Elevein, and the differential evolution of ancestral neuropeptide genes such as adipokinetic corazonin-related peptide, adipokinetic hormone, Tachykinin, and Natalisin. In conclusion, our study provides the most complete neuropeptide description for the important pest S. frugiperda as a foundation to study the factors regulating insect growth, reproduction, and behavior. Second, we confirm that a comprehensive multi-omics analysis is necessary for the identification of neuropeptides. Finally, our data provide a reliable reference for other comparative studies in other insects beyond the supermodel insect of Drosophila melanogaster and the finding of potential candidates as selective for pests versus beneficial insects.

Genome-enabled insights into the biology of thrips as crop pests

BACKGROUND

The western flower thrips, Frankliniella occidentalis (Pergande), is a globally invasive pest and plant virus vector on a wide array of food, fiber, and ornamental crops. The underlying genetic mechanisms of the processes governing thrips pest and vector biology, feeding behaviors, ecology, and insecticide resistance are largely unknown. To address this gap, we present the F. occidentalis draft genome assembly and official gene set.

RESULTS

We report on the first genome sequence for any member of the insect order Thysanoptera. Benchmarking Universal Single-Copy Ortholog (BUSCO) assessments of the genome assembly (size = 415.8 Mb, scaffold N50 = 948.9 kb) revealed a relatively complete and well-annotated assembly in comparison to other insect genomes. The genome is unusually GC-rich (50%) compared to other insect genomes to date. The official gene set (OGS v1.0) contains 16,859 genes, of which ~ 10% were manually verified and corrected by our consortium. We focused on manual annotation, phylogenetic, and expression evidence analyses for gene sets centered on primary themes in the life histories and activities of plant-colonizing insects. Highlights include the following: (1) divergent clades and large expansions in genes associated with environmental sensing (chemosensory receptors) and detoxification (CYP4, CYP6, and CCE enzymes) of substances encountered in agricultural environments; (2) a comprehensive set of salivary gland genes supported by enriched expression; (3) apparent absence of members of the IMD innate immune defense pathway; and (4) developmental- and sex-specific expression analyses of genes associated with progression from larvae to adulthood through neometaboly, a distinct form of maturation differing from either incomplete or complete metamorphosis in the Insecta.

CONCLUSIONS

Analysis of the F. occidentalis genome offers insights into the polyphagous behavior of this insect pest that finds, colonizes, and survives on a widely diverse array of plants. The genomic resources presented here enable a more complete analysis of insect evolution and biology, providing a missing taxon for contemporary insect genomics-based analyses. Our study also offers a genomic benchmark for molecular and evolutionary investigations of other Thysanoptera species.

Identification of Neuropeptides and Their Receptors in the Ectoparasitoid, Habrobracon hebetor

Neuropeptides are a group of signal molecules that regulate many physiological and behavioral processes by binding to corresponding receptors, most of which are G-protein-coupled receptors (GPCRs). Using bioinformatic methods, we screened genomic and transcriptomic data of the ectoparasitoid wasp, Habrobracon hebetor, and annotated 34 neuropeptide candidate precursor genes and 44 neuropeptide receptor candidate genes. The candidate neuropeptide genes were found to encode all known insect neuropeptides except allatotropin, neuropeptide F, pigment dispersing factor, and CCHamides. When compared with the endoparasitic wasp Pteromalus puparum and the ectoparasitic wasp Nasonia vitripennis, trissin and FMRFamide were found only in H. hebetor. A similar result held for the neuropeptide receptor genes, for the receptors were found in H. hebetor except the receptors of CCHamides and neuroparsin. Furthermore, we compared and analyzed the differences in neuropeptides in eight Braconidae wasps and identified natalisin in H. hebetor, Diachasma alloeum, Fopius arisanus and Microplitis demolitor, but not in the other wasps. We also analyzed the transcriptome data and qRT-PCR data from different developmental stages and tissues to reveal the expression patterns of the neuropeptides and their receptors. In this study, we revealed composition of neuropeptides and neuropeptide receptors in H. hebetor, which may contribute to future neurobiological studies.

A new neuropeptide insect parathyroid hormone iPTH in the red flour beetle Tribolium castaneum

In the postgenomics era, comparative genomics have advanced the understanding of evolutionary processes of neuropeptidergic signaling systems. The evolutionary origin of many neuropeptidergic signaling systems can be traced date back to early metazoan evolution based on the conserved sequences. Insect parathyroid hormone receptor (iPTHR) was previously described as an ortholog of vertebrate PTHR that has a well-known function in controlling bone remodeling. However, there was no sequence homologous to PTH sequence in insect genomes, leaving the iPTHR as an orphan receptor. Here, we identified the authentic ligand insect PTH (iPTH) for the iPTHR. The taxonomic distribution of iPTHR, which is lacking in Diptera and Lepidoptera, provided a lead for identifying the authentic ligand. We found that a previously described orphan ligand known as PXXXamide (where X is any amino acid) described in the cuttlefish Sepia officinalis has a similar taxonomic distribution pattern as iPTHR. Tests of this peptide, iPTH, in functional reporter assays confirmed the interaction of the ligand-receptor pair. Study of a model beetle, Tribolium castaneum, was used to investigate the function of the iPTH signaling system by RNA interference followed by RNA sequencing and phenotyping. The results suggested that the iPTH system is likely involved in the regulation of cuticle formation that culminates with a phenotype of defects in wing exoskeleton maturation at the time of adult eclosion. Moreover, RNAi of iPTHRs also led to significant reductions in egg numbers and hatching rates after parental RNAi.

Vertebrate parathyroid hormone (PTH) and its receptors have been extensively studied with respect to their function in bone remodeling and calcium metabolism. Insect parathyroid hormone receptors (iPTHRs) have been previously described as counterparts of vertebrate PTHRs, however, they are still orphan receptors for which the authentic ligands and biological functions remain unknown. We describe an insect form of parathyroid hormone (iPTH) by analyzing its interactions with iPTHRs. Identification of this new insect peptidergic system proved that the PTH system is an ancestral signaling system dating back to the evolutionary time before the divergence of protostomes and deuterostomes. We also investigated the functions of the iPTH system in a model beetle Tribolium castaneum by using RNA interference. RNA interference of iPTHR resulted in defects in wing exoskeleton maturation and fecundity. Based on the differential gene expression patterns and the phenotype induced by RNAi, we propose that the iPTH system is likely involved in the regulation of exoskeletal cuticle formation and fecundity in insects.

Genome-wide characterization and transcriptomic analyses of neuropeptides and their receptors in an endoparasitoid wasp, Pteromalus puparum

In insects, neuropeptides constitute a group of signaling molecules that act in regulation of multiple physiological and behavioral processes by binding to their corresponding receptors. On the basis of the bioinformatic approaches, we screened the genomic and transcriptomic data of the parasitoid wasp, Pteromalus puparum, and annotated 36 neuropeptide precursor genes and 33 neuropeptide receptor genes. Compared to the number of precursor genes in Bombyx mori (Lepidoptera), Chilo suppressalis (Lepidoptera), Drosophila melanogaster (Diptera), Nilaparvata lugens (Hemiptera), Apis mellifera (Hymenoptera), and Tribolium castaneum (Coleoptera), P. puparum (Hymenoptera) has the lowest number of neuropeptide precursor genes. This lower number may relate to its parasitic life cycle. Transcriptomic data of embryos, larvae, pupae, adults, venom glands, salivary glands, ovaries, and the remaining carcass revealed stage-, sex-, and tissue-specific expression patterns of the neuropeptides, and their receptors. These data provided basic information about the identity and expression profiles of neuropeptides and their receptors that are required to functionally address their biological significance in an endoparasitoid wasp.

Crustacean cardioactive peptide (CCAP) of the oriental fruit fly, Bactrocera dorsalis (Diptera: Tephritidae): Molecular characterization, distribution and its potential roles in larva-pupa ecdysis

Insects must undergo ecdysis for successful development and growth, and the crustacean cardioactive peptide (CCAP) is one of the most important hormone in this process. Here we reported a cDNA encoding for the CCAP precursor cloned from the oriental fruit fly, Bactrocera dorsalis, a most destructive insect pest of agriculture. The CCAP mature peptide (PFCNAFTGC-NH2) of B. dorsalis was generated by post-translational processing and found to be highly comparable with other insects. RT-qPCR showed that mRNA of CCAP in B. dorsalis (BdCCAP) was predominantly expressed in the central nervous system (CNS) and midgut of 3rd-instar larvae. By using immunohistochemical analysis, we also localized the endocrine cells that produce CCAP in the CNS, ring gland and midgut of 3rd-instar larvae of B. dorsalis. The synthetic CCAP mature peptide could induce the expression of mRNA of adipokinetic hormone (AKH), the metabolic neuropeptides in insects. The expression of BdCCAP mRNA in the CNS, but not in the midgut, could be upregulated in the response to the challenge of insect molting hormone, 20-hydroxyecdysone.

Tachykinins: Neuropeptides That Are Ancient, Diverse, Widespread and Functionally Pleiotropic

Tachykinins (TKs) are ancient neuropeptides present throughout the bilaterians and are, with some exceptions, characterized by a conserved FX1GX2Ramide carboxy terminus among protostomes and FXGLMamide in deuterostomes. The best-known TK is the vertebrate substance P, which in mammals, together with other TKs, has been implicated in health and disease with important roles in pain, inflammation, cancer, depressive disorder, immune system, gut function, hematopoiesis, sensory processing, and hormone regulation. The invertebrate TKs are also known to have multiple functions in the central nervous system and intestine and these have been investigated in more detail in the fly Drosophila and some other arthropods. Here, we review the protostome and deuterostome organization and evolution of TK precursors, peptides and their receptors, as well as their functions, which appear to be partly conserved across Bilateria. We also outline the distribution of TKs in the brains of representative organisms. In Drosophila, recent studies have revealed roles of TKs in early olfactory processing, neuromodulation in circuits controlling locomotion and food search, nociception, aggression, metabolic stress, and hormone release. TK signaling also regulates lipid metabolism in the Drosophila intestine. In crustaceans, TK is an important neuromodulator in rhythm-generating motor circuits in the stomatogastric nervous system and a presynaptic modulator of photoreceptor cells. Several additional functional roles of invertebrate TKs can be inferred from their distribution in various brain circuits. In addition, there are a few interesting cases where invertebrate TKs are injected into prey animals as vasodilators from salivary glands or paralyzing agents from venom glands. In these cases, the peptides are produced in the glands of the predator with sequences mimicking the prey TKs. Lastly, the TK-signaling system appears to have duplicated in Panarthropoda (comprising arthropods, onychophores, and tardigrades) to give rise to a novel type of peptides, natalisins, with a distinct receptor. The distribution and functions of natalisins are distinct from the TKs. In general, it appears that TKs are widely distributed and act in circuits at short range as neuromodulators or cotransmitters.

A sperm peptide enhances long-term memory in female Drosophila

Can mating influence cognitive functions such as learning and memory in a permanent way? We have addressed this question using a combined behavioral and in vivo imaging approach, finding that aversive long-term memory performance strongly increases in Drosophila females in response to sperm transfer following mating. A peptide in the male sperm, the sex peptide, is known to cause marked changes in female reproductive behavior, as well as other behaviors such as dietary preference. Here, we demonstrate that this sex peptide enhances memory by acting on a single pair of serotonergic brain neurons, in which activation of the sex peptide receptor stimulates the cyclic adenosine monophosphate/protein kinase A pathway. We thus reveal a strong effect of mating on memory via the neuromodulatory action of a sperm peptide on the female brain.

Evolutionary trends of neuropeptide signaling in beetles - A comparative analysis of Coleopteran transcriptomic and genomic data

Insects employ neuropeptides to regulate their growth & development, behaviour, metabolism and their internal milieu. At least 50 neuropeptides are known to date, with some ancestral to the insects and others more specific to particular taxa. In order to understand the evolution and essentiality of neuropeptides, we data mined publicly available high quality genomic or transcriptomic data for 31 species of the largest insect Order, the Coleoptera, chosen to represent the superfamilies' of the Adephaga and Polyphaga. The resulting neuropeptide distributions were compared against the habitats, lifestyle and other parameters. Around half of the neuropeptide families were represented across the Coleoptera, suggesting essentiality or at least continuing utility. However, the remaining families showed patterns of loss that did not correlate with any obvious life history parameter, suggesting that these neuropeptides are no longer required for the Coleopteran lifestyle. This may perhaps indicate a decreasing reliance on neuropeptide signaling in insects.

Neuropeptides and peptide hormones identified in codling moth, Cydia pomonella (Lepidoptera: Tortricidae)

The codling moth, Cydia pomonella, is a worldwide pest of pome fruits. Neuropeptides regulate most physiological functions in insects and represent new targets for the development of control agents. The only neuropeptides reported from the codling moth to date are the allatostatin A family peptides. To identify other neuropeptides and peptide hormones from codling moth, we analyzed head transcriptomes, identified 50 transcripts, and predicted 120 prepropeptides for the codling moth neuropeptides and peptide hormones. All transcripts were amplified, and these sequences were verified. One of the notable findings in this study is that diapause hormones (DHs) reported from Tortricid moths, including the codling moth, do not have the WFGPRL sequence in C-terminal ends in the pban genes. The C-terminal motif is critical to characterize insect DH peptides, and always conserved in pban/dh genes in Lepidoptera and many insect orders. Interestingly, the WFGPRL sequence was produced only from the capa gene in the codling moth. The allatostatin A-family encoding transcript predicted nine peptides, seven of which, as expected, are identical to those previously isolated from the moth. We also identified new codling moth orthologs of insect neuropeptides including CCHamides, allatostatin CC, RYamides, and natalisins. The information provided in this study will benefit future codling moth investigations using peptidoproteomics to determine peptide presence and functions.

Enteroendocrine peptides regulate feeding behavior via controlling intestinal contraction of the silkworm Bombyx mori

Our previous study demonstrated that predominant feeding inhibitory effects were found in the crude extracts of foregut and midgut of the silkworm Bombyx mori larvae. To address the entero-intestinal control crucial for the regulation of insect feeding behavior, the present study identified and functionally characterized feeding inhibitory peptides from the midgut of B. mori larvae. Purification and structural analyses revealed that the predominant inhibitory factors in the crude extracts were allatotropin (AT) and GSRYamide after its C-terminal sequence. In situ hybridization revealed that AT and GSRYamide were expressed in enteroendocrine cells in the posterior and anterior midgut, respectively. Receptor screening using Ca²⁺-imaging technique showed that the B. mori neuropeptide G protein-coupled receptor (BNGR)-A19 and -A22 acted as GSRYamide receptors and BNGR-A5 acted as an additional AT receptor. Expression analyses of these receptors and the results of the peristaltic motion assay indicated that these peptides participated in the regulation of intestinal contraction. Exposure of pharynx and ileum to AT and GSRYamide inhibited spontaneous contraction in ad libitum-fed larvae, while exposure of pharynx to GSRYamide did not inhibit contraction in non-fed larvae, indicating that the feeding state changed their sensitivity to inhibitory peptides. These different responses corresponded to different expression levels of their receptors in the pharynx. In addition, injection of AT and GSRYamide decreased esophageal contraction frequencies in the melamine-treated transparent larvae. These findings strongly suggest that these peptides exert feeding inhibitory effects by modulating intestinal contraction in response to their feeding state transition, eventually causing feeding termination.

GPCR annotation, G proteins, and transcriptomics of fire ant (Solenopsis invicta) queen and worker brain: An improved view of signaling in an invasive superorganism

Knowledge of G protein-coupled receptors (GPCRs) and their signaling modalities is crucial to advancing insect endocrinology, specifically in highly successful invasive social insects, such as the red imported fire ant, Solenopsis invicta Buren. In the first published draft genome of S. invicta, emphasis was placed on the annotation of olfactory receptors, and only the number of predicted GPCR genes was reported. Without an organized and curated resource for GPCRs, it will be difficult to test hypotheses on the endocrine role of neuropeptide hormones, or the function of neurotransmitters and neuromodulators. Therefore, we mined the S. invicta genome for GPCRs and found 324 predicted transcripts encoded by 125 predicted loci and improved the annotation of 55 of these loci. Among them are sixteen GPCRs that are currently annotated as "uncharacterized proteins". Further, the phylogenetic analysis of class A neuropeptide receptors presented here and the comparative listing of GPCRs in the hymenopterans S. invicta, Apis mellifera (both eusocial), Nasonia vitripennis (solitary), and the solitary model dipteran Drosophila melanogaster will facilitate comparative endocrinological studies related to social insect evolution and diversity. We compiled the 24 G protein transcripts predicted (15 α, 7 β, and 2 γ) from 12 G protein genes (5 α, 5 β, and 2 γ). Reproductive division of labor is extreme in this ant species, therefore, we compared GPCR and G protein gene expression among worker, mated queen and alate virgin queen ant brain transcriptomes. Transcripts for ten GPCRs and two G proteins were differentially expressed between queen and worker brains. The differentially expressed GPCRs are candidate receptors to explore hypotheses on division of labor in this species.

ER responses play a key role in Swiss-Cheese/Neuropathy Target Esterase-associated neurodegeneration

Swiss Cheese (SWS) is the Drosophila orthologue of Neuropathy Target Esterase (NTE), a phospholipase that when mutated has been shown to cause a spectrum of disorders in humans that range from intellectual disabilities to ataxia. Loss of SWS in Drosophila also causes locomotion deficits, age-dependent neurodegeneration, and an increase in lysophosphatidylcholine (LPC) and phosphatidylcholine (PC). SWS is localized to the Endoplasmic Reticulum (ER), and recently, it has been shown that perturbing the membrane lipid composition of the ER can lead to the activation of ER stress responses through the inhibition of the Sarco/Endoplasmic Reticulum Ca²⁺ ATPase (SERCA). To investigate whether ER stress induction occurs in NTE-associated disorders, we used the fly sws null mutant as a model. sws flies showed an activated ER stress response as determined by elevated levels of the chaperone GRP78 and by increased splicing of XBP, an ER transcription factor that activates transcriptional ER stress responses. To address whether ER stress plays a role in the degenerative and behavioral phenotypes detected in sws¹, we overexpressed XBP1, or treated the flies with tauroursodeoxycholic acid (TUDCA), a chemical known to attenuate ER stress-mediated cell death. Both manipulations suppressed the locomotor deficits and neurodegeneration of sws¹. In addition, sws¹ flies showed reduced SERCA levels and expressing additional SERCA also suppressed the sws¹-related phenotypes. This suggests that the disruption in lipid compositions and its effect on SERCA are inducing ER stress, aimed to ameliorate the deleterious effects of sws¹. This includes the effects on lipid composition because XBP1 and SERCA expression also reduced the LPC levels in sws¹. Promoting cytoprotective ER stress pathways may therefore provide a therapeutic approach to alleviate the neurodegeneration and motor symptoms seen in NTE-associated disorders.

Peptide receptors and immune-related proteins expressed in the digestive system of a urochordate, Ciona intestinalis

The digestive system is responsible for nutrient intake and defense against pathogenic microbes. Thus, identification of regulatory factors for digestive functions and immune systems is a key step to the verification of the life cycle, homeostasis, survival strategy and evolutionary aspects of an organism. Over the past decade, there have been increasing reports on neuropeptides, their receptors, variable region-containing chitin-binding proteins (VCBPs) and Toll-like receptors (TLRs) in the ascidian, Ciona intestinalis. Mass spectrometry-based peptidomes and genome database-searching detected not only Ciona orthologs or prototypes of vertebrate peptides and their receptors, including cholecystokinin, gonadotropin-releasing hormones, tachykinin, calcitonin and vasopressin but also Ciona-specific neuropeptides including Ci-LFs and Ci-YFVs. The species-specific regulation of GnRHergic signaling including unique signaling control via heterodimerization among multiple GnRH receptors has also been revealed. These findings shed light on the remarkable significance of ascidians in investigations of the evolution and diversification of the peptidergic systems in chordates. In the defensive systems of C. intestinalis, VCBPs and TLRs have been shown to play major roles in the recognition of exogenous microbes in the innate immune system. These findings indicate both common and species-specific functions of the innate immunity-related molecules between C. intestinalis and vertebrates. In this review article, we present recent advances in molecular and functional features and evolutionary aspects of major neuropeptides, their receptors, VCBPs and TLRs in C. intestinalis.

Recent advances in neuropeptide signaling in Drosophila, from genes to physiology and behavior

This review focuses on neuropeptides and peptide hormones, the largest and most diverse class of neuroactive substances, known in Drosophila and other animals to play roles in almost all aspects of daily life, as w;1;ell as in developmental processes. We provide an update on novel neuropeptides and receptors identified in the last decade, and highlight progress in analysis of neuropeptide signaling in Drosophila. Especially exciting is the huge amount of work published on novel functions of neuropeptides and peptide hormones in Drosophila, largely due to the rapid developments of powerful genetic methods, imaging techniques and innovative assays. We critically discuss the roles of peptides in olfaction, taste, foraging, feeding, clock function/sleep, aggression, mating/reproduction, learning and other behaviors, as well as in regulation of development, growth, metabolic and water homeostasis, stress responses, fecundity, and lifespan. We furthermore provide novel information on neuropeptide distribution and organization of peptidergic systems, as well as the phylogenetic relations between Drosophila neuropeptides and those of other phyla, including mammals. As will be shown, neuropeptide signaling is phylogenetically ancient, and not only are the structures of the peptides, precursors and receptors conserved over evolution, but also many functions of neuropeptide signaling in physiology and behavior.

The Ecdysis Triggering Hormone System, via ETH/ETHR-B, Is Essential for Successful Reproduction of a Major Pest Insect, Bactrocera dorsalis (Hendel)

Ecdysis triggering hormone (ETH), released by the Inka cells, is a master hormone in regulating the ecdysis process in insect. Here we investigated the presence and role of the ETH signaling in the female adult of the oriental fruit fly, Bactrocera dorsalis (Hendel) that is one of the most important invasive pest insects in agriculture worldwide. In the female adult, ETH was confirmed in the Inka cells at the tracheae by immunostaining and also in vitro exposure to ETH stimulated the isolated corpora allata of adult in activity. Then we prepared cDNA of females at 0, 5, 10, 15, and 20 days after adult eclosion, and RT-qPCR showed that the expression pattern of ETH and its receptor ETHR-B started from a peak at the day of adult eclosion (day 0), then dropped to basal levels and increased again between day 10 and 15 which is also the period corresponding to ovary growth. In contrast, ETHR-A was absent with Ct values of >33. The expression patterns of the ecdysteroid-producing Halloween genes Spook and Shade, and the vitellogenin genes Vg1, Vg2, and Vg3 co-occurred with peak levels at days 10–15, and also juvenile hormone acid methyltransferase (JHAMT) showed increased levels on day 15. Further in RNAi assays to better understand the role of ETH and ETHR, dsRNA was injected to adult and this led to a respective decrease in expression of 62 and 56% for ETH and ETHR-B, while ETHR-A stayed absent with Ct values of 33. In these RNAi-females, there was an apparently decreased expression for JHAMT and Vg2, together with a significant decrease of the JH titer and egg production. Injection of the JH mimetic methoprene could rescue Vg2 expression and egg production. Upstream, in dsETH/dsETHR-injected females, 20-hydroxyecdysone (20E) injection rescued the transcriptions of ETH and ETHR and also egg production. In summary, our results shed more light on the pivotal role that the ETH peptide hormone and its receptor ETHR-B play an essential role in the reproduction of the female adult of B. dorsalis, via the regulation of JH and vitellogenin, which are controlled by a pulse of 20E.

Multiple neuropeptides produced by sex-specific neurons control activity of the male accessory glands and gonoducts in the silkworm Bombyx mori

The male accessory glands (AG) and gonoducts of moths develop during metamorphosis and are essential for successful fertilization of females. We found that these reproductive organs are innervated by a sex-specific cluster of peptidergic neurons in the posterior 9^th neuromere of the terminal abdominal ganglion (TAG). This cluster of ~20 neurons differentiate during metamorphosis to innervate the accessory glands and sperm ducts. Using immunohistochemistry and in situ hybridization (ISH) we showed that these neurons express four neuropeptide precursors encoding calcitonin-like diuretic hormone (CT-DH), allatotropin (AT) and AT-like peptides (ATLI-III), allatostatin C (AST-C), and myoinhibitory peptides (MIPs). We used contraction bioassay in vitro to determine roles of these neuropeptides in the gonoduct and accessory gland activity. Spontaneous contractions of the seminal vesicle and AG were stimulated in a dose depended manner by CT-DH and AT, whereas AST-C and MIP elicited dose dependent inhibition. Using quantitative RT-PCR we confirmed expression of receptors for these neuropeptides in organs innervated by the male specific cluster of neurons. Our results suggest a role of these neuropeptides in regulation of seminal fluid movements during copulation.

New Drosophila Long-Term Memory Genes Revealed by Assessing Computational Function Prediction Methods

A major bottleneck to our understanding of the genetic and molecular foundation of life lies in the ability to assign function to a gene and, subsequently, a protein. Traditional molecular and genetic experiments can provide the most reliable forms of identification, but are generally low-throughput, making such discovery and assignment a daunting task. The bottleneck has led to an increasing role for computational approaches. The Critical Assessment of Functional Annotation (CAFA) effort seeks to measure the performance of computational methods. In CAFA3, we performed selected screens, including an effort focused on long-term memory. We used homology and previous CAFA predictions to identify 29 key Drosophila genes, which we tested via a long-term memory screen. We identify 11 novel genes that are involved in long-term memory formation and show a high level of connectivity with previously identified learning and memory genes. Our study provides first higher-order behavioral assay and organism screen used for CAFA assessments and revealed previously uncharacterized roles of multiple genes as possible regulators of neuronal plasticity at the boundary of information acquisition and memory formation.

Neuropeptides, Peptide Hormones, and Their Receptors of a Tunicate, Ciona intestinalis

The critical phylogenetic position of the ascidian, Ciona intestinalis, as the closest relative of vertebrates, suggested its potential applicability as a model organism in a wide variety of biological events including the nervous, neuroendocrine, and endocrine regulation. To date, approximately 40 neuropeptides and/or peptide hormones and several cognate receptors have been identified. These peptides are categorized into two types: (1) orthologs of vertebrate peptides, such as cholecystokinin, GnRH, tachykinin, vasopressin, and calcitonin, and (2) novel family peptides such as LF peptides and YFL/V peptides. Ciona GnRH receptors (Ci-GnRHR) were found to be multiplicated in the Ciona-specific lineages and to form unique heterodimers between Ci-GnRHR1 and R4 and between Ci-GnRHR2 and R4, leading to fine-tuning of the generation of second messengers. Furthermore, Ciona tachykinin was shown to regulate a novel protease-associated follicle growth pathway. These findings will pave the way for the exploration of both conserved and diversified endocrine, neuroendocrine, and nervous systems in the evolutionary lineage of invertebrate deuterostomes and/or chordates. In this chapter, we provide an overview of primary sequences, functions, and evolutionary aspects of neuropeptides, peptide hormones, and their receptors in C. intestinalis.

Characterization and Expression Profiling of Neuropeptides and G-Protein-Coupled Receptors (GPCRs) for Neuropeptides in the Asian Citrus Psyllid, Diaphorina citri (Hemiptera: Psyllidae)

Neuropeptides are endogenous active substances that widely exist in multicellular biological nerve tissue and participate in the function of the nervous system, and most of them act on neuropeptide receptors. In insects, neuropeptides and their receptors play important roles in controlling a multitude of physiological processes. In this project, we sequenced the transcriptome from twelve tissues of the Asian citrus psyllid, Diaphorina citri Kuwayama. A total of 40 candidate neuropeptide genes and 42 neuropeptide receptor genes were identified. Among the neuropeptide receptor genes, 35 of them belong to the A-family (or rhodopsin-like), four of them belong to the B-family (or secretin-like), and three of them are leucine-rich repeat-containing G-protein-coupled receptors. The expression profile of the 82 genes across developmental stages was determined by qRT-PCR. Our study provides the first investigation on the genes of neuropeptides and their receptors in D. citri, which may play key roles in regulating the physiology and behaviors of D. citri.

Nezara viridula (Hemiptera: Pentatomidae) transcriptomic analysis and neuropeptidomics

Stinkbugs (Hemiptera: Pentatomidae) are of major economic importance as pest of crops. Among the species composing the stinkbug complex, Nezara viridula is one of the most abundant in Brazil, Argentina and the Southern USA. However, this species has been poorly characterized at the genetic and physiological level. Here we sequenced and analyzed the complete transcriptome of N. viridula male and female adults. We identified neuropeptide precursor genes and G-protein coupled receptors for neuropeptides in this transcriptome. Mature neuropeptides were identified in N. viridula brain extracts by liquid chromatography-tandem mass spectrometry. We also analyzed the neuropeptide precursor complement in the genome sequence of Halyomorpha halys, another pentatomid of economic relevance. We compared the results in both pentatomids with the well-characterized neuropeptide repertoire from the kissing bug Rhodnius prolixus (Hemiptera: Reduviidae). We identified both group-specific features (which could be related to the different feeding habits) and similarities that could be characteristic of Heteroptera. This work contributes to a deeper knowledge of the genetic information of these pests, with a focus on neuroendocrine system characterization.

The functional organization of descending sensory-motor pathways in Drosophila

In most animals, the brain controls the body via a set of descending neurons (DNs) that traverse the neck. DN activity activates, maintains or modulates locomotion and other behaviors. Individual DNs have been well-studied in species from insects to primates, but little is known about overall connectivity patterns across the DN population. We systematically investigated DN anatomy in Drosophila melanogaster and created over 100 transgenic lines targeting individual cell types. We identified roughly half of all Drosophila DNs and comprehensively map connectivity between sensory and motor neuropils in the brain and nerve cord, respectively. We find the nerve cord is a layered system of neuropils reflecting the fly's capability for two largely independent means of locomotion -- walking and flight -- using distinct sets of appendages. Our results reveal the basic functional map of descending pathways in flies and provide tools for systematic interrogation of neural circuits.

Discovery of novel representatives of bilaterian neuropeptide families and reconstruction of neuropeptide precursor evolution in ophiuroid echinoderms

Neuropeptides are a diverse class of intercellular signalling molecules that mediate neuronal regulation of many physiological and behavioural processes. Recent advances in genome/transcriptome sequencing are enabling identification of neuropeptide precursor proteins in species from a growing variety of animal taxa, providing new insights into the evolution of neuropeptide signalling. Here, detailed analysis of transcriptome sequence data from three brittle star species, Ophionotus victoriae, Amphiura filiformis and Ophiopsila aranea, has enabled the first comprehensive identification of neuropeptide precursors in the class Ophiuroidea of the phylum Echinodermata. Representatives of over 30 bilaterian neuropeptide precursor families were identified, some of which occur as paralogues. Furthermore, homologues of endothelin/CCHamide, eclosion hormone, neuropeptide-F/Y and nucleobinin/nesfatin were discovered here in a deuterostome/echinoderm for the first time. The majority of ophiuroid neuropeptide precursors contain a single copy of a neuropeptide, but several precursors comprise multiple copies of identical or non-identical, but structurally related, neuropeptides. Here, we performed an unprecedented investigation of the evolution of neuropeptide copy number over a period of approximately 270 Myr by analysing sequence data from over 50 ophiuroid species, with reference to a robust phylogeny. Our analysis indicates that the composition of neuropeptide ‘cocktails’ is functionally important, but with plasticity over long evolutionary time scales.

Neuropeptide Mapping of Dimmed Cells of Adult Drosophila Brain

Neuropeptides are structurally highly diverse messenger molecules that act as regulators of many physiological processes such as development, metabolism, reproduction or behavior in general. Differentiation of neuropeptidergic cells often corresponds with the presence of the transcription factor DIMMED. In the central nervous system of the fruit fly Drosophila melanogaster, DIMMED commonly occurs in neuroendocrine neurons that release peptides as neurohormones but also in interneurons with complex branching patterns. Fly strains with green fluorescence protein (GFP)-expressing dimmed cells make it possible to systematically analyze the processed neuropeptides in these cells. In this study, we mapped individual GFP-expressing neurons of adult D. melanogaster from the dimmed (c929)>GFP line. Using single cell mass spectrometry, we analyzed 10 types of dimmed neurons from the brain/gnathal ganglion. These cells included neuroendocrine cells with projection into the retrocerebral complex but also a number of large interneurons. Resulting mass spectra not only provided comprehensive data regarding mature products from 13 neuropeptide precursors but also evidence for the cellular co-localization of neuropeptides from different neuropeptide genes. The results can be implemented in a neuroanatomical map of the D. melanogaster brain. Graphical Abstract ᅟ.