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Moqadam M, Gartan P, Talandashti R, Chiapparino A, Titeca K, Gavin AC, Reuter N. A Membrane-Assisted Mechanism for the Release of Ceramide from the CERT START Domain. J Phys Chem B 2024; 128:6338-6351. [PMID: 38903016 PMCID: PMC11228987 DOI: 10.1021/acs.jpcb.4c02398] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 04/12/2024] [Revised: 05/26/2024] [Accepted: 06/11/2024] [Indexed: 06/22/2024]
Abstract
Ceramide transfer protein CERT is the mediator of nonvesicular transfer of ceramide from the ER to Golgi. In CERT, START is the domain responsible for the binding and transport of ceramide. A wealth of structural data has revealed a helix-grip fold surrounding a large hydrophobic cavity holding the ceramide. Yet, little is known about the mechanisms by which START releases the ceramide through the polar region and into the packed environment of cellular membranes. As such events do not lend themselves easily to experimental investigations, we used multiple unbiased microsecond-long molecular simulations. We propose a membrane-assisted mechanism in which the membrane acts as an allosteric effector initiating the release of ceramide and where the passage of the ceramide acyl chains is facilitated by the intercalation of a single phosphatidylcholine lipid in the cavity, practically greasing the ceramide way out. We verify using free energy calculation and experimental lipidomics data that CERT forms stable complexes with phosphatidylcholine lipids, in addition to ceramide, thus providing validation for the proposed mechanism.
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Affiliation(s)
- Mahmoud Moqadam
- Department
of Chemistry, University of Bergen, Bergen 5020, Norway
- Computational
Biology Unit, Department of Informatics, University of Bergen, Bergen 5020, Norway
| | - Parveen Gartan
- Department
of Chemistry, University of Bergen, Bergen 5020, Norway
- Computational
Biology Unit, Department of Informatics, University of Bergen, Bergen 5020, Norway
| | - Reza Talandashti
- Department
of Chemistry, University of Bergen, Bergen 5020, Norway
- Computational
Biology Unit, Department of Informatics, University of Bergen, Bergen 5020, Norway
| | - Antonella Chiapparino
- European
Molecular Biology Laboratory, EMBL, Meyerhofstrasse 1, Heidelberg D-69117, Germany
| | - Kevin Titeca
- European
Molecular Biology Laboratory, EMBL, Meyerhofstrasse 1, Heidelberg D-69117, Germany
- Department
of Cell Physiology and Metabolism, University
of Geneva, CMU Rue Michel-Servet 1, Genève 4 1211, Switzerland
| | - Anne-Claude Gavin
- Department
of Cell Physiology and Metabolism, University
of Geneva, CMU Rue Michel-Servet 1, Genève 4 1211, Switzerland
| | - Nathalie Reuter
- Department
of Chemistry, University of Bergen, Bergen 5020, Norway
- Computational
Biology Unit, Department of Informatics, University of Bergen, Bergen 5020, Norway
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2
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Yan W, Yan Y, Luo X, Dong Y, Liang G, Miao H, Huang Z, Jiang H. Lipopolysaccharide (LPS)-induced inflammation in RAW264.7 cells is inhibited by microRNA-494-3p via targeting lipoprotein-associated phospholipase A2. Eur J Trauma Emerg Surg 2024:10.1007/s00068-024-02588-7. [PMID: 38955820 DOI: 10.1007/s00068-024-02588-7] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 09/26/2023] [Accepted: 06/14/2024] [Indexed: 07/04/2024]
Abstract
BACKGROUND Gram-negative bacterial lipopolysaccharide (LPS) is a major component of inflammation and plays a key role in the pathogenesis of sepsis. According to our previous study, the expression of lipoprotein-associated phospholipase A2 (Lp-PLA2) is significantly upregulated in septic patients and is positively correlated with the severity of this disease. Herein, we investigated the potential roles of Lp-PLA2-targeting microRNAs (miRNAs) in LPS-induced inflammation in murine mononuclear macrophages (RAW264.7 cells). METHODS In LPS-stimulated RAW264.7 cells, Lp-PLA2 was confirmed to be expressed during the inflammatory response. The function of microRNA-494-3p (miR-494-3p) in the LPS-induced inflammatory response of RAW264.7 cells was determined by the transfection of a miR-494-3p mimic or inhibitor in vitro. RESULTS Compared to the control, LPS induced a significant increase in the Lp-PLA2 level, which was accompanied by the release of inflammatory mediators. The bioinformatics and qRT‒PCR results indicated that the miR-494-3p level was associated with Lp-PLA2 expression in the LPS-induced inflammatory response of RAW264.7 cells. Dual-luciferase reporter assay results confirmed that the 3'-UTR of Lp-PLA2 was a functional target of microRNA-494-3p. During the LPS-induced inflammatory response of RAW264.7 cells, targeting Lp-PLA2 and transfecting miR-494-3p mimics significantly upregulated the expression of miR-494-3p, leading to a reduction in the release of inflammatory factors and conferring a protective effect on LPS-stimulated RAW264.7 cells. CONCLUSION By targeting Lp-PLA2, miR-494-3p suppresses Lp-PLA2 secretion, thereby alleviating LPS-induced inflammation, which indicates that miR-494-3p may be a potential target for sepsis treatment.
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Affiliation(s)
- Wenxiao Yan
- Department of Emergency Medicine, Affiliated Hospital of Nantong University, Nantong, China
- Medical School of Nantong University, Nantong University, Nantong, China
| | - Yan Yan
- Department of Emergency Medicine, Affiliated Hospital of Nantong University, Nantong, China
- Medical School of Nantong University, Nantong University, Nantong, China
- Department of Intensive Care Unit, Second Affiliated Hospital of Jiaxing University, Jiaxing, China
| | - Xinye Luo
- Department of Emergency Medicine, Affiliated Hospital of Nantong University, Nantong, China
- Medical School of Nantong University, Nantong University, Nantong, China
| | - Yansong Dong
- Department of Emergency Medicine, Affiliated Hospital of Nantong University, Nantong, China
- Medical School of Nantong University, Nantong University, Nantong, China
| | - Guiwen Liang
- Department of Emergency Medicine, Affiliated Hospital of Nantong University, Nantong, China
- Medical School of Nantong University, Nantong University, Nantong, China
| | - Hua Miao
- Medical School of Nantong University, Nantong University, Nantong, China.
- Department of Emergency Medicine, Rudong County People's Hospital, Nantong, China.
| | - Zhongwei Huang
- Department of Emergency Medicine, Affiliated Hospital of Nantong University, Nantong, China.
- Medical School of Nantong University, Nantong University, Nantong, China.
| | - Haiyan Jiang
- Department of Emergency Medicine, Affiliated Hospital of Nantong University, Nantong, China.
- Medical School of Nantong University, Nantong University, Nantong, China.
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3
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Yu J, Boehr DD. Regulatory mechanisms triggered by enzyme interactions with lipid membrane surfaces. Front Mol Biosci 2023; 10:1306483. [PMID: 38099197 PMCID: PMC10720463 DOI: 10.3389/fmolb.2023.1306483] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 10/03/2023] [Accepted: 11/17/2023] [Indexed: 12/17/2023] Open
Abstract
Recruitment of enzymes to intracellular membranes often modulates their catalytic activity, which can be important in cell signaling and membrane trafficking. Thus, re-localization is not only important for these enzymes to gain access to their substrates, but membrane interactions often allosterically regulate enzyme function by inducing conformational changes across different time and amplitude scales. Recent structural, biophysical and computational studies have revealed how key enzymes interact with lipid membrane surfaces, and how this membrane binding regulates protein structure and function. This review summarizes the recent progress in understanding regulatory mechanisms involved in enzyme-membrane interactions.
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Affiliation(s)
| | - David D. Boehr
- Department of Chemistry, The Pennsylvania State University, University Park, PA, United States
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4
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Manivarma T, Kapralov AA, Samovich SN, Tyurina YY, Tyurin VA, VanDemark AP, Nowak W, Bayır H, Bahar I, Kagan VE, Mikulska-Ruminska K. Membrane regulation of 15LOX-1/PEBP1 complex prompts the generation of ferroptotic signals, oxygenated PEs. Free Radic Biol Med 2023; 208:458-467. [PMID: 37678654 PMCID: PMC10952060 DOI: 10.1016/j.freeradbiomed.2023.09.001] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Submit a Manuscript] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 07/22/2023] [Revised: 08/24/2023] [Accepted: 09/01/2023] [Indexed: 09/09/2023]
Abstract
Ferroptosis is a regulated form of cell death, the mechanism of which is still to be understood. 15-lipoxygenase (15LOX) complex with phosphatidylethanolamine (PE)-binding protein 1 (PEBP1) catalyzes the generation of pro-ferroptotic cell death signals, hydroperoxy-polyunsaturated PE. We focused on gaining new insights into the molecular basis of these pro-ferroptotic interactions using computational modeling and liquid chromatography-mass spectrometry experiments. Simulations of 15LOX-1/PEBP1 complex dynamics and interactions with lipids revealed that association with the membrane triggers a conformational change in the complex. This conformational change facilitates the access of stearoyl/arachidonoyl-PE (SAPE) substrates to the catalytic site. Furthermore, the binding of SAPE promotes tight interactions within the complex and induces further conformational changes that facilitate the oxidation reaction. The reaction yields two hydroperoxides as products, 15-HpETE-PE and 12-HpETE-PE, at a ratio of 5:1. A significant effect of PEBP1 is observed only on the predominant product. Moreover, combined experiments and simulations consistently demonstrate the significance of PEBP1 P112E mutation in generating ferroptotic cell death signals.
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Affiliation(s)
- Thiliban Manivarma
- Institute of Physics, Faculty of Physics, Astronomy and Informatics, Nicolaus Copernicus University in Torun, Torun, Poland
| | - Aleksandr A Kapralov
- Department of Environmental and Occupational Health and Center for Free Radical and Antioxidant Health University of Pittsburgh, Pittsburgh, PA, USA
| | - Svetlana N Samovich
- Department of Environmental and Occupational Health and Center for Free Radical and Antioxidant Health University of Pittsburgh, Pittsburgh, PA, USA; Department of Pediatrics, Division of Critical Care and Hospital Medicine, Redox Health Center, Vagelos College of Physicians and Surgeons, Columbia University Irving Medical Center, New York, NY, USA
| | - Yulia Y Tyurina
- Department of Environmental and Occupational Health and Center for Free Radical and Antioxidant Health University of Pittsburgh, Pittsburgh, PA, USA
| | - Vladimir A Tyurin
- Department of Environmental and Occupational Health and Center for Free Radical and Antioxidant Health University of Pittsburgh, Pittsburgh, PA, USA
| | - Andrew P VanDemark
- Department of Biological Sciences, University of Pittsburgh, Pittsburgh, PA, USA
| | - Wieslaw Nowak
- Institute of Physics, Faculty of Physics, Astronomy and Informatics, Nicolaus Copernicus University in Torun, Torun, Poland
| | - Hülya Bayır
- Department of Environmental and Occupational Health and Center for Free Radical and Antioxidant Health University of Pittsburgh, Pittsburgh, PA, USA; Department of Pediatrics, Division of Critical Care and Hospital Medicine, Redox Health Center, Vagelos College of Physicians and Surgeons, Columbia University Irving Medical Center, New York, NY, USA
| | - Ivet Bahar
- Laufer Center for Physical and Quantitative Biology and Department of Biochemistry and Cell Biology, Stony Brook University, New York, USA.
| | - Valerian E Kagan
- Department of Environmental and Occupational Health and Center for Free Radical and Antioxidant Health University of Pittsburgh, Pittsburgh, PA, USA; Department of Radiation Oncology, University of Pittsburgh, Pittsburgh, PA, USA; Department of Chemistry, University of Pittsburgh, Pittsburgh, PA, USA; Department of Pharmacology and Chemical Biology, University of Pittsburgh, Pittsburgh, PA, USA.
| | - Karolina Mikulska-Ruminska
- Institute of Physics, Faculty of Physics, Astronomy and Informatics, Nicolaus Copernicus University in Torun, Torun, Poland.
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5
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Oh M, Jang SY, Lee JY, Kim JW, Jung Y, Kim J, Seo J, Han TS, Jang E, Son HY, Kim D, Kim MW, Park JS, Song KH, Oh KJ, Kim WK, Bae KH, Huh YM, Kim SH, Kim D, Han BS, Lee SC, Hwang GS, Lee EW. The lipoprotein-associated phospholipase A2 inhibitor Darapladib sensitises cancer cells to ferroptosis by remodelling lipid metabolism. Nat Commun 2023; 14:5728. [PMID: 37714840 PMCID: PMC10504358 DOI: 10.1038/s41467-023-41462-9] [Citation(s) in RCA: 8] [Impact Index Per Article: 8.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 08/03/2022] [Accepted: 08/29/2023] [Indexed: 09/17/2023] Open
Abstract
Arachidonic and adrenic acids in the membrane play key roles in ferroptosis. Here, we reveal that lipoprotein-associated phospholipase A2 (Lp-PLA2) controls intracellular phospholipid metabolism and contributes to ferroptosis resistance. A metabolic drug screen reveals that darapladib, an inhibitor of Lp-PLA2, synergistically induces ferroptosis in the presence of GPX4 inhibitors. We show that darapladib is able to enhance ferroptosis under lipoprotein-deficient or serum-free conditions. Furthermore, we find that Lp-PLA2 is located in the membrane and cytoplasm and suppresses ferroptosis, suggesting a critical role for intracellular Lp-PLA2. Lipidomic analyses show that darapladib treatment or deletion of PLA2G7, which encodes Lp-PLA2, generally enriches phosphatidylethanolamine species and reduces lysophosphatidylethanolamine species. Moreover, combination treatment of darapladib with the GPX4 inhibitor PACMA31 efficiently inhibits tumour growth in a xenograft model. Our study suggests that inhibition of Lp-PLA2 is a potential therapeutic strategy to enhance ferroptosis in cancer treatment.
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Affiliation(s)
- Mihee Oh
- Biodefense Research Center, Korea Research Institute of Bioscience and Biotechnology (KRIBB), Daejeon, 34141, Korea
| | - Seo Young Jang
- Integrated Metabolomics Research Group, Western Seoul Center, Korea Basic Science Institute, Seoul, 03759, Korea
| | - Ji-Yoon Lee
- Metabolic Regulation Research Center, Korea Research Institute of Bioscience and Biotechnology (KRIBB), Daejeon, 34141, Korea
| | - Jong Woo Kim
- Metabolic Regulation Research Center, Korea Research Institute of Bioscience and Biotechnology (KRIBB), Daejeon, 34141, Korea
- Department of Functional Genomics, University of Science and Technology (UST), Daejeon, 34141, Korea
| | - Youngae Jung
- Integrated Metabolomics Research Group, Western Seoul Center, Korea Basic Science Institute, Seoul, 03759, Korea
| | - Jiwoo Kim
- Therapeutics and Biotechnology Department, Drug Discovery Platform Research Center, Korea Research Institute of Chemical Technology (KRICT), Daejeon, 34114, Korea
- Graduate School of New Drug Discovery and Development, Chungnam National University, Daejeon, 305-764, Korea
| | - Jinho Seo
- Aging Convergence Research Center, Korea Research Institute of Bioscience and Biotechnology (KRIBB), Daejeon, 34141, Korea
| | - Tae-Su Han
- Biotherapeutics Translational Research Center, Korea Research Institute of Bioscience and Biotechnology (KRIBB), Daejeon, 34141, Korea
| | - Eunji Jang
- MediBio-Informatics Research Center, Novomics Co., Ltd., Seoul, Korea
| | - Hye Young Son
- YUHS-KRIBB Medical Convergence Research Institute, Seoul, 03722, Korea
- Department of Radiology, College of Medicine, Yonsei University, Seoul, 03722, Korea
| | - Dain Kim
- Integrated Metabolomics Research Group, Western Seoul Center, Korea Basic Science Institute, Seoul, 03759, Korea
- Department of Life Science, Ewha Womans University, Seoul, 03760, Korea
| | - Min Wook Kim
- Metabolic Regulation Research Center, Korea Research Institute of Bioscience and Biotechnology (KRIBB), Daejeon, 34141, Korea
| | | | - Kwon-Ho Song
- Department of Cell Biology, Daegu Catholic University School of Medicine, Daegu, 42472, Korea
| | - Kyoung-Jin Oh
- Metabolic Regulation Research Center, Korea Research Institute of Bioscience and Biotechnology (KRIBB), Daejeon, 34141, Korea
- Department of Functional Genomics, University of Science and Technology (UST), Daejeon, 34141, Korea
| | - Won Kon Kim
- Metabolic Regulation Research Center, Korea Research Institute of Bioscience and Biotechnology (KRIBB), Daejeon, 34141, Korea
- Department of Functional Genomics, University of Science and Technology (UST), Daejeon, 34141, Korea
| | - Kwang-Hee Bae
- Metabolic Regulation Research Center, Korea Research Institute of Bioscience and Biotechnology (KRIBB), Daejeon, 34141, Korea
- Department of Functional Genomics, University of Science and Technology (UST), Daejeon, 34141, Korea
| | - Yong-Min Huh
- MediBio-Informatics Research Center, Novomics Co., Ltd., Seoul, Korea
- YUHS-KRIBB Medical Convergence Research Institute, Seoul, 03722, Korea
- Department of Radiology, College of Medicine, Yonsei University, Seoul, 03722, Korea
| | - Soon Ha Kim
- MitoImmune Therapeutics Inc., Seoul, 06123, Korea
| | - Doyoun Kim
- Therapeutics and Biotechnology Department, Drug Discovery Platform Research Center, Korea Research Institute of Chemical Technology (KRICT), Daejeon, 34114, Korea
| | - Baek-Soo Han
- Biodefense Research Center, Korea Research Institute of Bioscience and Biotechnology (KRIBB), Daejeon, 34141, Korea.
- Metabolic Regulation Research Center, Korea Research Institute of Bioscience and Biotechnology (KRIBB), Daejeon, 34141, Korea.
- Department of Functional Genomics, University of Science and Technology (UST), Daejeon, 34141, Korea.
| | - Sang Chul Lee
- Metabolic Regulation Research Center, Korea Research Institute of Bioscience and Biotechnology (KRIBB), Daejeon, 34141, Korea.
| | - Geum-Sook Hwang
- Integrated Metabolomics Research Group, Western Seoul Center, Korea Basic Science Institute, Seoul, 03759, Korea.
- College of Pharmacy, Chung-Ang University, Seoul, 06974, Korea.
| | - Eun-Woo Lee
- Metabolic Regulation Research Center, Korea Research Institute of Bioscience and Biotechnology (KRIBB), Daejeon, 34141, Korea.
- Department of Functional Genomics, University of Science and Technology (UST), Daejeon, 34141, Korea.
- School of Pharmacy, Sungkyunkwan University, Suwon, 16419, Korea.
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6
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Yu G, Jiang W, Cheng Z, Wan R. Predictive value of serum apolipoprotein A-I in the organ failure of acute pancreatitis: a retrospective cohort study. Scand J Gastroenterol 2023; 58:1049-1055. [PMID: 37073812 DOI: 10.1080/00365521.2023.2200500] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Submit a Manuscript] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 03/11/2023] [Revised: 03/25/2023] [Accepted: 04/03/2023] [Indexed: 04/20/2023]
Abstract
BACKGROUND Organ failure (OF) largely governs the outcomes and mortality in patients with acute pancreatitis (AP), but there is a lack of optimal prognostic biomarker for OF. This study is designed to investigate whether the serum apolipoprotein A-I (Apo A-I) level can predict OF in patients with AP. METHODS A total of 424 patients with AP were reviewed in the study, and we finally got 228 patients eligible for analysis. Patients were divided into two groups based on serum Apo A-I level. Demographic information and clinical materials were retrospectively collected. The primary outcome was the occurrence of OF. Univariate and multivariate binary logistic regression were conducted to analyze the relationship between Apo A-I and OF. Additionally, we used receiver operating characteristic analysis to clarify the predictive value of serum Apo A-I level for OF and mortality. RESULTS Ninety-two patients and 136 patients were included in Apo A-I low and non-low groups, respectively. The occurrence of OF was significantly different in the two groups (35.9 vs. 9.6%, p < 0.001). Moreover, serum Apo A-I level markedly decreased across disease severity based on the 2012 Revised Atlanta Classification of AP. The decrease of serum apolipoprotein A-I was an independent risk factor for organ failure (OR: 6.216, 95% CI: 2.610, 14.806, p < 0.001). The area under the curve of serum Apo A-I was 0.828 and 0.889 for OF and mortality of AP, respectively. CONCLUSIONS Serum Apo A-I level in the early stage of the disease has a high predictive value for OF of AP.
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Affiliation(s)
- Ge Yu
- Department of Gastroenterology, Shanghai General Hospital of Nanjing Medical University, Shanghai, China
| | - Weiliang Jiang
- Department of Gastroenterology, Shanghai General Hospital, Shanghai Jiaotong University School of Medicine, Shanghai, China
| | - Zhiyuan Cheng
- Department of Gastroenterology, Shanghai General Hospital, Shanghai Jiaotong University School of Medicine, Shanghai, China
| | - Rong Wan
- Department of Gastroenterology, Shanghai General Hospital of Nanjing Medical University, Shanghai, China
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7
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Alekseeva AS, Boldyrev IA. Alternative Targets for sPLA2 Activity: Role of Membrane-Enzyme Interactions. MEMBRANES 2023; 13:618. [PMID: 37504984 PMCID: PMC10384401 DOI: 10.3390/membranes13070618] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 04/26/2023] [Revised: 06/20/2023] [Accepted: 06/21/2023] [Indexed: 07/29/2023]
Abstract
The secreted phospholipases A2 (sPLA2s) play important roles both physiologically and pathologically, with their expression increasing significantly in diseases such as sepsis, inflammation, different cancers, glaucoma, obesity, Alzheimer's disease and even COVID-19. The fact has led to a large-scale search for inhibitors of these enzymes. In total, several dozen promising molecules have been proposed, but not a single one has successfully passed clinical trials. The failures in clinical studies motivated in-depth fundamental studies of PLA2s. Here we review alternative ways to control sPLA2 activity, outside its catalytic site. The concept can be realized by preventing sPLA2 from attaching to the membrane surface; by binding to an external protein which blocks sPLA2 hydrolytic activity; by preventing sPLA2 from orienting properly on the membrane surface; and by preventing substrate binding to the enzyme, keeping the catalytic site unaltered. Evidence in the literature is summarized in the review with the aim to serve as a starting point for new types of sPLA2 inhibitors.
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Affiliation(s)
- Anna S Alekseeva
- Shemyakin-Ovchinnikov Institute of Bioorganic Chemistry, Russian Academy of Sciences, 117997 Moscow, Russia
| | - Ivan A Boldyrev
- Shemyakin-Ovchinnikov Institute of Bioorganic Chemistry, Russian Academy of Sciences, 117997 Moscow, Russia
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8
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Mouchlis VD, Dennis EA. Membrane Association Allosterically Regulates Phospholipase A 2 Enzymes and Their Specificity. Acc Chem Res 2022; 55:3303-3311. [PMID: 36315840 PMCID: PMC9730854 DOI: 10.1021/acs.accounts.2c00497] [Citation(s) in RCA: 3] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 07/26/2022] [Indexed: 01/19/2023]
Abstract
Water-soluble proteins as well as membrane-bound proteins associate with membrane surfaces and bind specific lipid molecules in specific sites on the protein. Membrane surfaces include the traditional bilayer membranes of cells and subcellular organelles formed by phospholipids. Monolayer membranes include the outer monolayer phospholipid surface of intracellular lipid droplets of triglycerides and various lipoproteins including HDL, LDL, VLDL, and chylomicrons. These lipoproteins circulate in our blood and lymph systems and contain triglycerides, cholesterol, cholesterol esters, and proteins in their interior, and these are sometimes interspersed on their surfaces. Similar lipid-water interfaces also occur in mixed micelles of phospholipids and bile acids in our digestive system, which may also include internalized triglycerides and cholesterol esters. Diacyl phospholipids constitute the defining molecules of biological membranes. Phospholipase A1 (PLA1) hydrolyzes phospholipid acyl chains at the sn-1 position of membrane phospholipids, phospholipase A2 (PLA2) hydrolyzes acyl chains at the sn-2 position, phospholipase C (PLC) hydrolyzes the glycerol-phosphodiester bond, and phospholipase D (PLD) hydrolyzes the polar group-phosphodiester bond. Of the phospholipases, the PLA2s have been the most well studied at the mechanistic level. The PLA2 superfamily consists of 16 groups and numerous subgroups, and each is generally described as one of 6 types. The most well studied of the PLA2s include extensive genetic and mutational studies, complete lipidomics specificity characterization, and crystallographic structures. This Account will focus principally on results from deuterium exchange mass spectrometric (DXMS) studies of PLA2 interactions with membranes and extensive molecular dynamics (MD) simulations of their interactions with membranes and specific phospholipids bound in their catalytic and allosteric sites. These enzymes either are membrane-bound or are water-soluble and associate with membranes before extracting their phospholipid substrate molecule into their active site to carry out their enzymatic hydrolytic reaction. We present evidence that when a PLA2 associates with a membrane, the membrane association can result in a conformational change in the enzyme whereby the membrane association with an allosteric site on the enzyme stabilizes the enzyme in an active conformation on the membrane. We sometimes refer to this transition from a "closed" conformation in aqueous solution to an "open" conformation when associated with a membrane. The enzyme can then extract a single phospholipid substrate into its active site, and catalysis occurs. We have also employed DXMS and MD simulations to characterize how PLA2s interact with specific inhibitors that could lead to potential therapeutics. The PLA2s constitute a paradigm for how membranes interact allosterically with proteins, causing conformational changes and activation of the proteins to enable them to extract and bind a specific phospholipid from a membrane for catalysis, which is probably generalizable to intracellular and extracellular transport and phospholipid exchange processes as well as other specific biological functions. We will focus on the four main types of PLA2, namely, the secreted (sPLA2), cytosolic (cPLA2), calcium-independent (iPLA2), and lipoprotein-associated PLA2 (Lp-PLA2) also known as platelet-activating factor acetyl hydrolase (PAF-AH). Studies on a well-studied specific example of each of the four major types of the PLA2 superfamily demonstrate clearly that protein subsites can show precise specificity for one of the phospholipid hydrophobic acyl chains, often the one at the sn-2 position, including exquisite sensitivity to the number and position of double bonds.
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Affiliation(s)
- Varnavas D. Mouchlis
- Department of Chemistry and Biochemistry
and Department of Pharmacology, School of Medicine, University of California, San Diego, La Jolla, California 92093-0601 United States
| | - Edward A. Dennis
- Department of Chemistry and Biochemistry
and Department of Pharmacology, School of Medicine, University of California, San Diego, La Jolla, California 92093-0601 United States
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9
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Pantazi D, Tellis C, Tselepis AD. Oxidized phospholipids and lipoprotein-associated phospholipase A 2 (Lp-PLA 2 ) in atherosclerotic cardiovascular disease: An update. Biofactors 2022; 48:1257-1270. [PMID: 36192834 DOI: 10.1002/biof.1890] [Citation(s) in RCA: 6] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Submit a Manuscript] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 07/07/2022] [Accepted: 09/06/2022] [Indexed: 12/24/2022]
Abstract
Inflammation and oxidative stress conditions lead to a variety of oxidative modifications of lipoprotein phospholipids implicated in the occurrence and development of atherosclerotic lesions. Lipoprotein-associated phospholipase A2 (Lp-PLA2 ) is established as an independent risk biomarker of atherosclerosis-related cardiovascular disease (ASCVD) and mediates vascular inflammation through the regulation of lipid metabolism in the blood and in atherosclerotic lesions. Lp-PLA2 is associated with low- and high-density lipoproteins and Lipoprotein (a) in human plasma and specifically hydrolyzes oxidized phospholipids involved in oxidative stress modification. Several oxidized phospholipids (OxPLs) subspecies can be detoxified through enzymatic degradation by Lp-PLA2 activation, forming lysophospholipids and oxidized non-esterified fatty acids (OxNEFAs). Lysophospholipids promote the expression of adhesion molecules, stimulate cytokines production (TNF-α, IL-6), and attract macrophages to the arterial intima. The present review article discusses new data on the functional roles of OxPLs and Lp-PLA2 associated with lipoproteins.
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Affiliation(s)
- Despoina Pantazi
- Atherothrombosis Research Centre/Laboratory of Biochemistry, Department of Chemistry, University of Ioannina, Ioannina, Greece
| | - Constantinos Tellis
- Atherothrombosis Research Centre/Laboratory of Biochemistry, Department of Chemistry, University of Ioannina, Ioannina, Greece
| | - Alexandros D Tselepis
- Atherothrombosis Research Centre/Laboratory of Biochemistry, Department of Chemistry, University of Ioannina, Ioannina, Greece
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10
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Biological Properties and Clinical Significance of Lipoprotein-Associated Phospholipase A2 in Ischemic Stroke. Cardiovasc Ther 2022; 2022:3328574. [PMID: 36313479 PMCID: PMC9586817 DOI: 10.1155/2022/3328574] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Submit a Manuscript] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 08/08/2022] [Revised: 09/19/2022] [Accepted: 09/29/2022] [Indexed: 11/27/2022] Open
Abstract
Ischemic stroke, which occurs following blockage of the blood supply to the brain, is a leading cause of death worldwide. Its main cause is atherosclerosis, a disease of the arteries characterized by the deposition of plaques of fatty material on the inner artery walls. Multiple proteins involved in the inflammation response have been identified as diagnosing biomarkers of ischemic stroke. One of these is lipoprotein-associated phospholipase A2 (Lp-PLA2), an enzyme that can hydrolyze circulating oxidized phospholipids, generating proinflammatory lysophosphatidylcholine and promoting the development of atherosclerosis. In the last two decades, a number of studies have revealed that both the concentration and the activity of Lp-PLA2 are independent biomarkers of ischemic stroke. The US Food and Drug Administration (FDA) has approved two tests to determine Lp-PLA2 mass and activity for predicting stroke. In this review, we summarize the biological properties of Lp-PLA2, the detection sensitivity and limitations of Lp-PLA2 measurement, the clinical significance and association of Lp-PLA2 in ischemic stroke, and the prospects of therapeutic inhibition of Lp-PLA2 as an intervention and treatment.
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11
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sPLA2 Wobbles on the Lipid Bilayer between Three Positions, Each Involved in the Hydrolysis Process. Toxins (Basel) 2022; 14:toxins14100669. [PMID: 36287938 PMCID: PMC9610741 DOI: 10.3390/toxins14100669] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 08/25/2022] [Revised: 09/14/2022] [Accepted: 09/22/2022] [Indexed: 11/17/2022] Open
Abstract
Secreted phospholipases A2 (sPLA2s) are peripheral membrane enzymes that hydrolyze phospholipids in the sn-2 position. The action of sPLA2 is associated with the work of two active sites. One, the interface binding site (IBS), is needed to bind the enzyme to the membrane surface. The other one, the catalytic site, is needed to hydrolyze the substrate. The interplay between sites, how the substrate protrudes to, and how the hydrolysis products release from, the catalytic site remains in the focus of investigations. Here, we report that bee venom PLA2 has two additional interface binding modes and enzyme activity through constant switching between three different orientations (modes of binding), only one of which is responsible for substrate uptake from the bilayer. The finding was obtained independently using atomic force microscopy and molecular dynamics. Switching between modes has biological significance: modes are steps of the enzyme moving along the membrane, product release in biological milieu, and enzyme desorption from the bilayer surface.
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Roberts MF, Gershenson A, Reuter N. Phosphatidylcholine Cation—Tyrosine π Complexes: Motifs for Membrane Binding by a Bacterial Phospholipase C. Molecules 2022; 27:molecules27196184. [PMID: 36234717 PMCID: PMC9572076 DOI: 10.3390/molecules27196184] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 08/13/2022] [Revised: 09/14/2022] [Accepted: 09/15/2022] [Indexed: 10/27/2022] Open
Abstract
Phosphatidylinositol-specific phospholipase C (PI-PLC) enzymes are a virulence factor in many Gram-positive organisms. The specific activity of the Bacillus thuringiensis PI-PLC is significantly increased by adding phosphatidylcholine (PC) to vesicles composed of the substrate phosphatidylinositol, in part because the inclusion of PC reduces the apparent Kd for the vesicle binding by as much as 1000-fold when comparing PC-rich vesicles to PI vesicles. This review summarizes (i) the experimental work that localized a site on BtPI-PLC where PC is bound as a PC choline cation—Tyr-π complex and (ii) the computational work (including all-atom molecular dynamics simulations) that refined the original complex and found a second persistent PC cation—Tyr-π complex. Both complexes are critical for vesicle binding. These results have led to a model for PC functioning as an allosteric effector of the enzyme by altering the protein dynamics and stabilizing an ‘open’ active site conformation.
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Affiliation(s)
- Mary F. Roberts
- Department of Chemistry, Boston College, Chestnut Hill, MA 02467, USA
- Correspondence: ; Tel.: +1-617-460-5194
| | - Anne Gershenson
- Department of Biochemistry and Molecular Biology, University of Massachusetts, Amherst, MA 01003, USA
| | - Nathalie Reuter
- Computational Biology Unit, Department of Informatics and Chemistry, University of Bergen, 5020 Bergen, Norway
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13
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Dorninger F, Werner ER, Berger J, Watschinger K. Regulation of plasmalogen metabolism and traffic in mammals: The fog begins to lift. Front Cell Dev Biol 2022; 10:946393. [PMID: 36120579 PMCID: PMC9471318 DOI: 10.3389/fcell.2022.946393] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 05/17/2022] [Accepted: 07/25/2022] [Indexed: 12/15/2022] Open
Abstract
Due to their unique chemical structure, plasmalogens do not only exhibit distinct biophysical and biochemical features, but require specialized pathways of biosynthesis and metabolization. Recently, major advances have been made in our understanding of these processes, for example by the attribution of the gene encoding the enzyme, which catalyzes the final desaturation step in plasmalogen biosynthesis, or by the identification of cytochrome C as plasmalogenase, which allows for the degradation of plasmalogens. Also, models have been presented that plausibly explain the maintenance of adequate cellular levels of plasmalogens. However, despite the progress, many aspects around the questions of how plasmalogen metabolism is regulated and how plasmalogens are distributed among organs and tissues in more complex organisms like mammals, remain unresolved. Here, we summarize and interpret current evidence on the regulation of the enzymes involved in plasmalogen biosynthesis and degradation as well as the turnover of plasmalogens. Finally, we focus on plasmalogen traffic across the mammalian body - a topic of major importance, when considering plasmalogen replacement therapies in human disorders, where deficiencies in these lipids have been reported. These involve not only inborn errors in plasmalogen metabolism, but also more common diseases including Alzheimer's disease and neurodevelopmental disorders.
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Affiliation(s)
- Fabian Dorninger
- Department of Pathobiology of the Nervous System, Center for Brain Research, Medical University of Vienna, Vienna, Austria,*Correspondence: Fabian Dorninger, ; Katrin Watschinger,
| | - Ernst R. Werner
- Institute of Biological Chemistry, Biocenter, Medical University of Innsbruck, Innsbruck, Austria
| | - Johannes Berger
- Department of Pathobiology of the Nervous System, Center for Brain Research, Medical University of Vienna, Vienna, Austria
| | - Katrin Watschinger
- Institute of Biological Chemistry, Biocenter, Medical University of Innsbruck, Innsbruck, Austria,*Correspondence: Fabian Dorninger, ; Katrin Watschinger,
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Clark K, Sharp S, Womack CJ, Kurti SP, Hargens TA. Increased sedentary time and decreased physical activity increases lipoprotein associated phospholipase A 2 in obese individuals. Nutr Metab Cardiovasc Dis 2022; 32:1703-1710. [PMID: 35637082 DOI: 10.1016/j.numecd.2022.04.023] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Submit a Manuscript] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 02/09/2022] [Revised: 04/26/2022] [Accepted: 04/27/2022] [Indexed: 10/18/2022]
Abstract
BACKGROUND AND AIMS Lipoprotein-associated Phospholipase A2 (Lp-PLA2) is a protein produced by inflammatory cells in circulation and is associated with cardiovascular disease (CVD) risk. Physical activity (PA) is known to reduce inflammation and risk for CVD. However, Lp-PLA2 has yet to be examined in relation to PA and sedentary time. The purpose of this study was to determine if PA and sedentary time impacts Lp-PLA2 mass. A total of 25 subjects with an average BMI of 30.6 ± 5.7 were included in the data analysis. METHODS AND RESULTS Data collected included anthropometric data, Lp-PLA2 mass, peak oxygen uptake (VO2peak), resting heart rate and blood pressure, obstructive sleep apnea (OSA) risk, and assessment of PA using an accelerometer. Sedentary minutes per day was positively associated with Lp-PLA2 (r = 0.41, P < 0.05). Light intensity PA was negatively associated (r = -0.51. P = 0.01) with Lp-PLA2. When subjects were divided into 2-quantiles by Lp-PLA2, the group with the higher Lp-PLA2 mass accumulated more sedentary time per day (P < 0.001) and less light intensity PA per day (P = 0.001). OSA risk and Lp-PLA2 showed no relationship. Sedentary behavior was higher, and light intensity PA was lower in subjects with hiLp-PLA2 mass. No difference was seen in moderate-to-vigorous intensity PA or steps per day. CONCLUSIONS This suggests that, total PA habits, including time spent sedentary and lower intensity PA, impacts the levels of Lp-PLA2, an important inflammatory marker and marker of CVD risk.
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Affiliation(s)
- Kendall Clark
- Human Performance Laboratory, Department of Kinesiology, James Madison University, 261 Bluestone Dr MSC 2302, Harrisonburg, VA, 22807, USA.
| | - Sydney Sharp
- Human Performance Laboratory, Department of Kinesiology, James Madison University, 261 Bluestone Dr MSC 2302, Harrisonburg, VA, 22807, USA.
| | - Christopher J Womack
- Human Performance Laboratory, Department of Kinesiology, James Madison University, 261 Bluestone Dr MSC 2302, Harrisonburg, VA, 22807, USA.
| | - Stephanie P Kurti
- Human Performance Laboratory, Department of Kinesiology, James Madison University, 261 Bluestone Dr MSC 2302, Harrisonburg, VA, 22807, USA.
| | - Trent A Hargens
- Department of Kinesiology, James Madison University, 261 Bluestone Dr. MSC 2302, Harrisonburg, VA, 22807, USA.
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Mattioli S, Dimauro C, Cesarani A, Dal Bosco A, Bartolini D, Galli F, Migni A, Sebastiani B, Signorini C, Oger C, Collodel G, Castellini C. A Dynamic Model for Estimating the Interaction of ROS–PUFA–Antioxidants in Rabbit. Antioxidants (Basel) 2022; 11:antiox11030531. [PMID: 35326181 PMCID: PMC8944554 DOI: 10.3390/antiox11030531] [Citation(s) in RCA: 2] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 02/01/2022] [Revised: 03/07/2022] [Accepted: 03/09/2022] [Indexed: 02/04/2023] Open
Abstract
Defining optimal nutrition in animals and humans remains a main scientific challenge. The objective of the work was to develop a dynamic model of reactive oxygen species (ROS)–polyunsaturated fatty acid (PUFA)–antioxidant homeostasis using the rabbit as a model. The problem entity was to evaluate the main metabolites generated from interactions between traits included in the conceptual model and identified by three main sub–models: (i) ROS generation, (ii) PUFA oxidation and (iii) antioxidant defence. A mathematical model (VENSIM software) that consisted of molecular stocks (INPUTs, OUTPUTs), exchange flows (intermediate OUTPUTs) and process rates was developed. The calibration was performed by using standard experimental data (Experiment 1), whereas the validation was carried out in Experiments 2 and 3 by using supra–nutritional dietary inputs (VIT E+ and PUFA+). The accuracy of the models was measured using 95% confidence intervals. Analytical OUTPUTs (ROS, PUFA, Vit E, Ascorbic acid, Iso–/NeuroProstanes, Aldehydes) were well described by the standard model. There was also good accuracy for the VIT E+ scenario, whereas some compensatory rates (Kc1–Kc4) were added to assess body compensation when high levels of dietary PUFA were administered (Experiment 3). In conclusion, the model can be very useful for predicting the effects of dietary treatments on the redox homeostasis of rabbits.
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Affiliation(s)
- Simona Mattioli
- Department of Agricultural, Environmental and Food Science, University of Perugia, Borgo 20 Giugno, 74, 06123 Perugia, Italy
| | - Corrado Dimauro
- Department of Agricultural Sciences, University of Sassari, Sassari, Viale Italia, 39, 07100 Sassari, Italy
| | - Alberto Cesarani
- Department of Agricultural Sciences, University of Sassari, Sassari, Viale Italia, 39, 07100 Sassari, Italy
| | - Alessandro Dal Bosco
- Department of Agricultural, Environmental and Food Science, University of Perugia, Borgo 20 Giugno, 74, 06123 Perugia, Italy
| | - Desiree Bartolini
- Department of Pharmaceutical Sciences, University of Perugia, Via Enrico Dal Pozzo, 06126 Perugia, Italy
| | - Francesco Galli
- Department of Pharmaceutical Sciences, University of Perugia, Via Enrico Dal Pozzo, 06126 Perugia, Italy
| | - Anna Migni
- Department of Life Science and System Biology, Università di Torino, Via Accademia Albertina, 13, 10123 Torino, Italy
| | - Bartolomeo Sebastiani
- Department of Chemistry, Biology and Biotechnology, Via del Giochetto, University of Perugia, 06126 Perugia, Italy
| | - Cinzia Signorini
- Department of Molecular and Developmental Medicine, University of Siena, Policlinico Santa Maria alle Scotte, Viale Bracci 16, 53100 Siena, Italy
| | - Camille Oger
- Institut des Biomolécules Max Mousseron (IBMM), Pôle Chimie Balard Recherche, 1919 route de Mende, CEDEX 05, 34293 Montpellier, France
| | - Giulia Collodel
- Department of Molecular and Developmental Medicine, University of Siena, Policlinico Santa Maria alle Scotte, Viale Bracci 16, 53100 Siena, Italy
| | - Cesare Castellini
- Department of Agricultural, Environmental and Food Science, University of Perugia, Borgo 20 Giugno, 74, 06123 Perugia, Italy
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Liu BY, Zhang BL, Gao DY, Li Q, Xu XY, Shum W. Epididymal epithelial degeneration and lipid metabolism impairment account for male infertility in occludin knockout mice. Front Endocrinol (Lausanne) 2022; 13:1069319. [PMID: 36518247 PMCID: PMC9742356 DOI: 10.3389/fendo.2022.1069319] [Citation(s) in RCA: 1] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Submit a Manuscript] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 10/13/2022] [Accepted: 10/31/2022] [Indexed: 11/29/2022] Open
Abstract
Occludin (OCLN) is a tight junction protein and Ocln deletion mutation causes male infertility in mice. However, the role of OCLN in male reproductive system remains unknown. In this study, we used an interdisciplinary approach to elucidate the underlying mechanism of male infertility in related to OCLN function, including Ocln knockout mice as well as a combined omics analysis and immunofluorescent labelling. Our results showed that the epididymis of Ocln-null mice displayed a phenomenon resembling epididymal sperm granuloma, which occurred especially in the junctional region between caput and corpus epididymidis. Sperm motility and fertilisation capacity were also impaired in these Ocln-null mice, accompanied by enlarged tubules in the proximal regions and degeneration in the distal regions of epididymis. Cellular localization analysis showed that OCLN immunofluorescence was enriched only in the apical junction of epithelial principal cells in the proximal regions of epididymis. Integrative omics analysis revealed the downregulation of gene clusters enriched in acid secretion and fatty acid metabolism in the Ocln-null epididymis, especially the enzymes related to the unsaturated arachidonic acid pathway. The number of proton-pump V-ATPase-expression clear cells, a key player of luminal acidification in the epididymis, declined drastically from prepubertal age before sperm arrival but not in the early postnatal age. This was accompanied by programmed cell death of clear cells and increased pH in the epididymal fluid of OCLN-deficient mice. The lipidomics results showed significantly increased levels of specific DAGs conjugated to unsaturated fatty acids in the Ocln-mutant. Immunofluorescent labelling showed that the arachidonic acid converting enzyme PTGDS and phospholipase PLA2g12a were prominently altered in the principal cells and luminal contents of the Ocln-mutant epididymis. Whereas the carboxylate ester lipase CES1, originally enriched in the WT basal cells, was found upregulated in the Ocln-mutant principal cells. Overall, this study demonstrates that OCLN is essential for maintaining caput-to-corpus epithelial integrity, survival of acid-secreting clear cells, and unsaturated fatty acid catabolism in the mouse epididymis, thereby ensuring sperm maturation and male fertility.
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Affiliation(s)
- Bao Ying Liu
- School of Life Science and Technology, Shanghai Tech University, Shanghai, China
- Center for Excellence in Molecular Cell Science, Shanghai Institute of Biochemistry and Cell Biology, Chinese Academy of Sciences, Shanghai, China
- University of Chinese Academy of Sciences, Beijing, China
| | - Bao Li Zhang
- School of Life Science and Technology, Shanghai Tech University, Shanghai, China
- Center for Excellence in Molecular Cell Science, Shanghai Institute of Biochemistry and Cell Biology, Chinese Academy of Sciences, Shanghai, China
- National Health Commission (NHC) Key Lab of Reproduction Regulation, Shanghai Institute for Biomedical and Pharmaceutical Technologies, Fudan University, Shanghai, China
| | - Da Yuan Gao
- School of Life Science and Technology, Shanghai Tech University, Shanghai, China
- Center for Excellence in Molecular Cell Science, Shanghai Institute of Biochemistry and Cell Biology, Chinese Academy of Sciences, Shanghai, China
- University of Chinese Academy of Sciences, Beijing, China
| | - Qing Li
- Center for Excellence in Molecular Cell Science, Shanghai Institute of Biochemistry and Cell Biology, Chinese Academy of Sciences, Shanghai, China
| | - Xin Yu Xu
- School of Life Science and Technology, Shanghai Tech University, Shanghai, China
- Center for Excellence in Molecular Cell Science, Shanghai Institute of Biochemistry and Cell Biology, Chinese Academy of Sciences, Shanghai, China
- University of Chinese Academy of Sciences, Beijing, China
| | - Winnie Shum
- School of Life Science and Technology, Shanghai Tech University, Shanghai, China
- Center for Excellence in Molecular Cell Science, Shanghai Institute of Biochemistry and Cell Biology, Chinese Academy of Sciences, Shanghai, China
- *Correspondence: Winnie Shum,
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