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Bourgeois-Jaarsma Q, Miaja Hernandez P, Groffen AJ. Ca 2+ sensor proteins in spontaneous release and synaptic plasticity: Limited contribution of Doc2c, rabphilin-3a and synaptotagmin 7 in hippocampal glutamatergic neurons. Mol Cell Neurosci 2021; 112:103613. [PMID: 33753311 DOI: 10.1016/j.mcn.2021.103613] [Citation(s) in RCA: 5] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 07/24/2020] [Revised: 03/09/2021] [Accepted: 03/13/2021] [Indexed: 11/28/2022] Open
Abstract
Presynaptic neurotransmitter release is strictly regulated by SNARE proteins, Ca2+ and a number of Ca2+ sensors including synaptotagmins (Syts) and Double C2 domain proteins (Doc2s). More than seventy years after the original description of spontaneous release, the mechanism that regulates this process is still poorly understood. Syt-1, Syt7 and Doc2 proteins contribute predominantly, but not exclusively, to synchronous, asynchronous and spontaneous phases of release. The proteins share a conserved tandem C2 domain architecture, but are functionally diverse in their subcellular location, Ca2+-binding properties and protein interactions. In absence of Syt-1, Doc2a and -b, neurons still exhibit spontaneous vesicle fusion which remains Ca2+-sensitive, suggesting the existence of additional sensors. Here, we selected Doc2c, rabphilin-3a and Syt-7 as three potential Ca2+ sensors for their sequence homology with Syt-1 and Doc2b. We genetically ablated each candidate gene in absence of Doc2a and -b and investigated spontaneous and evoked release in glutamatergic hippocampal neurons, cultured either in networks or on microglial islands (autapses). The removal of Doc2c had no effect on spontaneous or evoked release. Syt-7 removal also did not affect spontaneous release, although it altered short-term plasticity by accentuating short-term depression. The removal of rabphilin caused an increased spontaneous release frequency in network cultures, an effect that was not observed in autapses. Taken together, we conclude that Doc2c and Syt-7 do not affect spontaneous release of glutamate in hippocampal neurons, while our results suggest a possible regulatory role of rabphilin-3a in neuronal networks. These findings importantly narrow down the repertoire of synaptic Ca2+ sensors that may be implicated in the spontaneous release of glutamate.
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Affiliation(s)
- Quentin Bourgeois-Jaarsma
- Department of Functional Genomics, Faculty of Science, Center for Neurogenomics and Cognitive Research, VU University, De Boelelaan 1085, 1081HV Amsterdam, the Netherlands
| | - Pablo Miaja Hernandez
- Department of Functional Genomics, Faculty of Science, Center for Neurogenomics and Cognitive Research, VU University, De Boelelaan 1085, 1081HV Amsterdam, the Netherlands
| | - Alexander J Groffen
- Department of Functional Genomics, Faculty of Science, Center for Neurogenomics and Cognitive Research, VU University, De Boelelaan 1085, 1081HV Amsterdam, the Netherlands; Department of Clinical Genetics, VU Medical Center, De Boelelaan 1085, 1081HV Amsterdam, the Netherlands.
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2
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Witt H, Savić F, Verbeek S, Dietz J, Tarantola G, Oelkers M, Geil B, Janshoff A. Membrane fusion studied by colloidal probes. EUROPEAN BIOPHYSICS JOURNAL : EBJ 2021; 50:223-237. [PMID: 33599795 PMCID: PMC8071799 DOI: 10.1007/s00249-020-01490-5] [Citation(s) in RCA: 3] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 08/27/2020] [Accepted: 12/19/2020] [Indexed: 12/12/2022]
Abstract
Membrane-coated colloidal probes combine the benefits of solid-supported membranes with a more complex three-dimensional geometry. This combination makes them a powerful model system that enables the visualization of dynamic biological processes with high throughput and minimal reliance on fluorescent labels. Here, we want to review recent applications of colloidal probes for the study of membrane fusion. After discussing the advantages and disadvantages of some classical vesicle-based fusion assays, we introduce an assay using optical detection of fusion between membrane-coated glass microspheres in a quasi two-dimensional assembly. Then, we discuss free energy considerations of membrane fusion between supported bilayers, and show how colloidal probes can be combined with atomic force microscopy or optical tweezers to access the fusion process with even greater detail.
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Affiliation(s)
- Hannes Witt
- Institute for Physical Chemistry, University of Göttingen, 37075, Göttingen, Germany
- Physics of Living Systems, Vrije Universiteit Amsterdam, 1081 HV, Amsterdam, The Netherlands
| | - Filip Savić
- Institute for Physical Chemistry, University of Göttingen, 37075, Göttingen, Germany
| | - Sarah Verbeek
- Institute for Physical Chemistry, University of Göttingen, 37075, Göttingen, Germany
| | - Jörn Dietz
- Institute for Physical Chemistry, University of Göttingen, 37075, Göttingen, Germany
| | - Gesa Tarantola
- Institute for Physical Chemistry, University of Göttingen, 37075, Göttingen, Germany
| | - Marieelen Oelkers
- Institute for Physical Chemistry, University of Göttingen, 37075, Göttingen, Germany
| | - Burkhard Geil
- Institute for Physical Chemistry, University of Göttingen, 37075, Göttingen, Germany
| | - Andreas Janshoff
- Institute for Physical Chemistry, University of Göttingen, 37075, Göttingen, Germany.
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3
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Sparks RP, Arango AS, Starr ML, Aboff ZL, Hurst LR, Rivera-Kohr DA, Zhang C, Harnden KA, Jenkins JL, Guida WC, Tajkhorshid E, Fratti RA. A small-molecule competitive inhibitor of phosphatidic acid binding by the AAA+ protein NSF/Sec18 blocks the SNARE-priming stage of vacuole fusion. J Biol Chem 2019; 294:17168-17185. [PMID: 31515268 DOI: 10.1074/jbc.ra119.008865] [Citation(s) in RCA: 5] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 04/11/2019] [Revised: 09/04/2019] [Indexed: 12/13/2022] Open
Abstract
The homeostasis of most organelles requires membrane fusion mediated by soluble N -ethylmaleimide-sensitive factor (NSF) attachment protein receptors (SNAREs). SNAREs undergo cycles of activation and deactivation as membranes move through the fusion cycle. At the top of the cycle, inactive cis-SNARE complexes on a single membrane are activated, or primed, by the hexameric ATPase associated with the diverse cellular activities (AAA+) protein, N-ethylmaleimide-sensitive factor (NSF/Sec18), and its co-chaperone α-SNAP/Sec17. Sec18-mediated ATP hydrolysis drives the mechanical disassembly of SNAREs into individual coils, permitting a new cycle of fusion. Previously, we found that Sec18 monomers are sequestered away from SNAREs by binding phosphatidic acid (PA). Sec18 is released from the membrane when PA is hydrolyzed to diacylglycerol by the PA phosphatase Pah1. Although PA can inhibit SNARE priming, it binds other proteins and thus cannot be used as a specific tool to further probe Sec18 activity. Here, we report the discovery of a small-molecule compound, we call IPA (inhibitor of priming activity), that binds Sec18 with high affinity and blocks SNARE activation. We observed that IPA blocks SNARE priming and competes for PA binding to Sec18. Molecular dynamics simulations revealed that IPA induces a more rigid NSF/Sec18 conformation, which potentially disables the flexibility required for Sec18 to bind to PA or to activate SNAREs. We also show that IPA more potently and specifically inhibits NSF/Sec18 activity than does N-ethylmaleimide, requiring the administration of only low micromolar concentrations of IPA, demonstrating that this compound could help to further elucidate SNARE-priming dynamics.
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Affiliation(s)
- Robert P Sparks
- Department of Biochemistry, University of Illinois at Urbana-Champaign, Urbana, Illinois 61801
| | - Andres S Arango
- Center for Biophysics and Quantitative Biology, University of Illinois at Urbana-Champaign, Urbana, Illinois 61801
| | - Matthew L Starr
- Department of Biochemistry, University of Illinois at Urbana-Champaign, Urbana, Illinois 61801
| | - Zachary L Aboff
- Center for Biophysics and Quantitative Biology, University of Illinois at Urbana-Champaign, Urbana, Illinois 61801
| | - Logan R Hurst
- Department of Biochemistry, University of Illinois at Urbana-Champaign, Urbana, Illinois 61801
| | - David A Rivera-Kohr
- Department of Biochemistry, University of Illinois at Urbana-Champaign, Urbana, Illinois 61801
| | - Chi Zhang
- Department of Biochemistry, University of Illinois at Urbana-Champaign, Urbana, Illinois 61801
| | - Kevin A Harnden
- Department of Chemistry, University of Illinois at Urbana-Champaign, Urbana, Illinois 61801
| | - Jermaine L Jenkins
- Structural Biology and Biophysics Facility, University of Rochester Medical Center, Rochester, New York 14642
| | - Wayne C Guida
- Department of Chemistry, University of South Florida, Tampa, Florida 336204
| | - Emad Tajkhorshid
- Department of Biochemistry, University of Illinois at Urbana-Champaign, Urbana, Illinois 61801.,Center for Biophysics and Quantitative Biology, University of Illinois at Urbana-Champaign, Urbana, Illinois 61801.,Beckman Institute for Advanced Science and Technology, University of Illinois at Urbana-Champaign, Urbana, Illinois 61801
| | - Rutilio A Fratti
- Department of Biochemistry, University of Illinois at Urbana-Champaign, Urbana, Illinois 61801 .,Center for Biophysics and Quantitative Biology, University of Illinois at Urbana-Champaign, Urbana, Illinois 61801
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4
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Lee JG, Ko YJ, Choi JH, Jo MJ, Jun Y, Kim JI. Buforin-1 blocks neuronal SNARE-mediated membrane fusion by inhibiting SNARE complex assembly. Biochem Biophys Res Commun 2019; 514:105-111. [PMID: 31027731 DOI: 10.1016/j.bbrc.2019.04.124] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 04/13/2019] [Accepted: 04/17/2019] [Indexed: 11/17/2022]
Abstract
Assembly of neuronal SNARE protein complexes is essential for fusion of synaptic vesicles with the presynaptic plasma membrane, which releases neurotransmitters into the synaptic cleft and mediates neurotransmission. However, despite the potential of pharmacological regulation of this process for the treatment of various neurological disorders, only a few reagents, including botulinum neurotoxins, are currently available. Here, we report that buforin-1, an antimicrobial peptide from the Asian toad Bufo gargarizans, inhibits neuronal SNARE complex assembly, resulting in neuronal SNARE-mediated membrane fusion in vitro via its direct association with neuronal t-SNAREs syntaxin-1 and SNAP-25. Consistently, buforin-1 significantly inhibited neuronal-SNARE-mediated exocytosis in PC-12 cells. Thus, buforin-1 has potential for the treatment of neurological disorders caused by dysregulated neurotransmission.
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Affiliation(s)
- Jung Gi Lee
- School of Life Sciences, Gwangju Institute of Science and Technology, 123 Cheomdangwagi-ro, Buk-gu, Gwangju, 61005, South Korea
| | - Young-Joon Ko
- School of Life Sciences, Gwangju Institute of Science and Technology, 123 Cheomdangwagi-ro, Buk-gu, Gwangju, 61005, South Korea; Cell Logistics Research Center, Gwangju Institute of Science and Technology, 123 Cheomdangwagi-ro, Buk-gu, Gwangju, 61005, South Korea
| | - Ji-Hye Choi
- School of Life Sciences, Gwangju Institute of Science and Technology, 123 Cheomdangwagi-ro, Buk-gu, Gwangju, 61005, South Korea
| | - Min Jeong Jo
- School of Life Sciences, Gwangju Institute of Science and Technology, 123 Cheomdangwagi-ro, Buk-gu, Gwangju, 61005, South Korea
| | - Youngsoo Jun
- School of Life Sciences, Gwangju Institute of Science and Technology, 123 Cheomdangwagi-ro, Buk-gu, Gwangju, 61005, South Korea; Cell Logistics Research Center, Gwangju Institute of Science and Technology, 123 Cheomdangwagi-ro, Buk-gu, Gwangju, 61005, South Korea.
| | - Jae Il Kim
- School of Life Sciences, Gwangju Institute of Science and Technology, 123 Cheomdangwagi-ro, Buk-gu, Gwangju, 61005, South Korea; Pilot Plant, Anygen, Gwangju Technopark, 333 Cheomdankwagi-ro, Buk-gu, Gwangju, 61008, South Korea.
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5
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Jun Y. An In Vitro Assay of Trans-SNARE Complex Formation During Yeast Vacuole Fusion Using Epitope Tag-Free SNAREs. Methods Mol Biol 2019; 1860:277-288. [PMID: 30317512 DOI: 10.1007/978-1-4939-8760-3_18] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 06/08/2023]
Abstract
SNARE complexes assembled between fusing membranes (in trans) are the core machinery driving lipid bilayer merger. Thus, an assay monitoring the formation of these trans-SNARE complexes is essential for SNARE-mediated membrane fusion studies. Homotypic yeast vacuole fusion is an important model system for such studies. Although several assays measuring trans-SNARE complex formation are available to study yeast vacuole fusion, most use SNAREs conjugated with epitope tags, which may affect the function of SNAREs or even the formation of trans-SNARE complexes. Here, I describe an assay for trans-SNARE complex formation during yeast vacuole fusion that does not require epitope-tagged SNAREs.
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Affiliation(s)
- Youngsoo Jun
- School of Life Sciences, Cell Logistics Research Center, and Silver Health Bio Research Center, Gwangju Institute of Science and Technology, Gwangju, Republic of Korea.
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6
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Bioengineered yeast-derived vacuoles with enhanced tissue-penetrating ability for targeted cancer therapy. Proc Natl Acad Sci U S A 2015; 113:710-5. [PMID: 26715758 DOI: 10.1073/pnas.1509371113] [Citation(s) in RCA: 24] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/11/2022] Open
Abstract
Despite the appreciable success of synthetic nanomaterials for targeted cancer therapy in preclinical studies, technical challenges involving their large-scale, cost-effective production and intrinsic toxicity associated with the materials, as well as their inability to penetrate tumor tissues deeply, limit their clinical translation. Here, we describe biologically derived nanocarriers developed from a bioengineered yeast strain that may overcome such impediments. The budding yeast Saccharomyces cerevisiae was genetically engineered to produce nanosized vacuoles displaying human epidermal growth factor receptor 2 (HER2)-specific affibody for active targeting. These nanosized vacuoles efficiently loaded the anticancer drug doxorubicin (Dox) and were effectively endocytosed by cultured cancer cells. Their cancer-targeting ability, along with their unique endomembrane compositions, significantly enhanced drug penetration in multicellular cultures and improved drug distribution in a tumor xenograft. Furthermore, Dox-loaded vacuoles successfully prevented tumor growth without eliciting any prolonged immune responses. The current study provides a platform technology for generating cancer-specific, tissue-penetrating, safe, and scalable biological nanoparticles for targeted cancer therapy.
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7
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Shen C, Rathore SS, Yu H, Gulbranson DR, Hua R, Zhang C, Schoppa NE, Shen J. The trans-SNARE-regulating function of Munc18-1 is essential to synaptic exocytosis. Nat Commun 2015; 6:8852. [PMID: 26572858 PMCID: PMC4668942 DOI: 10.1038/ncomms9852] [Citation(s) in RCA: 44] [Impact Index Per Article: 4.9] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 12/20/2014] [Accepted: 10/09/2015] [Indexed: 11/09/2022] Open
Abstract
The fusion of neurotransmitter-filled synaptic vesicles with the plasma membrane requires two classes of molecules-SNAP receptor (SNARE) and Sec1/Munc18 (SM) protein. Reconstitution studies suggest that the SM protein Munc18-1 promotes the zippering of trans-SNARE complexes and accelerates the kinetics of SNARE-dependent membrane fusion. However, the physiological role of this trans-SNARE-regulating function in synaptic exocytosis remains to be established. Here we first demonstrate that two mutations in the vesicle-anchored v-SNARE selectively impair the ability of Munc18-1 to promote trans-SNARE zippering, whereas other known Munc18-1/SNARE-binding modes are unaffected. In cultured neurons, these v-SNARE mutations strongly inhibit spontaneous as well as evoked neurotransmitter release, providing genetic evidence for the trans-SNARE-regulating function of Munc18-1 in synaptic exocytosis. Finally, we show that the trans-SNARE-regulating function of Munc18-1 is compromised by a mutation associated with Ohtahara Syndrome, a severe form of epilepsy.
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Affiliation(s)
- Chong Shen
- Department of Molecular, Cellular and Developmental Biology, University of Colorado at Boulder, Boulder, Colorado 80309, USA
| | - Shailendra S Rathore
- Department of Molecular, Cellular and Developmental Biology, University of Colorado at Boulder, Boulder, Colorado 80309, USA
| | - Haijia Yu
- Department of Molecular, Cellular and Developmental Biology, University of Colorado at Boulder, Boulder, Colorado 80309, USA
| | - Daniel R Gulbranson
- Department of Molecular, Cellular and Developmental Biology, University of Colorado at Boulder, Boulder, Colorado 80309, USA
| | - Rui Hua
- State Key Laboratory of Membrane Biology, School of Life Sciences, PKU-IDG/McGovern Institute for Brain Research, Peking University, Beijing 100871, China
| | - Chen Zhang
- State Key Laboratory of Membrane Biology, School of Life Sciences, PKU-IDG/McGovern Institute for Brain Research, Peking University, Beijing 100871, China
| | - Nathan E Schoppa
- Department of Physiology and Biophysics, University of Colorado School of Medicine, Aurora, Colorado 80045, USA
| | - Jingshi Shen
- Department of Molecular, Cellular and Developmental Biology, University of Colorado at Boulder, Boulder, Colorado 80309, USA
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8
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Lee M, Ko YJ, Moon Y, Han M, Kim HW, Lee SH, Kang K, Jun Y. SNAREs support atlastin-mediated homotypic ER fusion in Saccharomyces cerevisiae. J Cell Biol 2015. [PMID: 26216899 PMCID: PMC4523606 DOI: 10.1083/jcb.201501043] [Citation(s) in RCA: 15] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/13/2022] Open
Abstract
Dynamin-like GTPases of the atlastin family are thought to mediate homotypic endoplasmic reticulum (ER) membrane fusion; however, the underlying mechanism remains largely unclear. Here, we developed a simple and quantitative in vitro assay using isolated yeast microsomes for measuring yeast atlastin Sey1p-dependent ER fusion. Using this assay, we found that the ER SNAREs Sec22p and Sec20p were required for Sey1p-mediated ER fusion. Consistently, ER fusion was significantly reduced by inhibition of Sec18p and Sec17p, which regulate SNARE-mediated membrane fusion. The involvement of SNAREs in Sey1p-dependent ER fusion was further supported by the physical interaction of Sey1p with Sec22p and Ufe1p, another ER SNARE. Furthermore, our estimation of the concentration of Sey1p on isolated microsomes, together with the lack of fusion between Sey1p proteoliposomes even with a 25-fold excess of the physiological concentration of Sey1p, suggests that Sey1p requires additional factors to support ER fusion in vivo. Collectively, our data strongly suggest that SNARE-mediated membrane fusion is involved in atlastin-initiated homotypic ER fusion.
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Affiliation(s)
- Miriam Lee
- School of Life Sciences, Gwangju Institute of Science and Technology, Gwangju 500-712, Korea Integrative Aging Research Center, Gwangju Institute of Science and Technology, Gwangju 500-712, Korea Cell Dynamics Research Center, Gwangju Institute of Science and Technology, Gwangju 500-712, Korea
| | - Young-Joon Ko
- School of Life Sciences, Gwangju Institute of Science and Technology, Gwangju 500-712, Korea Integrative Aging Research Center, Gwangju Institute of Science and Technology, Gwangju 500-712, Korea Cell Dynamics Research Center, Gwangju Institute of Science and Technology, Gwangju 500-712, Korea
| | - Yeojin Moon
- School of Life Sciences, Gwangju Institute of Science and Technology, Gwangju 500-712, Korea Integrative Aging Research Center, Gwangju Institute of Science and Technology, Gwangju 500-712, Korea
| | - Minsoo Han
- School of Life Sciences, Gwangju Institute of Science and Technology, Gwangju 500-712, Korea Integrative Aging Research Center, Gwangju Institute of Science and Technology, Gwangju 500-712, Korea
| | - Hyung-Wook Kim
- College of Life Sciences, Sejong University, Seoul 143-747, Korea
| | - Sung Haeng Lee
- Department of Cellular and Molecular Medicine, Chosun University School of Medicine, Gwangju 501-759, Korea
| | - KyeongJin Kang
- Department of Anatomy and Cell Biology, School of Medicine, Sungkyunkwan University, Suwon 440-746, Korea
| | - Youngsoo Jun
- School of Life Sciences, Gwangju Institute of Science and Technology, Gwangju 500-712, Korea Integrative Aging Research Center, Gwangju Institute of Science and Technology, Gwangju 500-712, Korea Cell Dynamics Research Center, Gwangju Institute of Science and Technology, Gwangju 500-712, Korea
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9
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Rehman A, Archbold JK, Hu SH, Norwood SJ, Collins BM, Martin JL. Reconciling the regulatory role of Munc18 proteins in SNARE-complex assembly. IUCRJ 2014; 1:505-513. [PMID: 25485130 PMCID: PMC4224468 DOI: 10.1107/s2052252514020727] [Citation(s) in RCA: 11] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.1] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Figures] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 08/01/2014] [Accepted: 09/15/2014] [Indexed: 06/04/2023]
Abstract
Membrane fusion is essential for human health, playing a vital role in processes as diverse as neurotransmission and blood glucose control. Two protein families are key: (1) the Sec1p/Munc18 (SM) and (2) the soluble N-ethylmaleimide-sensitive attachment protein receptor (SNARE) proteins. Whilst the essential nature of these proteins is irrefutable, their exact regulatory roles in membrane fusion remain controversial. In particular, whether SM proteins promote and/or inhibit the SNARE-complex formation required for membrane fusion is not resolved. Crystal structures of SM proteins alone and in complex with their cognate SNARE proteins have provided some insight, however, these structures lack the transmembrane spanning regions of the SNARE proteins and may not accurately reflect the native state. Here, we review the literature surrounding the regulatory role of mammalian Munc18 SM proteins required for exocytosis in eukaryotes. Our analysis suggests that the conflicting roles reported for these SM proteins may reflect differences in experimental design. SNARE proteins appear to require C-terminal immobilization or anchoring, for example through a transmembrane domain, to form a functional fusion complex in the presence of Munc18 proteins.
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Affiliation(s)
- Asma Rehman
- Division of Chemistry and Structural Biology, Institute for Molecular Bioscience, University of Queensland, St Lucia, QLD 4072, Australia
| | - Julia K. Archbold
- Division of Chemistry and Structural Biology, Institute for Molecular Bioscience, University of Queensland, St Lucia, QLD 4072, Australia
| | - Shu-Hong Hu
- Division of Chemistry and Structural Biology, Institute for Molecular Bioscience, University of Queensland, St Lucia, QLD 4072, Australia
| | - Suzanne J. Norwood
- Division of Molecular Cell Biology, Institute for Molecular Bioscience, University of Queensland, St Lucia, QLD 4072, Australia
| | - Brett M. Collins
- Division of Molecular Cell Biology, Institute for Molecular Bioscience, University of Queensland, St Lucia, QLD 4072, Australia
| | - Jennifer L. Martin
- Division of Chemistry and Structural Biology, Institute for Molecular Bioscience, University of Queensland, St Lucia, QLD 4072, Australia
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