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Anselmi C, Caicci F, Bocci T, Guidetti M, Priori A, Giusti V, Levy T, Raveh T, Voskoboynik A, Weissman IL, Manni L. Multiple Forms of Neural Cell Death in the Cyclical Brain Degeneration of A Colonial Chordate. Cells 2023; 12:1041. [PMID: 37048113 PMCID: PMC10093557 DOI: 10.3390/cells12071041] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 02/24/2023] [Revised: 03/20/2023] [Accepted: 03/24/2023] [Indexed: 03/31/2023] Open
Abstract
Human neuronal loss occurs through different cellular mechanisms, mainly studied in vitro. Here, we characterized neuronal death in B. schlosseri, a marine colonial tunicate that shares substantial genomic homology with mammals and has a life history in which controlled neurodegeneration happens simultaneously in the brains of adult zooids during a cyclical phase named takeover. Using an ultrastructural and transcriptomic approach, we described neuronal death forms in adult zooids before and during the takeover phase while comparing adult zooids in takeover with their buds where brains are refining their structure. At takeover, we found in neurons clear morphologic signs of apoptosis (i.e., chromatin condensation, lobed nuclei), necrosis (swollen cytoplasm) and autophagy (autophagosomes, autolysosomes and degradative multilamellar bodies). These results were confirmed by transcriptomic analyses that highlighted the specific genes involved in these cell death pathways. Moreover, the presence of tubulovesicular structures in the brain medulla alongside the over-expression of prion disease genes in late cycle suggested a cell-to-cell, prion-like propagation recalling the conformational disorders typical of some human neurodegenerative diseases. We suggest that improved understanding of how neuronal alterations are regulated in the repeated degeneration-regeneration program of B. schlosseri may yield mechanistic insights relevant to the study of human neurodegenerative diseases.
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Affiliation(s)
- Chiara Anselmi
- Hopkins Marine Station, Institute for Stem Cell Biology and Regenerative Medicine, Stanford University, Pacific Grove, CA 93950, USA
- Institute for Stem Cell Biology and Regenerative Medicine, Stanford University School of Medicine, Stanford, CA 94305, USA
- Wu Tsai Neurosciences Institute, Stanford University, Stanford, CA 94305, USA
| | - Federico Caicci
- Dipartimento di Biologia, Università degli Studi di Padova, 35131 Padova, Italy
| | - Tommaso Bocci
- “Aldo Ravelli” Center for Neurotechnology and Experimental Brain Therapeutics, Department of Health Sciences, University of Milan, 20142 Milan, Italy
| | - Matteo Guidetti
- “Aldo Ravelli” Center for Neurotechnology and Experimental Brain Therapeutics, Department of Health Sciences, University of Milan, 20142 Milan, Italy
- Department of Electronics, Information and Bioengineering, Politecnico di Milano, 20133 Milan, Italy
| | - Alberto Priori
- “Aldo Ravelli” Center for Neurotechnology and Experimental Brain Therapeutics, Department of Health Sciences, University of Milan, 20142 Milan, Italy
| | | | - Tom Levy
- Hopkins Marine Station, Institute for Stem Cell Biology and Regenerative Medicine, Stanford University, Pacific Grove, CA 93950, USA
- Institute for Stem Cell Biology and Regenerative Medicine, Stanford University School of Medicine, Stanford, CA 94305, USA
| | - Tal Raveh
- Institute for Stem Cell Biology and Regenerative Medicine, Stanford University School of Medicine, Stanford, CA 94305, USA
| | - Ayelet Voskoboynik
- Hopkins Marine Station, Institute for Stem Cell Biology and Regenerative Medicine, Stanford University, Pacific Grove, CA 93950, USA
- Institute for Stem Cell Biology and Regenerative Medicine, Stanford University School of Medicine, Stanford, CA 94305, USA
- Chan Zuckerberg Biohub, San Francisco, CA 94158, USA
| | - Irving L. Weissman
- Institute for Stem Cell Biology and Regenerative Medicine, Stanford University School of Medicine, Stanford, CA 94305, USA
- Department of Pathology, Stanford University School of Medicine, Stanford, CA 94305, USA
| | - Lucia Manni
- Wu Tsai Neurosciences Institute, Stanford University, Stanford, CA 94305, USA
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Thompson SH, Anselmi C, Ishizuka KJ, Palmeri KJ, Voskoboynik A. Contributions from both the brain and the vascular network guide behavior in the colonial tunicate Botryllus schlosseri. J Exp Biol 2022; 225:279340. [PMID: 36314197 PMCID: PMC9720745 DOI: 10.1242/jeb.244491] [Citation(s) in RCA: 1] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 05/01/2022] [Accepted: 10/19/2022] [Indexed: 11/07/2022]
Abstract
We studied the function, development and aging of the adult nervous system in the colonial tunicate Botryllus schlosseri. Adults, termed zooids, are filter-feeding individuals. Sister zooids group together to form modules, and modules, in turn, are linked by a shared vascular network to form a well-integrated colony. Zooids undergo a weekly cycle of regression and renewal during which mature zooids are replaced by developing buds. The zooid brain matures and degenerates on this 7-day cycle. We used focal extracellular recording and video imaging to explore brain activity in the context of development and degeneration and to examine the contributions of the nervous system and vascular network to behavior. Recordings from the brain revealed complex firing patterns arising both spontaneously and in response to stimulation. Neural activity increases as the brain matures and declines thereafter. Motor behavior follows the identical time course. The behavior of each zooid is guided predominantly by its individual brain, but sister zooids can also exhibit synchronous motor behavior. The vascular network also generates action potentials that are largely independent of neural activity. In addition, the entire vascular network undergoes slow rhythmic contractions that appear to arise from processes endogenous to vascular epithelial cells. We found that neurons in the brain and cells of the vascular network both express multiple genes for voltage-gated Na+ and Ca2+ ion channels homologous (based on sequence) to mammalian ion channel genes.
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Affiliation(s)
- Stuart H. Thompson
- Department of Biology and Hopkins Marine Station, Stanford University, Stanford, CA 93950, USA,Author for correspondence ()
| | - Chiara Anselmi
- Department of Biology and Hopkins Marine Station, Stanford University, Stanford, CA 93950, USA,Institute for Stem Cell Biology and Regenerative Medicine, Stanford University School of Medicine, Stanford, CA 94305, USA
| | - Katherine J. Ishizuka
- Department of Biology and Hopkins Marine Station, Stanford University, Stanford, CA 93950, USA,Institute for Stem Cell Biology and Regenerative Medicine, Stanford University School of Medicine, Stanford, CA 94305, USA
| | - Karla J. Palmeri
- Department of Biology and Hopkins Marine Station, Stanford University, Stanford, CA 93950, USA,Institute for Stem Cell Biology and Regenerative Medicine, Stanford University School of Medicine, Stanford, CA 94305, USA
| | - Ayelet Voskoboynik
- Department of Biology and Hopkins Marine Station, Stanford University, Stanford, CA 93950, USA,Institute for Stem Cell Biology and Regenerative Medicine, Stanford University School of Medicine, Stanford, CA 94305, USA,Chan Zuckerberg Biohub, San Francisco, CA 94158, USA
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3
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Innate Immunity Mechanisms in Marine Multicellular Organisms. Mar Drugs 2022; 20:md20090549. [PMID: 36135738 PMCID: PMC9505182 DOI: 10.3390/md20090549] [Citation(s) in RCA: 3] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 07/31/2022] [Revised: 08/19/2022] [Accepted: 08/22/2022] [Indexed: 11/27/2022] Open
Abstract
The innate immune system provides an adequate response to stress factors and pathogens through pattern recognition receptors (PRRs), located on the surface of cell membranes and in the cytoplasm. Generally, the structures of PRRs are formed by several domains that are evolutionarily conserved, with a fairly high degree of homology in representatives of different species. The orthologs of TLRs, NLRs, RLRs and CLRs are widely represented, not only in marine chordates, but also in invertebrates. Study of the interactions of the most ancient marine multicellular organisms with microorganisms gives us an idea of the evolution of molecular mechanisms of protection against pathogens and reveals new functions of already known proteins in ensuring the body’s homeostasis. The review discusses innate immunity mechanisms of protection of marine invertebrate organisms against infections, using the examples of ancient multicellular hydroids, tunicates, echinoderms, and marine worms in the context of searching for analogies with vertebrate innate immunity. Due to the fact that mucous membranes first arose in marine invertebrates that have existed for several hundred million years, study of their innate immune system is both of fundamental importance in terms of understanding molecular mechanisms of host defense, and of practical application, including the search of new antimicrobial agents for subsequent use in medicine, veterinary and biotechnology.
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Anselmi C, Kowarsky M, Gasparini F, Caicci F, Ishizuka KJ, Palmeri KJ, Raveh T, Sinha R, Neff N, Quake SR, Weissman IL, Voskoboynik A, Manni L. Two distinct evolutionary conserved neural degeneration pathways characterized in a colonial chordate. Proc Natl Acad Sci U S A 2022; 119:e2203032119. [PMID: 35858312 PMCID: PMC9303981 DOI: 10.1073/pnas.2203032119] [Citation(s) in RCA: 1] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 02/26/2022] [Accepted: 04/21/2022] [Indexed: 12/13/2022] Open
Abstract
Colonial tunicates are marine organisms that possess multiple brains simultaneously during their colonial phase. While the cyclical processes of neurogenesis and neurodegeneration characterizing their life cycle have been documented previously, the cellular and molecular changes associated with such processes and their relationship with variation in brain morphology and individual (zooid) behavior throughout adult life remains unknown. Here, we introduce Botryllus schlosseri as an invertebrate model for neurogenesis, neural degeneration, and evolutionary neuroscience. Our analysis reveals that during the weekly colony budding (i.e., asexual reproduction), prior to programmed cell death and removal by phagocytes, decreases in the number of neurons in the adult brain are associated with reduced behavioral response and significant change in the expression of 73 mammalian homologous genes associated with neurodegenerative disease. Similarly, when comparing young colonies (1 to 2 y of age) to those reared in a laboratory for ∼20 y, we found that older colonies contained significantly fewer neurons and exhibited reduced behavioral response alongside changes in the expression of 148 such genes (35 of which were differentially expressed across both timescales). The existence of two distinct yet apparently related neurodegenerative pathways represents a novel platform to study the gene products governing the relationship between aging, neural regeneration and degeneration, and loss of nervous system function. Indeed, as a member of an evolutionary clade considered to be a sister group of vertebrates, this organism may be a fundamental resource in understanding how evolution has shaped these processes across phylogeny and obtaining mechanistic insight.
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Affiliation(s)
- Chiara Anselmi
- Stanford University, Hopkins Marine Station, Pacific Grove, CA 93950
- Institute for Stem Cell Biology and Regenerative Medicine, Stanford University School of Medicine, Stanford, CA 94305
| | - Mark Kowarsky
- Department of Physics, Stanford University, Stanford, CA 94305
| | - Fabio Gasparini
- Dipartimento di Biologia, Università degli Studi di Padova, 35131, Padova, Italy
| | - Federico Caicci
- Dipartimento di Biologia, Università degli Studi di Padova, 35131, Padova, Italy
| | | | - Karla J. Palmeri
- Stanford University, Hopkins Marine Station, Pacific Grove, CA 93950
| | - Tal Raveh
- Institute for Stem Cell Biology and Regenerative Medicine, Stanford University School of Medicine, Stanford, CA 94305
| | - Rahul Sinha
- Institute for Stem Cell Biology and Regenerative Medicine, Stanford University School of Medicine, Stanford, CA 94305
| | - Norma Neff
- Chan Zuckerberg Biohub, San Francisco CA 94158
| | - Stephen R. Quake
- Chan Zuckerberg Biohub, San Francisco CA 94158
- Departments of Applied Physics and Bioengineering, Stanford University, Stanford, CA 94305
| | - Irving L. Weissman
- Institute for Stem Cell Biology and Regenerative Medicine, Stanford University School of Medicine, Stanford, CA 94305
- Chan Zuckerberg Biohub, San Francisco CA 94158
- Department of Biology, Stanford University, Hopkins Marine Station, Pacific Grove, CA 93950
| | - Ayelet Voskoboynik
- Stanford University, Hopkins Marine Station, Pacific Grove, CA 93950
- Institute for Stem Cell Biology and Regenerative Medicine, Stanford University School of Medicine, Stanford, CA 94305
- Chan Zuckerberg Biohub, San Francisco CA 94158
- Department of Biology, Stanford University, Hopkins Marine Station, Pacific Grove, CA 93950
| | - Lucia Manni
- Dipartimento di Biologia, Università degli Studi di Padova, 35131, Padova, Italy
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Serrato LAM, Bilella A, Blanchoud S. Noninvasive Intravascular Microtransfusion in Colonial Tunicates. Methods Mol Biol 2022; 2450:399-415. [PMID: 35359320 PMCID: PMC9761924 DOI: 10.1007/978-1-0716-2172-1_21] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 06/14/2023]
Abstract
Tunicates are a diverse group of worldwide marine filter-feeders that are vertebrates' closest invertebrate relatives. Colonial tunicates are the only know chordates that have been shown to undergo whole-body regeneration (WBR). Botrylloides in particular can regenerate one fully functional adult from a minute fragment of their vascular system in as little as 10 days. This regenerative process relies on the proliferation of circulating stem cells, likely supported by the activity of some of the 11 identified types of hemocytes. To study and challenge WBR, it is thus important to have the capacity to isolate, analyze, and manipulate hemolymph in regenerating colonies. Here we present a microtransfusion technique that permits the collection of pure hemocytes, the quantification of their purity, their labeling, and reinjection into colonial tunicates. To exemplify our approach, we present in addition a protocol to analyze the isolated hemocytes using flow cytometry. Our approach is minimally invasive, does not induce lethality, and therefore allows repeated transfusion into exactly the same colony with minimal disruption to the process being studied.
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Affiliation(s)
| | | | - Simon Blanchoud
- Department of Biology, University of Fribourg, Fribourg, Switzerland.
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Goldstein O, Mandujano-Tinoco EA, Levy T, Talice S, Raveh T, Gershoni-Yahalom O, Voskoboynik A, Rosental B. Botryllus schlosseri as a Unique Colonial Chordate Model for the Study and Modulation of Innate Immune Activity. Mar Drugs 2021; 19:md19080454. [PMID: 34436293 PMCID: PMC8398012 DOI: 10.3390/md19080454] [Citation(s) in RCA: 2] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 06/30/2021] [Revised: 08/04/2021] [Accepted: 08/05/2021] [Indexed: 12/22/2022] Open
Abstract
Understanding the mechanisms that sustain immunological nonreactivity is essential for maintaining tissue in syngeneic and allogeneic settings, such as transplantation and pregnancy tolerance. While most transplantation rejections occur due to the adaptive immune response, the proinflammatory response of innate immunity is necessary for the activation of adaptive immunity. Botryllus schlosseri, a colonial tunicate, which is the nearest invertebrate group to the vertebrates, is devoid of T- and B-cell-based adaptive immunity. It has unique characteristics that make it a valuable model system for studying innate immunity mechanisms: (i) a natural allogeneic transplantation phenomenon that results in either fusion or rejection; (ii) whole animal regeneration and noninflammatory resorption on a weekly basis; (iii) allogeneic resorption which is comparable to human chronic rejection. Recent studies in B. schlosseri have led to the recognition of a molecular and cellular framework underlying the innate immunity loss of tolerance to allogeneic tissues. Additionally, B. schlosseri was developed as a model for studying hematopoietic stem cell (HSC) transplantation, and it provides further insights into the similarities between the HSC niches of human and B. schlosseri. In this review, we discuss why studying the molecular and cellular pathways that direct successful innate immune tolerance in B. schlosseri can provide novel insights into and potential modulations of these immune processes in humans.
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Affiliation(s)
- Oron Goldstein
- Regenerative Medicine and Stem Cell Research Center, The Shraga Segal Department of Microbiology, Immunology, and Genetics, Faculty of Health Sciences, Ben Gurion University of the Negev, Beer Sheva 8410501, Israel; (O.G.); (E.A.M.-T.); (S.T.); (O.G.-Y.)
| | - Edna Ayerim Mandujano-Tinoco
- Regenerative Medicine and Stem Cell Research Center, The Shraga Segal Department of Microbiology, Immunology, and Genetics, Faculty of Health Sciences, Ben Gurion University of the Negev, Beer Sheva 8410501, Israel; (O.G.); (E.A.M.-T.); (S.T.); (O.G.-Y.)
- Laboratory of Connective Tissue, Centro Nacional de Investigación y Atención de Quemados, Instituto Nacional de Rehabilitación “Luis Guillermo Ibarra Ibarra”, Calzada Mexico-Xochimilco No. 289, Col. Arenal de Guadalupe, Tlalpan, Mexico City 14389, Mexico
| | - Tom Levy
- Institute for Stem Cell Biology and Regenerative Medicine, Stanford University School of Medicine, Hopkins Marine Station, Stanford University, Chan Zuckerberg Biohub, Pacific Grove, CA 93950, USA; (T.L.); (T.R.); (A.V.)
| | - Shani Talice
- Regenerative Medicine and Stem Cell Research Center, The Shraga Segal Department of Microbiology, Immunology, and Genetics, Faculty of Health Sciences, Ben Gurion University of the Negev, Beer Sheva 8410501, Israel; (O.G.); (E.A.M.-T.); (S.T.); (O.G.-Y.)
| | - Tal Raveh
- Institute for Stem Cell Biology and Regenerative Medicine, Stanford University School of Medicine, Hopkins Marine Station, Stanford University, Chan Zuckerberg Biohub, Pacific Grove, CA 93950, USA; (T.L.); (T.R.); (A.V.)
| | - Orly Gershoni-Yahalom
- Regenerative Medicine and Stem Cell Research Center, The Shraga Segal Department of Microbiology, Immunology, and Genetics, Faculty of Health Sciences, Ben Gurion University of the Negev, Beer Sheva 8410501, Israel; (O.G.); (E.A.M.-T.); (S.T.); (O.G.-Y.)
| | - Ayelet Voskoboynik
- Institute for Stem Cell Biology and Regenerative Medicine, Stanford University School of Medicine, Hopkins Marine Station, Stanford University, Chan Zuckerberg Biohub, Pacific Grove, CA 93950, USA; (T.L.); (T.R.); (A.V.)
| | - Benyamin Rosental
- Regenerative Medicine and Stem Cell Research Center, The Shraga Segal Department of Microbiology, Immunology, and Genetics, Faculty of Health Sciences, Ben Gurion University of the Negev, Beer Sheva 8410501, Israel; (O.G.); (E.A.M.-T.); (S.T.); (O.G.-Y.)
- Correspondence:
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Mandujano-Tinoco EA, Sultan E, Ottolenghi A, Gershoni-Yahalom O, Rosental B. Evolution of Cellular Immunity Effector Cells; Perspective on Cytotoxic and Phagocytic Cellular Lineages. Cells 2021; 10:1853. [PMID: 34440622 PMCID: PMC8394812 DOI: 10.3390/cells10081853] [Citation(s) in RCA: 3] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 07/11/2021] [Revised: 07/19/2021] [Accepted: 07/20/2021] [Indexed: 12/14/2022] Open
Abstract
The immune system has evolved to protect organisms from infections caused by bacteria, viruses, and parasitic pathogens. In addition, it provides regenerative capacities, tissue maintenance, and self/non-self recognition of foreign tissues. Phagocytosis and cytotoxicity are two prominent cellular immune activities positioned at the base of immune effector function in mammals. Although these immune mechanisms have diversified into a wide heterogeneous repertoire of effector cells, it appears that they share some common cellular and molecular features in all animals, but also some interesting convergent mechanisms. In this review, we will explore the current knowledge about the evolution of phagocytic and cytotoxic immune lineages against pathogens, in the clearance of damaged cells, for regeneration, for histocompatibility recognition, and in killing virally infected cells. To this end, we give different immune examples of multicellular organism models, ranging from the roots of bilateral organisms to chordate invertebrates, comparing to vertebrates' lineages. In this review, we compare cellular lineage homologies at the cellular and molecular levels. We aim to highlight and discuss the diverse function plasticity within the evolved immune effector cells, and even suggest the costs and benefits that it may imply for organisms with the meaning of greater defense against pathogens but less ability to regenerate damaged tissues and organs.
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Affiliation(s)
- Edna Ayerim Mandujano-Tinoco
- The Shraga Segal Department of Microbiology, Immunology, and Genetics, Faculty of Health Sciences, and Regenerative Medicine and Stem Cell Research Center, Ben Gurion University of the Negev, Beer Sheva 8410501, Israel; (E.S.); (A.O.); (O.G.-Y.)
- Laboratory of Connective Tissue, Centro Nacional de Investigación y Atención de Quemados, Instituto Nacional de Rehabilitación “Luis Guillermo Ibarra Ibarra”, Calzada Mexico-Xochimilco No. 289, Col. Arenal de Guadalupe, Tlalpan, Mexico City 14389, Mexico
| | - Eliya Sultan
- The Shraga Segal Department of Microbiology, Immunology, and Genetics, Faculty of Health Sciences, and Regenerative Medicine and Stem Cell Research Center, Ben Gurion University of the Negev, Beer Sheva 8410501, Israel; (E.S.); (A.O.); (O.G.-Y.)
| | - Aner Ottolenghi
- The Shraga Segal Department of Microbiology, Immunology, and Genetics, Faculty of Health Sciences, and Regenerative Medicine and Stem Cell Research Center, Ben Gurion University of the Negev, Beer Sheva 8410501, Israel; (E.S.); (A.O.); (O.G.-Y.)
| | - Orly Gershoni-Yahalom
- The Shraga Segal Department of Microbiology, Immunology, and Genetics, Faculty of Health Sciences, and Regenerative Medicine and Stem Cell Research Center, Ben Gurion University of the Negev, Beer Sheva 8410501, Israel; (E.S.); (A.O.); (O.G.-Y.)
| | - Benyamin Rosental
- The Shraga Segal Department of Microbiology, Immunology, and Genetics, Faculty of Health Sciences, and Regenerative Medicine and Stem Cell Research Center, Ben Gurion University of the Negev, Beer Sheva 8410501, Israel; (E.S.); (A.O.); (O.G.-Y.)
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Ballarin L, Karahan A, Salvetti A, Rossi L, Manni L, Rinkevich B, Rosner A, Voskoboynik A, Rosental B, Canesi L, Anselmi C, Pinsino A, Tohumcu BE, Jemec Kokalj A, Dolar A, Novak S, Sugni M, Corsi I, Drobne D. Stem Cells and Innate Immunity in Aquatic Invertebrates: Bridging Two Seemingly Disparate Disciplines for New Discoveries in Biology. Front Immunol 2021; 12:688106. [PMID: 34276677 PMCID: PMC8278520 DOI: 10.3389/fimmu.2021.688106] [Citation(s) in RCA: 12] [Impact Index Per Article: 4.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 03/30/2021] [Accepted: 05/31/2021] [Indexed: 12/12/2022] Open
Abstract
The scopes related to the interplay between stem cells and the immune system are broad and range from the basic understanding of organism's physiology and ecology to translational studies, further contributing to (eco)toxicology, biotechnology, and medicine as well as regulatory and ethical aspects. Stem cells originate immune cells through hematopoiesis, and the interplay between the two cell types is required in processes like regeneration. In addition, stem and immune cell anomalies directly affect the organism's functions, its ability to cope with environmental changes and, indirectly, its role in ecosystem services. However, stem cells and immune cells continue to be considered parts of two branches of biological research with few interconnections between them. This review aims to bridge these two seemingly disparate disciplines towards much more integrative and transformative approaches with examples deriving mainly from aquatic invertebrates. We discuss the current understanding of cross-disciplinary collaborative and emerging issues, raising novel hypotheses and comments. We also discuss the problems and perspectives of the two disciplines and how to integrate their conceptual frameworks to address basic equations in biology in a new, innovative way.
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Affiliation(s)
| | - Arzu Karahan
- Middle East Technical University, Institute of Marine Sciences, Erdemli, Mersin, Turkey
| | - Alessandra Salvetti
- Department of Clinical and Experimental Medicine, Unit of Experimental Biology and Genetics, University of Pisa, Pisa, Italy
| | - Leonardo Rossi
- Department of Clinical and Experimental Medicine, Unit of Experimental Biology and Genetics, University of Pisa, Pisa, Italy
| | - Lucia Manni
- Department of Biology, University of Padua, Padua, Italy
| | - Baruch Rinkevich
- Department of Biology, Israel Oceanographic and Limnological Research, National Institute of Oceanography, Haifa, Israel
| | - Amalia Rosner
- Department of Biology, Israel Oceanographic and Limnological Research, National Institute of Oceanography, Haifa, Israel
| | - Ayelet Voskoboynik
- Institute for Stem Cell Biology and Regenerative Medicine, Stanford University School of Medicine, Stanford, CA, United States
- Department of Biology, Stanford University, Hopkins Marine Station, Pacific Grove, CA, United States
- Department of Biology, Chan Zuckerberg Biohub, San Francisco, CA, United States
| | - Benyamin Rosental
- The Shraga Segal Department of Microbiology, Immunology and Genetics, Faculty of Health Sciences, Center for Regenerative Medicine and Stem Cells, Ben-Gurion University of the Negev, Beer-Sheva, Israel
| | - Laura Canesi
- Department of Earth Environment and Life Sciences (DISTAV), University of Genoa, Genoa, Italy
| | - Chiara Anselmi
- Institute for Stem Cell Biology and Regenerative Medicine, Stanford University School of Medicine, Stanford, CA, United States
- Department of Biology, Stanford University, Hopkins Marine Station, Pacific Grove, CA, United States
| | - Annalisa Pinsino
- Institute for Biomedical Research and Innovation, National Research Council, Palermo, Italy
| | - Begüm Ece Tohumcu
- Middle East Technical University, Institute of Marine Sciences, Erdemli, Mersin, Turkey
| | - Anita Jemec Kokalj
- Department of Biology, Biotechnical Faculty, University of Ljubljana, Ljubljana, Slovenia
| | - Andraž Dolar
- Department of Biology, Biotechnical Faculty, University of Ljubljana, Ljubljana, Slovenia
| | - Sara Novak
- Department of Biology, Biotechnical Faculty, University of Ljubljana, Ljubljana, Slovenia
| | - Michela Sugni
- Department of Environmental Science and Policy, University of Milan, Milan, Italy
| | - Ilaria Corsi
- Department of Physical, Earth and Environmental Sciences, University of Siena, Siena, Italy
| | - Damjana Drobne
- Department of Biology, Biotechnical Faculty, University of Ljubljana, Ljubljana, Slovenia
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9
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Kraus A, Buckley KM, Salinas I. Sensing the world and its dangers: An evolutionary perspective in neuroimmunology. eLife 2021; 10:66706. [PMID: 33900197 PMCID: PMC8075586 DOI: 10.7554/elife.66706] [Citation(s) in RCA: 27] [Impact Index Per Article: 9.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 01/25/2021] [Accepted: 04/09/2021] [Indexed: 12/14/2022] Open
Abstract
Detecting danger is key to the survival and success of all species. Animal nervous and immune systems cooperate to optimize danger detection. Preceding studies have highlighted the benefits of bringing neurons into the defense game, including regulation of immune responses, wound healing, pathogen control, and survival. Here, we summarize the body of knowledge in neuroimmune communication and assert that neuronal participation in the immune response is deeply beneficial in each step of combating infection, from inception to resolution. Despite the documented tight association between the immune and nervous systems in mammals or invertebrate model organisms, interdependence of these two systems is largely unexplored across metazoans. This review brings a phylogenetic perspective of the nervous and immune systems in the context of danger detection and advocates for the use of non-model organisms to diversify the field of neuroimmunology. We identify key taxa that are ripe for investigation due to the emergence of key evolutionary innovations in their immune and nervous systems. This novel perspective will help define the primordial principles that govern neuroimmune communication across taxa.
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Affiliation(s)
- Aurora Kraus
- Department of Biology, University of New Mexico, Albuquerque, United States
| | | | - Irene Salinas
- Department of Biology, University of New Mexico, Albuquerque, United States
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Sznarkowska A, Mikac S, Pilch M. MHC Class I Regulation: The Origin Perspective. Cancers (Basel) 2020; 12:cancers12051155. [PMID: 32375397 PMCID: PMC7281430 DOI: 10.3390/cancers12051155] [Citation(s) in RCA: 12] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 02/10/2020] [Revised: 04/27/2020] [Accepted: 05/03/2020] [Indexed: 12/11/2022] Open
Abstract
Viral-derived elements and non-coding RNAs that build up “junk DNA” allow for flexible and context-dependent gene expression. They are extremely dense in the MHC region, accounting for flexible expression of the MHC I, II, and III genes and adjusting the level of immune response to the environmental stimuli. This review brings forward the viral-mediated aspects of the origin and evolution of adaptive immunity and aims to link this perspective with the MHC class I regulation. The complex regulatory network behind MHC expression is largely controlled by virus-derived elements, both as binding sites for immune transcription factors and as sources of regulatory non-coding RNAs. These regulatory RNAs are imbalanced in cancer and associate with different tumor types, making them promising targets for diagnostic and therapeutic interventions.
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Rosental B, Raveh T, Voskoboynik A, Weissman IL. Evolutionary perspective on the hematopoietic system through a colonial chordate: allogeneic immunity and hematopoiesis. Curr Opin Immunol 2020; 62:91-98. [PMID: 31954962 PMCID: PMC7136747 DOI: 10.1016/j.coi.2019.12.006] [Citation(s) in RCA: 9] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 12/03/2019] [Accepted: 12/16/2019] [Indexed: 01/27/2023]
Abstract
Evolution and selection have shaped diverse immune systems throughout phylogeny, the vast majority of which remain unexplored. Botryllus schlosseri is a colonial tunicate, a sister group to vertebrates, that develops as a chordate, then metamorphoses to an asexually reproductive invertebrate that every week makes the same body plan from budded stem cells. Genetically distinct B. schlosseri colonies can fuse to form a chimera, or reject each other based on allogeneic recognition. In chimeras, circulating germline and somatic stem cells participate in development; stem cells compete in all individuals in the fused colonies, with rejection preventing germline parasitism. Here we review the isolation and characterization of B. schlosseri hematopoietic stem cells (HSC) and their niches, and the role of the immune effector cells in allorecognition.
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Affiliation(s)
- Benyamin Rosental
- Ben Gurion University of the Negev, The Shraga Segal Department of Microbiology, Immunology, and Genetics, Faculty of Health Sciences, Regenerative Medicine and Stem Cell Research Center, P.O.B. 653 Beer-Sheva, Israel.
| | - Tal Raveh
- Institute for Stem Cell Biology and Regenerative Medicine, and Ludwig Center for Cancer Stem Cell Research, Stanford University School of Medicine, CA, USA
| | - Ayelet Voskoboynik
- Institute for Stem Cell Biology and Regenerative Medicine, and Ludwig Center for Cancer Stem Cell Research, Stanford University School of Medicine, CA, USA; Hopkins Marine Station, Stanford University, Pacific Grove, CA 93950, USA; Chan Zuckerberg Biohub, San Francisco CA 94158, USA.
| | - Irving L Weissman
- Institute for Stem Cell Biology and Regenerative Medicine, and Ludwig Center for Cancer Stem Cell Research, Stanford University School of Medicine, CA, USA; Hopkins Marine Station, Stanford University, Pacific Grove, CA 93950, USA; Chan Zuckerberg Biohub, San Francisco CA 94158, USA.
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12
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Smith LC, Hawley TS, Henson JH, Majeske AJ, Oren M, Rosental B. Methods for collection, handling, and analysis of sea urchin coelomocytes. Methods Cell Biol 2019; 150:357-389. [PMID: 30777184 DOI: 10.1016/bs.mcb.2018.11.009] [Citation(s) in RCA: 18] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/21/2022]
Abstract
Sea urchin coelomocytes can be collected in large numbers from adult sea urchins of the species, Strongylocentrotus purpuratus, which typically has 12-40mL of coelomic fluid. Coelomocytes are used for analysis of immune reactions and immune gene expression in addition to basic functions of cells, in particular for understanding structure and modifications of the cytoskeleton in phagocytes. The methods described here include coelomocyte isolation, blocking the clotting reaction, establishing and maintaining primary cultures, separation of different types of coelomocytes into fractions, processing live coelomocytes for light microscopy, fixation and staining for light and electron microscopy, analysis of coelomocyte populations by flow cytometry, and sorting single cells for more detailed follow-up analyses including transcriptomics or genomic characteristics. These methods are provided to make working with coelomocytes accessible to researchers who are unfamiliar with these cells and perhaps to aid others who have worked extensively with invertebrate cells.
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Affiliation(s)
- L Courtney Smith
- Department of Biological Sciences, George Washington University, Washington, DC, United States.
| | - Teresa S Hawley
- National Institute of Allergy and Infectious Diseases, National Institutes of Health, Bethesda, MD, United States
| | - John H Henson
- Department of Biology, Dickinson College, Carlisle, PA, United States
| | - Audrey J Majeske
- Department of Biology, University of Puerto Rico, San Juan, Puerto Rico
| | - Matan Oren
- Department of Molecular Biology, Ariel University, Ariel, Israel
| | - Benyamin Rosental
- Stem Cell Institute, School of Medicine, and the Hopkins Marine Station, Stanford University, Stanford, CA, United States
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13
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Rosental B, Kowarsky M, Seita J, Corey DM, Ishizuka KJ, Palmeri KJ, Chen SY, Sinha R, Okamoto J, Mantalas G, Manni L, Raveh T, Clarke DN, Tsai JM, Newman AM, Neff NF, Nolan GP, Quake SR, Weissman IL, Voskoboynik A. Complex mammalian-like haematopoietic system found in a colonial chordate. Nature 2018; 564:425-429. [PMID: 30518860 PMCID: PMC6347970 DOI: 10.1038/s41586-018-0783-x] [Citation(s) in RCA: 45] [Impact Index Per Article: 7.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 12/01/2017] [Accepted: 10/15/2018] [Indexed: 12/11/2022]
Abstract
Haematopoiesis is an essential process that evolved in multicellular animals. At the heart of this process are haematopoietic stem cells (HSCs), which are multipotent and self-renewing, and generate the entire repertoire of blood and immune cells throughout an animal's life1. Although there have been comprehensive studies on self-renewal, differentiation, physiological regulation and niche occupation in vertebrate HSCs, relatively little is known about the evolutionary origin and niches of these cells. Here we describe the haematopoietic system of Botryllus schlosseri, a colonial tunicate that has a vasculature and circulating blood cells, and interesting stem-cell biology and immunity characteristics2-8. Self-recognition between genetically compatible B. schlosseri colonies leads to the formation of natural parabionts with shared circulation, whereas incompatible colonies reject each other3,4,7. Using flow cytometry, whole-transcriptome sequencing of defined cell populations and diverse functional assays, we identify HSCs, progenitors, immune effector cells and an HSC niche, and demonstrate that self-recognition inhibits allospecific cytotoxic reactions. Our results show that HSC and myeloid lineage immune cells emerged in a common ancestor of tunicates and vertebrates, and also suggest that haematopoietic bone marrow and the B. schlosseri endostyle niche evolved from a common origin.
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Affiliation(s)
- Benyamin Rosental
- Institute for Stem Cell Biology and Regenerative Medicine, Stanford University School of Medicine, Stanford, CA, USA.
- Department of Biology, Stanford University, Hopkins Marine Station, Pacific Grove, CA, USA.
| | - Mark Kowarsky
- Department of Physics, Stanford University, Stanford, CA, USA
| | - Jun Seita
- Institute for Stem Cell Biology and Regenerative Medicine, Stanford University School of Medicine, Stanford, CA, USA
- AI based Healthcare and Medical Data Analysis Standardization Unit, Medical Sciences Innovation Hub Program, RIKEN, Tokyo, Japan
| | - Daniel M Corey
- Institute for Stem Cell Biology and Regenerative Medicine, Stanford University School of Medicine, Stanford, CA, USA
| | - Katherine J Ishizuka
- Institute for Stem Cell Biology and Regenerative Medicine, Stanford University School of Medicine, Stanford, CA, USA
- Department of Biology, Stanford University, Hopkins Marine Station, Pacific Grove, CA, USA
| | - Karla J Palmeri
- Institute for Stem Cell Biology and Regenerative Medicine, Stanford University School of Medicine, Stanford, CA, USA
- Department of Biology, Stanford University, Hopkins Marine Station, Pacific Grove, CA, USA
| | - Shih-Yu Chen
- Department of Microbiology and Immunology, Stanford University School of Medicine, Stanford, CA, USA
| | - Rahul Sinha
- Institute for Stem Cell Biology and Regenerative Medicine, Stanford University School of Medicine, Stanford, CA, USA
| | | | - Gary Mantalas
- Department of Bioengineering, Stanford University, Stanford, CA, USA
- Department of Molecular Cellular and Developmental Biology, University of California Santa Cruz, Santa Cruz, CA, USA
| | - Lucia Manni
- Dipartimento di Biologia, Università degli Studi di Padova, Padova, Italy
| | - Tal Raveh
- Institute for Stem Cell Biology and Regenerative Medicine, Stanford University School of Medicine, Stanford, CA, USA
| | - D Nathaniel Clarke
- Department of Biology, Stanford University, Hopkins Marine Station, Pacific Grove, CA, USA
| | - Jonathan M Tsai
- Institute for Stem Cell Biology and Regenerative Medicine, Stanford University School of Medicine, Stanford, CA, USA
| | - Aaron M Newman
- Institute for Stem Cell Biology and Regenerative Medicine, Stanford University School of Medicine, Stanford, CA, USA
| | | | - Garry P Nolan
- Department of Microbiology and Immunology, Stanford University School of Medicine, Stanford, CA, USA
| | - Stephen R Quake
- Chan Zuckerberg Biohub, San Francisco, CA, USA
- Department of Bioengineering, Stanford University, Stanford, CA, USA
| | - Irving L Weissman
- Institute for Stem Cell Biology and Regenerative Medicine, Stanford University School of Medicine, Stanford, CA, USA.
- Department of Biology, Stanford University, Hopkins Marine Station, Pacific Grove, CA, USA.
- Ludwig Center for Cancer Stem Cell Research and Medicine, Stanford University School of Medicine, Stanford, CA, USA.
| | - Ayelet Voskoboynik
- Institute for Stem Cell Biology and Regenerative Medicine, Stanford University School of Medicine, Stanford, CA, USA.
- Department of Biology, Stanford University, Hopkins Marine Station, Pacific Grove, CA, USA.
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Manni L, Anselmi C, Cima F, Gasparini F, Voskoboynik A, Martini M, Peronato A, Burighel P, Zaniolo G, Ballarin L. Sixty years of experimental studies on the blastogenesis of the colonial tunicate Botryllus schlosseri. Dev Biol 2018; 448:293-308. [PMID: 30217596 DOI: 10.1016/j.ydbio.2018.09.009] [Citation(s) in RCA: 30] [Impact Index Per Article: 5.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 06/07/2018] [Revised: 08/29/2018] [Accepted: 09/10/2018] [Indexed: 11/25/2022]
Abstract
In the second half of the eighteenth century, Schlosser and Ellis described the colonial ascidian Botryllus schlosseri garnering the interest of scientists around the world. In the 1950's scientists began to study B. schlosseri and soon recognized it as an important model organism for the study of developmental biology and comparative immunology. In this review, we summarize the history of B. schlosseri studies and experiments performed to characterize the colony life cycle and bud development. We describe experiments performed to analyze variations in bud productivity, zooid growth and bilateral asymmetry (i.e., the situs viscerum), and discuss zooid and bud removal experiments that were used to study the cross-talk between consecutive blastogenetic generations and vascular budding. We also summarize experiments that demonstrated that the ability of two distinct colonies to fuse or reject is controlled by a single polymorphic gene locus (BHF) with multiple, codominantly expressed alleles. Finally, we describe how the ability to fuse and create chimeras was used to show that within a chimera somatic and germline stem cells compete to populate niches and regenerate tissue or germline organs. Starting from the results of these 60 years of study, we can now use new technological advances to expand the study of B. schlosseri traits and understand functional relationships between its genome and life history phenotypes.
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Affiliation(s)
- Lucia Manni
- Department of Biology, University of Padova, Italy
| | | | | | | | - Ayelet Voskoboynik
- Institute for Stem Cell Biology and Regenerative Medicine and Hopkins Marine Station, Stanford University, United States
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Rosental B, Kozhekbaeva Z, Fernhoff N, Tsai JM, Traylor-Knowles N. Coral cell separation and isolation by fluorescence-activated cell sorting (FACS). BMC Cell Biol 2017; 18:30. [PMID: 28851289 PMCID: PMC5575905 DOI: 10.1186/s12860-017-0146-8] [Citation(s) in RCA: 28] [Impact Index Per Article: 4.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 11/15/2016] [Accepted: 08/20/2017] [Indexed: 11/10/2022] Open
Abstract
BACKGROUND Generalized methods for understanding the cell biology of non-model species are quite rare, yet very much needed. In order to address this issue, we have modified a technique traditionally used in the biomedical field for ecological and evolutionary research. Fluorescent activated cell sorting (FACS) is often used for sorting and identifying cell populations. In this study, we developed a method to identify and isolate different cell populations in corals and other cnidarians. METHODS Using fluorescence-activated cell sorting (FACS), coral cell suspension were sorted into different cellular populations using fluorescent cell markers that are non-species specific. Over 30 different cell markers were tested. Additionally, cell suspension from Aiptasia pallida was also tested, and a phagocytosis test was done as a downstream functional assay. RESULTS We found that 24 of the screened markers positively labeled coral cells and 16 differentiated cell sub-populations. We identified 12 different cellular sub-populations using three markers, and found that each sub-population is primarily homogeneous. Lastly, we verified this technique in a sea anemone, Aiptasia pallida, and found that with minor modifications, a similar gating strategy can be successfully applied. Additionally, within A. pallida, we show elevated phagocytosis of sorted cells based on an immune associated marker. CONCLUSIONS In this study, we successfully adapted FACS for isolating coral cell populations and conclude that this technique is translatable for future use in other species. This technique has the potential to be used for different types of studies on the cellular stress response and other immunological studies.
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Affiliation(s)
- Benyamin Rosental
- Institute for Stem Cell Biology and Regenerative Medicine, Stanford University School of Medicine, Stanford, CA, 94305, USA.
- Department of Pathology, Hopkins Marine Station, Stanford University, 120 Ocean View Blvd, Pacific Grove, CA, 93950, USA.
| | - Zhanna Kozhekbaeva
- University of Miami, Rosenstiel School of Marine and Atmospheric Science, 4600 Rickenbacker Causeway, Florida, 33149, USA
| | - Nathaniel Fernhoff
- Institute for Stem Cell Biology and Regenerative Medicine, Stanford University School of Medicine, Stanford, CA, 94305, USA
| | - Jonathan M Tsai
- Institute for Stem Cell Biology and Regenerative Medicine, Stanford University School of Medicine, Stanford, CA, 94305, USA
| | - Nikki Traylor-Knowles
- University of Miami, Rosenstiel School of Marine and Atmospheric Science, 4600 Rickenbacker Causeway, Florida, 33149, USA.
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Franchi N, Ballarin L. Immunity in Protochordates: The Tunicate Perspective. Front Immunol 2017; 8:674. [PMID: 28649250 PMCID: PMC5465252 DOI: 10.3389/fimmu.2017.00674] [Citation(s) in RCA: 52] [Impact Index Per Article: 7.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 03/21/2017] [Accepted: 05/24/2017] [Indexed: 11/13/2022] Open
Abstract
Tunicates are the closest relatives of vertebrates, and their peculiar phylogenetic position explains the increasing interest toward tunicate immunobiology. They are filter-feeding organisms, and this greatly influences their defense strategies. The majority of the studies on tunicate immunity were carried out in ascidians. The tunic acts as a first barrier against pathogens and parasites. In addition, the oral siphon and the pharynx represent two major, highly vascularized, immune organs, where circulating hemocytes can sense non-self material and trigger immune responses that, usually, lead to inflammation and phagocytosis. Inflammation involves the recruitment of circulating cytotoxic, phenoloxidase (PO)-containing cells in the infected area, where they degranulate as a consequence of non-self recognition and release cytokines, complement factors, and the enzyme PO. The latter, acting on polyphenol substrata, produces cytotoxic quinones, which polymerize to melanin, and reactive oxygen species, which induce oxidative stress. Both the alternative and the lectin pathways of complement activation converge to activate C3: C3a and C3b are involved in the recruitment of hemocytes and in the opsonization of foreign materials, respectively. The interaction of circulating professional phagocytes with potentially pathogenic foreign material can be direct or mediated by opsonins, either complement dependent or complement independent. Together with cytotoxic cells, phagocytes are active in the encapsulation of large materials. Cells involved in immune responses, collectively called immunocytes, represent a large fraction of hemocytes, and the presence of a cross talk between cytotoxic cells and phagocytes, mediated by secreted humoral factors, was reported. Lectins play a pivotal role as pattern-recognition receptors and opsonizing agents. In addition, variable region-containing chitin-binding proteins, identified in the solitary ascidian Ciona intestinalis, control the settlement and colonization of bacteria in the gut.
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Affiliation(s)
- Nicola Franchi
- Department of Biology, University of Padova, Padova, Italy
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Nicola F, Loriano B. Morula cells as key hemocytes of the lectin pathway of complement activation in the colonial tunicate Botryllus schlosseri. FISH & SHELLFISH IMMUNOLOGY 2017; 63:157-164. [PMID: 28189764 DOI: 10.1016/j.fsi.2017.02.003] [Citation(s) in RCA: 9] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 10/24/2016] [Revised: 02/02/2017] [Accepted: 02/05/2017] [Indexed: 06/06/2023]
Abstract
The complement system is deeply rooted in the evolution of humoral mechanism of innate immunity. In addition to the alternative pathway of complement activation, lectins and associated serine proteases exert important roles in the recognition of non-self and activation of the effectors. In the colonial tunicate Botryllus schlosseri, we identified, characterized and studied the expression of three orthologues of genes involved in the lectin pathway of complement activation of vertebrates, i.e., genes for a mannose-binding lectin (MBL), a ficolin and a mannose-associated serine protease 1 (MASP1). All the genes are transcribed by hemocytes, and specifically by morula cells, the same immunocytes responsible for the transcription of C3 and Bf orthologues. The transcription levels of MASP1 and ficolin orthologues are not affected by zymosan challenge, indicating a constitutive expression of complement system associated serine proteases, whereas the MBL orthologue is up-regulated after 15 min of zymosan exposure. Collectively, our data suggest the presence of a complete lectin activation pathway in Botryllus.
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Affiliation(s)
- Franchi Nicola
- Department of Biology, University of Padova, Via Ugo Bassi 58/B, 35100, Padova, Italy.
| | - Ballarin Loriano
- Department of Biology, University of Padova, Via Ugo Bassi 58/B, 35100, Padova, Italy
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