1
|
Xie M. Virus-Induced Cell Fusion and Syncytia Formation. Results Probl Cell Differ 2024; 71:283-318. [PMID: 37996683 DOI: 10.1007/978-3-031-37936-9_14] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/25/2023]
Abstract
Most enveloped viruses encode viral fusion proteins to penetrate host cell by membrane fusion. Interestingly, many enveloped viruses can also use viral fusion proteins to induce cell-cell fusion, both in vitro and in vivo, leading to the formation of syncytia or multinucleated giant cells (MGCs). In addition, some non-enveloped viruses encode specialized viral proteins that induce cell-cell fusion to facilitate viral spread. Overall, viruses that can induce cell-cell fusion are nearly ubiquitous in mammals. Virus cell-to-cell spread by inducing cell-cell fusion may overcome entry and post-entry blocks in target cells and allow evasion of neutralizing antibodies. However, molecular mechanisms of virus-induced cell-cell fusion remain largely unknown. Here, I summarize the current understanding of virus-induced cell fusion and syncytia formation.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- Maorong Xie
- Division of Infection and Immunity, UCL, London, UK.
| |
Collapse
|
2
|
Ali H, Naseem A, Siddiqui ZI. SARS-CoV-2 Syncytium under the Radar: Molecular Insights of the Spike-Induced Syncytia and Potential Strategies to Limit SARS-CoV-2 Replication. J Clin Med 2023; 12:6079. [PMID: 37763019 PMCID: PMC10531702 DOI: 10.3390/jcm12186079] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 08/04/2023] [Revised: 09/14/2023] [Accepted: 09/17/2023] [Indexed: 09/29/2023] Open
Abstract
SARS-CoV-2 infection induces non-physiological syncytia when its spike fusogenic protein on the surface of the host cells interacts with the ACE2 receptor on adjacent cells. Spike-induced syncytia are beneficial for virus replication, transmission, and immune evasion, and contribute to the progression of COVID-19. In this review, we highlight the properties of viral fusion proteins, mainly the SARS-CoV-2 spike, and the involvement of the host factors in the fusion process. We also highlight the possible use of anti-fusogenic factors as an antiviral for the development of therapeutics against newly emerging SARS-CoV-2 variants and how the fusogenic property of the spike could be exploited for biomedical applications.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- Hashim Ali
- Department of Pathology, University of Cambridge, Addenbrookes Hospital, Cambridge CB2 0QQ, UK
| | - Asma Naseem
- Infection, Immunity and Inflammation Research and Teaching Department, Great Ormond Street Institute of Child Health, University College London, London WC1N 1DZ, UK
| | - Zaheenul Islam Siddiqui
- Diabetes and Obesity Research Center, NYU Grossman Long Island School of Medicine, New York, NY 11501, USA
| |
Collapse
|
3
|
Martínez-Mármol R, Giordano-Santini R, Kaulich E, Cho AN, Przybyla M, Riyadh MA, Robinson E, Chew KY, Amor R, Meunier FA, Balistreri G, Short KR, Ke YD, Ittner LM, Hilliard MA. SARS-CoV-2 infection and viral fusogens cause neuronal and glial fusion that compromises neuronal activity. SCIENCE ADVANCES 2023; 9:eadg2248. [PMID: 37285437 PMCID: PMC10246911 DOI: 10.1126/sciadv.adg2248] [Citation(s) in RCA: 9] [Impact Index Per Article: 9.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 12/11/2022] [Accepted: 05/01/2023] [Indexed: 06/09/2023]
Abstract
Numerous viruses use specialized surface molecules called fusogens to enter host cells. Many of these viruses, including the severe acute respiratory syndrome coronavirus 2 (SARS-CoV-2), can infect the brain and are associated with severe neurological symptoms through poorly understood mechanisms. We show that SARS-CoV-2 infection induces fusion between neurons and between neurons and glia in mouse and human brain organoids. We reveal that this is caused by the viral fusogen, as it is fully mimicked by the expression of the SARS-CoV-2 spike (S) protein or the unrelated fusogen p15 from the baboon orthoreovirus. We demonstrate that neuronal fusion is a progressive event, leads to the formation of multicellular syncytia, and causes the spread of large molecules and organelles. Last, using Ca2+ imaging, we show that fusion severely compromises neuronal activity. These results provide mechanistic insights into how SARS-CoV-2 and other viruses affect the nervous system, alter its function, and cause neuropathology.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- Ramón Martínez-Mármol
- Clem Jones Centre for Ageing Dementia Research, Queensland Brain Institute, The University of Queensland, Brisbane, QLD 4072, Australia
| | - Rosina Giordano-Santini
- Clem Jones Centre for Ageing Dementia Research, Queensland Brain Institute, The University of Queensland, Brisbane, QLD 4072, Australia
| | - Eva Kaulich
- Clem Jones Centre for Ageing Dementia Research, Queensland Brain Institute, The University of Queensland, Brisbane, QLD 4072, Australia
| | - Ann-Na Cho
- Dementia Research Centre, Macquarie Medical School, Faculty of Medicine, Health and Human Sciences, Macquarie University, Sydney, NSW 2109, Australia
| | - Magdalena Przybyla
- Dementia Research Centre, Macquarie Medical School, Faculty of Medicine, Health and Human Sciences, Macquarie University, Sydney, NSW 2109, Australia
| | - Md Asrafuzzaman Riyadh
- Clem Jones Centre for Ageing Dementia Research, Queensland Brain Institute, The University of Queensland, Brisbane, QLD 4072, Australia
| | - Emilija Robinson
- Dementia Research Centre, Macquarie Medical School, Faculty of Medicine, Health and Human Sciences, Macquarie University, Sydney, NSW 2109, Australia
| | - Keng Yih Chew
- School of Chemistry and Molecular Biosciences, Faculty of Science, The University of Queensland, Brisbane, QLD 4072, Australia
| | - Rumelo Amor
- Queensland Brain Institute, The University of Queensland, Brisbane, QLD 4072, Australia
| | - Frédéric A. Meunier
- Clem Jones Centre for Ageing Dementia Research, Queensland Brain Institute, The University of Queensland, Brisbane, QLD 4072, Australia
- School of Biomedical Sciences, The University of Queensland, Brisbane, QLD 4072, Australia
| | - Giuseppe Balistreri
- Queensland Brain Institute, The University of Queensland, Brisbane, QLD 4072, Australia
- Department of Virology, Faculty of Medicine, University of Helsinki, Helsinki FIN-00014, Finland
| | - Kirsty R. Short
- School of Chemistry and Molecular Biosciences, Faculty of Science, The University of Queensland, Brisbane, QLD 4072, Australia
| | - Yazi D. Ke
- Dementia Research Centre, Macquarie Medical School, Faculty of Medicine, Health and Human Sciences, Macquarie University, Sydney, NSW 2109, Australia
| | - Lars M. Ittner
- Dementia Research Centre, Macquarie Medical School, Faculty of Medicine, Health and Human Sciences, Macquarie University, Sydney, NSW 2109, Australia
| | - Massimo A. Hilliard
- Clem Jones Centre for Ageing Dementia Research, Queensland Brain Institute, The University of Queensland, Brisbane, QLD 4072, Australia
| |
Collapse
|
4
|
Veletanlic V, Sartalamacchia K, Diller JR, Ogden KM. Multiple rotavirus species encode fusion-associated small transmembrane (FAST) proteins with cell type-specific activity. BIORXIV : THE PREPRINT SERVER FOR BIOLOGY 2023:2023.04.07.536061. [PMID: 37066280 PMCID: PMC10104117 DOI: 10.1101/2023.04.07.536061] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 04/18/2023]
Abstract
Fusion-associated small transmembrane (FAST) proteins are viral nonstructural proteins that mediate cell-cell fusion to form multinucleated syncytia. We previously reported that human species B rotavirus NSP1-1 is a FAST protein that induces syncytia in primate epithelial cells but not rodent fibroblasts. We hypothesized that the NSP1-1 proteins of other rotavirus species could also mediate cell-cell fusion and that fusion activity might be limited to cell types derived from homologous hosts. To test this hypothesis, we predicted the structure and domain organization of NSP1-1 proteins of species B rotavirus from a human, goat, and pig, species G rotavirus from a pigeon and turkey, and species I rotavirus from a dog and cat. We cloned these sequences into plasmids and transiently expressed the NSP1-1 proteins in avian, canine, hamster, human, porcine, and simian cells. Regardless of host origin of the virus, each NSP1-1 protein induced syncytia in primate cells, while few induced syncytia in other cell types. To identify the domains that determined cell-specific fusion activity for human species B rotavirus NSP1-1, we engineered chimeric proteins containing domain exchanges with the p10 FAST protein from Nelson Bay orthoreovirus. Using the chimeric proteins, we found that the N-terminal and transmembrane domains determined the cell type specificity of fusion activity. Although the species and cell type criteria for fusion activity remain unclear, these findings suggest that rotavirus species B, G, and I NSP1-1 are functional FAST proteins whose N termini play a role in specifying the cells in which they mediate syncytia formation.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- Vanesa Veletanlic
- Department of Pediatrics, Vanderbilt University Medical Center, Nashville, Tennessee, USA
| | - Kylie Sartalamacchia
- Department of Pediatrics, Vanderbilt University Medical Center, Nashville, Tennessee, USA
| | - Julia R. Diller
- Department of Pediatrics, Vanderbilt University Medical Center, Nashville, Tennessee, USA
| | - Kristen M. Ogden
- Department of Pediatrics, Vanderbilt University Medical Center, Nashville, Tennessee, USA
- Department of Pathology, Microbiology, and Immunology, Vanderbilt University Medical Center, Nashville, Tennessee, USA
| |
Collapse
|
5
|
Lu Y, Ikawa M. Eukaryotic fertilization and gamete fusion at a glance. J Cell Sci 2022; 135:jcs260296. [PMID: 36416181 PMCID: PMC10658792 DOI: 10.1242/jcs.260296] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/24/2022] Open
Abstract
In sexually reproducing organisms, the genetic information is transmitted from one generation to the next via the merger of male and female gametes. Gamete fusion is a two-step process involving membrane recognition and apposition through ligand-receptor interactions and lipid mixing mediated by fusion proteins. HAP2 (also known as GCS1) is a bona fide gamete fusogen in flowering plants and protists. In vertebrates, a multitude of surface proteins have been demonstrated to be pivotal for sperm-egg fusion, yet none of them exhibit typical fusogenic features. In this Cell Science at a Glance article and the accompanying poster, we summarize recent advances in the mechanistic understanding of gamete fusion in eukaryotes, with a particular focus on mammalian species.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- Yonggang Lu
- Immunology Frontier Research Center, Osaka University, Osaka 565-0871, Japan
- Department of Experimental Genome Research, Research Institute for Microbial Diseases, Osaka University, Osaka 565-0871, Japan
| | - Masahito Ikawa
- Immunology Frontier Research Center, Osaka University, Osaka 565-0871, Japan
- Department of Experimental Genome Research, Research Institute for Microbial Diseases, Osaka University, Osaka 565-0871, Japan
- Laboratory of Reproductive Systems Biology, Institute of Medical Science, The University of Tokyo, Tokyo 108-8639, Japan
- Center for Infectious Disease Education and Research, Osaka University, Osaka 565-0871, Japan
| |
Collapse
|
6
|
Kostow N, Welch MD. Plasma membrane protrusions mediate host cell-cell fusion induced by Burkholderia thailandensis. Mol Biol Cell 2022; 33:ar70. [PMID: 35594178 DOI: 10.1091/mbc.e22-02-0056] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/11/2022] Open
Abstract
Cell-cell fusion is important for biological processes including fertilization, development, immunity, and microbial pathogenesis. Bacteria in the pseudomallei group of the Burkholderia species, including B. thailandensis, spread between host cells by inducing cell-cell fusion. Previous work showed that B. thailandensis-induced cell-cell fusion requires intracellular bacterial motility and a bacterial protein secretion apparatus called the type VI secretion system-5 (T6SS-5), including the T6SS-5 protein VgrG5. However, the cellular-level mechanism of and T6SS-5 proteins important for bacteria-induced cell-cell fusion remained incompletely described. Using live-cell imaging, we found bacteria used actin-based motility to push on the host cell plasma membrane to form plasma membrane protrusions that extended into neighboring cells. Then, membrane fusion occurred within membrane protrusions either proximal to the bacterium at the tip or elsewhere within protrusions. Expression of VgrG5 by bacteria within membrane protrusions was required to promote cell-cell fusion. Furthermore, a second predicted T6SS-5 protein, TagD5, was also required for cell-cell fusion. In the absence of VgrG5 or TagD5, bacteria in plasma membrane protrusions were engulfed into neighboring cells. Our results suggest that the T6SS-5 effectors VgrG5 and TagD5 are secreted within membrane protrusions and act locally to promote membrane fusion.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- Nora Kostow
- Department of Molecular & Cell Biology, University of California, Berkeley, Berkeley, CA 94720
| | - Matthew D Welch
- Department of Molecular & Cell Biology, University of California, Berkeley, Berkeley, CA 94720
| |
Collapse
|
7
|
Dawson J, Pandey S, Yu Q, Schaub P, Wüst F, Moradi AB, Dovzhenko O, Palme K, Welsch R. Determination of protoplast growth properties using quantitative single-cell tracking analysis. PLANT METHODS 2022; 18:64. [PMID: 35585602 PMCID: PMC9118701 DOI: 10.1186/s13007-022-00895-x] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Figures] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 12/22/2021] [Accepted: 05/01/2022] [Indexed: 06/15/2023]
Abstract
BACKGROUND Although quantitative single-cell analysis is frequently applied in animal systems, e.g. to identify novel drugs, similar applications on plant single cells are largely missing. We have exploited the applicability of high-throughput microscopic image analysis on plant single cells using tobacco leaf protoplasts, cell-wall free single cells isolated by lytic digestion. Protoplasts regenerate their cell wall within several days after isolation and have the potential to expand and proliferate, generating microcalli and finally whole plants after the application of suitable regeneration conditions. RESULTS High-throughput automated microscopy coupled with the development of image processing pipelines allowed to quantify various developmental properties of thousands of protoplasts during the initial days following cultivation by immobilization in multi-well-plates. The focus on early protoplast responses allowed to study cell expansion prior to the initiation of proliferation and without the effects of shape-compromising cell walls. We compared growth parameters of wild-type tobacco cells with cells expressing the antiapoptotic protein Bcl2-associated athanogene 4 from Arabidopsis (AtBAG4). CONCLUSIONS AtBAG4-expressing protoplasts showed a higher proportion of cells responding with positive area increases than the wild type and showed increased growth rates as well as increased proliferation rates upon continued cultivation. These features are associated with reported observations on a BAG4-mediated increased resilience to various stress responses and improved cellular survival rates following transformation approaches. Moreover, our single-cell expansion results suggest a BAG4-mediated, cell-independent increase of potassium channel abundance which was hitherto reported for guard cells only. The possibility to explain plant phenotypes with single-cell properties, extracted with the single-cell processing and analysis pipeline developed, allows to envision novel biotechnological screening strategies able to determine improved plant properties via single-cell analysis.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- Jonathan Dawson
- Institute of Biology II, Faculty of Biology, Albert-Ludwigs-University of Freiburg, Schänzlestrasse 1, 79104, Freiburg, Germany
- Institute of General Electrical Engineering, University of Rostock, Albert-Einstein-Str. 2, 18059, Rostock, Germany
- Augusta University, 1201 Goss Ln, Augusta, GA, 30912, USA
| | - Saurabh Pandey
- Institute of Biology II, Faculty of Biology, Albert-Ludwigs-University of Freiburg, Schänzlestrasse 1, 79104, Freiburg, Germany
| | - Qiuju Yu
- Institute of Biology II, Faculty of Biology, Albert-Ludwigs-University of Freiburg, Schänzlestrasse 1, 79104, Freiburg, Germany
- ScreenSYS GmbH, Engesserstr. 4, 79108, Freiburg, Germany
| | - Patrick Schaub
- Institute of Biology II, Faculty of Biology, Albert-Ludwigs-University of Freiburg, Schänzlestrasse 1, 79104, Freiburg, Germany
- ScreenSYS GmbH, Engesserstr. 4, 79108, Freiburg, Germany
| | - Florian Wüst
- Institute of Biology II, Faculty of Biology, Albert-Ludwigs-University of Freiburg, Schänzlestrasse 1, 79104, Freiburg, Germany
- ScreenSYS GmbH, Engesserstr. 4, 79108, Freiburg, Germany
| | - Amir Bahram Moradi
- Institute of Biology II, Faculty of Biology, Albert-Ludwigs-University of Freiburg, Schänzlestrasse 1, 79104, Freiburg, Germany
| | - Oleksandr Dovzhenko
- Institute of Biology II, Faculty of Biology, Albert-Ludwigs-University of Freiburg, Schänzlestrasse 1, 79104, Freiburg, Germany
- ScreenSYS GmbH, Engesserstr. 4, 79108, Freiburg, Germany
| | - Klaus Palme
- Institute of Biology II, Faculty of Biology, Albert-Ludwigs-University of Freiburg, Schänzlestrasse 1, 79104, Freiburg, Germany
- ScreenSYS GmbH, Engesserstr. 4, 79108, Freiburg, Germany
- BIOSS Center for Biological Signaling Studies, Albert-Ludwigs-University of Freiburg, Schänzlestrasse 1, 79104, Freiburg, Germany
- State Key Laboratory of Crop Biology, College of Life Sciences, Shandong Agricultural University, Daizong Street 61, Tai'an, 271018, China
| | - Ralf Welsch
- Institute of Biology II, Faculty of Biology, Albert-Ludwigs-University of Freiburg, Schänzlestrasse 1, 79104, Freiburg, Germany.
- ScreenSYS GmbH, Engesserstr. 4, 79108, Freiburg, Germany.
| |
Collapse
|
8
|
Osorio C, Sfera A, Anton JJ, Thomas KG, Andronescu CV, Li E, Yahia RW, Avalos AG, Kozlakidis Z. Virus-Induced Membrane Fusion in Neurodegenerative Disorders. Front Cell Infect Microbiol 2022; 12:845580. [PMID: 35531328 PMCID: PMC9070112 DOI: 10.3389/fcimb.2022.845580] [Citation(s) in RCA: 7] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 01/04/2022] [Accepted: 03/01/2022] [Indexed: 12/15/2022] Open
Abstract
A growing body of epidemiological and research data has associated neurotropic viruses with accelerated brain aging and increased risk of neurodegenerative disorders. Many viruses replicate optimally in senescent cells, as they offer a hospitable microenvironment with persistently elevated cytosolic calcium, abundant intracellular iron, and low interferon type I. As cell-cell fusion is a major driver of cellular senescence, many viruses have developed the ability to promote this phenotype by forming syncytia. Cell-cell fusion is associated with immunosuppression mediated by phosphatidylserine externalization that enable viruses to evade host defenses. In hosts, virus-induced immune dysfunction and premature cellular senescence may predispose to neurodegenerative disorders. This concept is supported by novel studies that found postinfectious cognitive dysfunction in several viral illnesses, including human immunodeficiency virus-1, herpes simplex virus-1, and SARS-CoV-2. Virus-induced pathological syncytia may provide a unified framework for conceptualizing neuronal cell cycle reentry, aneuploidy, somatic mosaicism, viral spreading of pathological Tau and elimination of viable synapses and neurons by neurotoxic astrocytes and microglia. In this narrative review, we take a closer look at cell-cell fusion and vesicular merger in the pathogenesis of neurodegenerative disorders. We present a "decentralized" information processing model that conceptualizes neurodegeneration as a systemic illness, triggered by cytoskeletal pathology. We also discuss strategies for reversing cell-cell fusion, including, TMEM16F inhibitors, calcium channel blockers, senolytics, and tubulin stabilizing agents. Finally, going beyond neurodegeneration, we examine the potential benefit of harnessing fusion as a therapeutic strategy in regenerative medicine.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- Carolina Osorio
- Department of Psychiatry, Loma Linda University, Loma Linda, CA, United States
| | - Adonis Sfera
- Department of Psychiatry, Loma Linda University, Loma Linda, CA, United States
- Department of Psychiatry, Patton State Hospital, San Bernardino, CA, United States
| | - Jonathan J. Anton
- Department of Psychiatry, Patton State Hospital, San Bernardino, CA, United States
| | - Karina G. Thomas
- Department of Psychiatry, Patton State Hospital, San Bernardino, CA, United States
| | - Christina V. Andronescu
- Medical Anthropology – Department of Anthropology, Stanford University, Stanford, CA, United States
| | - Erica Li
- School of Medicine, University of California, Riverside, Riverside, CA, United States
| | - Rayan W. Yahia
- School of Medicine, University of California, Riverside, Riverside, CA, United States
| | - Andrea García Avalos
- Universidad Nacional Autónoma de México (UNAM), Facultad de Medicina Campus, Ciudad de Mexico, Mexico
| | - Zisis Kozlakidis
- International Agency for Research on Cancer (IARC), Lyon, France
| |
Collapse
|
9
|
Sanders DW, Jumper CC, Ackerman PJ, Bracha D, Donlic A, Kim H, Kenney D, Castello-Serrano I, Suzuki S, Tamura T, Tavares AH, Saeed M, Holehouse AS, Ploss A, Levental I, Douam F, Padera RF, Levy BD, Brangwynne CP. SARS-CoV-2 requires cholesterol for viral entry and pathological syncytia formation. eLife 2021; 10:e65962. [PMID: 33890572 PMCID: PMC8104966 DOI: 10.7554/elife.65962] [Citation(s) in RCA: 128] [Impact Index Per Article: 42.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 12/21/2020] [Accepted: 04/01/2021] [Indexed: 12/27/2022] Open
Abstract
Many enveloped viruses induce multinucleated cells (syncytia), reflective of membrane fusion events caused by the same machinery that underlies viral entry. These syncytia are thought to facilitate replication and evasion of the host immune response. Here, we report that co-culture of human cells expressing the receptor ACE2 with cells expressing SARS-CoV-2 spike, results in synapse-like intercellular contacts that initiate cell-cell fusion, producing syncytia resembling those we identify in lungs of COVID-19 patients. To assess the mechanism of spike/ACE2-driven membrane fusion, we developed a microscopy-based, cell-cell fusion assay to screen ~6000 drugs and >30 spike variants. Together with quantitative cell biology approaches, the screen reveals an essential role for biophysical aspects of the membrane, particularly cholesterol-rich regions, in spike-mediated fusion, which extends to replication-competent SARS-CoV-2 isolates. Our findings potentially provide a molecular basis for positive outcomes reported in COVID-19 patients taking statins and suggest new strategies for therapeutics targeting the membrane of SARS-CoV-2 and other fusogenic viruses.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- David W Sanders
- Department of Chemical and Biological Engineering, Princeton UniversityPrincetonUnited States
| | - Chanelle C Jumper
- Department of Chemical and Biological Engineering, Princeton UniversityPrincetonUnited States
| | - Paul J Ackerman
- Department of Chemical and Biological Engineering, Princeton UniversityPrincetonUnited States
| | - Dan Bracha
- Department of Chemical and Biological Engineering, Princeton UniversityPrincetonUnited States
| | - Anita Donlic
- Department of Chemical and Biological Engineering, Princeton UniversityPrincetonUnited States
| | - Hahn Kim
- Princeton University Small Molecule Screening Center, Princeton UniversityPrincetonUnited States
- Department of Chemistry, Princeton UniversityPrincetonUnited States
| | - Devin Kenney
- Department of Microbiology, Boston University School of MedicineBostonUnited States
- National Emerging Infectious Diseases Laboratories, Boston UniversityBostonUnited States
| | - Ivan Castello-Serrano
- Department of Molecular Physiology and Biological Physics, University of VirginiaCharlottesvilleUnited States
| | - Saori Suzuki
- Department of Molecular Biology, Princeton UniversityPrincetonUnited States
| | - Tomokazu Tamura
- Department of Molecular Biology, Princeton UniversityPrincetonUnited States
| | - Alexander H Tavares
- National Emerging Infectious Diseases Laboratories, Boston UniversityBostonUnited States
- Department of Biochemistry, Boston University School of MedicineBostonUnited States
| | - Mohsan Saeed
- National Emerging Infectious Diseases Laboratories, Boston UniversityBostonUnited States
- Department of Biochemistry, Boston University School of MedicineBostonUnited States
| | - Alex S Holehouse
- Department of Biochemistry and Molecular Biophysics, Washington University School of MedicineSt. LouisUnited States
| | - Alexander Ploss
- Department of Molecular Biology, Princeton UniversityPrincetonUnited States
| | - Ilya Levental
- Department of Molecular Physiology and Biological Physics, University of VirginiaCharlottesvilleUnited States
| | - Florian Douam
- Department of Microbiology, Boston University School of MedicineBostonUnited States
- National Emerging Infectious Diseases Laboratories, Boston UniversityBostonUnited States
| | - Robert F Padera
- Department of Pathology, Brigham and Women’s Hospital and Harvard Medical SchoolBostonUnited States
| | - Bruce D Levy
- Pulmonary and Critical Care Medicine, Brigham and Women’s Hospital and Harvard Medical SchoolBostonUnited States
| | - Clifford P Brangwynne
- Department of Chemical and Biological Engineering, Princeton UniversityPrincetonUnited States
- Howard Hughes Medical InstitutePrincetonUnited States
| |
Collapse
|