Ha-ras proteins exhibit GTPase activity: point mutations that activate Ha-ras gene products result in decreased GTPase activity

"Undruggable KRAS": druggable after all

The three RAS genes (HRAS, KRAS, and NRAS) comprise the most frequently mutated oncogene family in cancer. KRAS is the predominant isoform mutated in cancer and is most prevalently mutated in major causes of cancer deaths including lung, colorectal, and pancreatic cancers. Despite extensive academic and industry efforts to target KRAS, it would take nearly four decades before approval of the first clinically effective KRAS inhibitors for the treatment of KRAS mutant lung cancer. We revisit past anti-KRAS strategies and painful lessons learned and then focus on the rapidly evolving landscape of direct RAS inhibitors, resistance mechanisms, and potential combination treatments.

Structural insights into the complex of oncogenic KRas4BG12V and Rgl2, a RalA/B activator

About a quarter of total human cancers carry mutations in Ras isoforms. Accumulating evidence suggests that small GTPases, RalA, and RalB, and their activators, Ral guanine nucleotide exchange factors (RalGEFs), play an essential role in oncogenic Ras-induced signalling. We studied the interaction between human KRas4B and the Ras association (RA) domain of Rgl2 (Rgl2RA), one of the RA-containing RalGEFs. We show that the G12V oncogenic KRas4B mutation changes the interaction kinetics with Rgl2RA The crystal structure of the KRas4BG12V: Rgl2RA complex shows a 2:2 heterotetramer where the switch I and switch II regions of each KRasG12V interact with both Rgl2RA molecules. This structural arrangement is highly similar to the HRasE31K:RALGDSRA crystal structure and is distinct from the well-characterised Ras:Raf complex. Interestingly, the G12V mutation was found at the dimer interface of KRas4BG12V with its partner. Our study reveals a potentially distinct mode of Ras:effector complex formation by RalGEFs and offers a possible mechanistic explanation for how the oncogenic KRas4BG12V hyperactivates the RalA/B pathway.

GAP positions catalytic H-Ras residue Q61 for GTP hydrolysis in molecular dynamics simulations, complicating chemical rescue of Ras deactivation

Functional interaction of Ras signaling proteins with upstream, negative regulatory GTPase activating proteins (GAPs) represents a crucial step in cellular decision making related to growth and survival. Key components of the catalytic transition state for Ras deactivation by GAP-accelerated hydrolysis of Ras-bound guanosine triphosphate (GTP) are thought to include an arginine residue from the GAP (the arginine finger), a glutamine residue from Ras (Q61), and a water molecule that is likely coordinated by Q61 to engage in nucleophilic attack on GTP. Here, we use in-vitro fluorescence experiments to show that 0.1-100 mM concentrations of free arginine, imidazole, and other small nitrogenous molecule fail to accelerate GTP hydrolysis, even in the presence of the catalytic domain of a mutant GAP lacking its arginine finger (R1276A NF1). This result is surprising given that imidazole can chemically rescue enzyme activity in arginine-to-alanine mutant protein tyrosine kinases (PTKs) that share many active site components with Ras/GAP complexes. Complementary all-atom molecular dynamics (MD) simulations reveal that an arginine finger GAP mutant still functions to enhance Ras Q61-GTP interaction, though less extensively than wild-type GAP. This increased Q61-GTP proximity may promote more frequent fluctuations into configurations that enable GTP hydrolysis as a component of the mechanism by which GAPs accelerate Ras deactivation in the face of arginine finger mutations. The failure of small molecule analogs of arginine to chemically rescue catalytic deactivation of Ras is consistent with the idea that the influence of the GAP goes beyond the simple provision of its arginine finger. However, the failure of chemical rescue in the presence of R1276A NF1 suggests that the GAPs arginine finger is either unsusceptible to rescue due to exquisite positioning or that it is involved in complex multivalent interactions. Therefore, in the context of oncogenic Ras proteins with mutations at codons 12 or 13 that inhibit arginine finger penetration toward GTP, drug-based chemical rescue of GTP hydrolysis may have bifunctional chemical/geometric requirements that are more difficult to satisfy than those that result from arginine-to-alanine mutations in other enzymes for which chemical rescue has been demonstrated.

Fluorescence Anisotropy Assay with Guanine Nucleotides Provides Access to Functional Analysis of Gαi1 Proteins

Gα proteins as part of heterotrimeric G proteins are molecular switches essential for G protein-coupled receptor- mediated intracellular signaling. The role of the Gα subunits has been examined for decades with various guanine nucleotides to elucidate the activation mechanism and Gα protein-dependent signal transduction. Several approaches describe fluorescent ligands mimicking the GTP function, yet lack the efficient estimation of the proteins' GTP binding activity and the fraction of active protein. Herein, we report the development of a reliable fluorescence anisotropy-based method to determine the affinity of ligands at the GTP-binding site and to quantify the fraction of active Gαi1 protein. An advanced bacterial expression protocol was applied to produce active human Gαi1 protein, whose GTP binding capability was determined with novel fluorescently labeled guanine nucleotides acting as high-affinity Gαi1 binders compared to the commonly used BODIPY FL GTPγS. This study thus contributes a new method for future investigations of the characterization of Gαi and other Gα protein subunits, exploring their corresponding signal transduction systems and potential for biomedical applications.

Role of protein S-Glutathionylation in cancer progression and development of resistance to anti-cancer drugs

The survival, functioning and proliferation of mammalian cells are highly dependent on the cellular response and adaptation to changes in their redox environment. Cancer cells often live in an altered redox environment due to aberrant neo-vasculature, metabolic reprogramming and dysregulated proliferation. Thus, redox adaptations are critical for their survival. Glutathione plays an essential role in maintaining redox homeostasis inside the cells by binding to redox-sensitive cysteine residues in proteins by a process called S-glutathionylation. S-Glutathionylation not only protects the labile cysteine residues from oxidation, but also serves as a sensor of redox status, and acts as a signal for stimulation of downstream processes and adaptive responses to ensure redox equilibrium. The present review aims to provide an updated overview of the role of the unique redox adaptations during carcinogenesis and cancer progression, focusing on their dependence on S-glutathionylation of specific redox-sensitive proteins involved in a wide range of processes including signalling, transcription, structural maintenance, mitochondrial functions, apoptosis and protein recycling. We also provide insights into the role of S-glutathionylation in the development of resistance to chemotherapy. Finally, we provide a strong rationale for the development of redox targeting drugs for treatment of refractory/resistant cancers.

RAS Function in cancer cells: translating membrane biology and biochemistry into new therapeutics

The three human RAS proteins are mutated and constitutively activated in ∼20% of cancers leading to cell growth and proliferation. For the past three decades, many attempts have been made to inhibit these proteins with little success. Recently; however, multiple methods have emerged to inhibit KRAS, the most prevalently mutated isoform. These methods and the underlying biology will be discussed in this review with a special focus on KRAS-plasma membrane interactions.

Biology, pathology, and therapeutic targeting of RAS

RAS was identified as a human oncogene in the early 1980s and subsequently found to be mutated in nearly 30% of all human cancers. More importantly, RAS plays a central role in driving tumor development and maintenance. Despite decades of effort, there remain no FDA approved drugs that directly inhibit RAS. The prevalence of RAS mutations in cancer and the lack of effective anti-RAS therapies stem from RAS' core role in growth factor signaling, unique structural features, and biochemistry. However, recent advances have brought promising new drugs to clinical trials and shone a ray of hope in the field. Here, we will exposit the details of RAS biology that illustrate its key role in cell signaling and shed light on the difficulties in therapeutically targeting RAS. Furthermore, past and current efforts to develop RAS inhibitors will be discussed in depth.

MicroRNA-Based Therapeutic Strategies for Targeting Mutant and Wild Type RAS in Cancer

MicroRNAs (miRs) have been causally implicated in the progression and development of a wide variety of cancers. miRs modulate the activity of key cell signaling networks by regulating the translation of pathway component proteins. Thus, the pharmacological targeting of miRs that regulate cancer cell signaling networks, either by promoting (using miR-supplementation) or by suppressing (using antisense oligonucleotide-based strategies) miR activity is an area of intense research. The RAS-extracellular signal regulated kinase (ERK) pathway represents a major miR-regulated signaling network that endows cells with some of the classical hallmarks of cancer, and is often inappropriately activated in malignancies by somatic genetic alteration through point mutation or alteration of gene copy number. In addition, recent progress indicates that many tumors may be deficient in GTPase activating proteins (GAPs) due to the collaborative action of oncogenic miRs. Recent studies also suggest that in tumors harboring a mutant RAS allele there is a critical role for wild type RAS proteins in determining overall RAS-ERK pathway activity. Together, these two advances comprise a new opportunity for therapeutic intervention. In this review, we evaluate miR-based therapeutic strategies for modulating RAS-ERK signaling in cancers; in particular for more direct modulation of RAS-GTP levels, with the potential to complement current strategies to yield more durable treatment responses. To this end, we discuss the potential for miR-based therapies focused on three prominent miRs including the pan-RAS regulator let-7 and the GAP regulator comprised of miR-206 and miR-21 (miR-206/21).

Ras history: The saga continues

Although the roots of Ras sprouted from the rich history of retrovirus research, it was the discovery of mutationally activated RAS genes in human cancer in 1982 that stimulated an intensive research effort to understand Ras protein structure, biochemistry and biology. While the ultimate goal has been developing anti-Ras drugs for cancer treatment, discoveries from Ras have laid the foundation for three broad areas of science. First, they focused studies on the origins of cancer to the molecular level, with the subsequent discovery of genes mutated in cancer that now number in the thousands. Second, elucidation of the biochemical mechanisms by which Ras facilitates signal transduction established many of our fundamental concepts of how a normal cell orchestrates responses to extracellular cues. Third, Ras proteins are also founding members of a large superfamily of small GTPases that regulate all key cellular processes and established the versatile role of small GTP-binding proteins in biology. We highlight some of the key findings of the last 28 years.

NMR-based functional profiling of RASopathies and oncogenic RAS mutations

Defects in the RAS small G protein or its associated network of regulatory proteins that disrupt GTPase cycling are a major cause of cancer and developmental RASopathy disorders. Lack of robust functional assays has been a major hurdle in RAS pathway-targeted drug development. We used NMR to obtain detailed mechanistic data on RAS cycling defects conferred by oncogenic mutations, or full-length RASopathy-derived regulatory proteins. By monitoring the conformation of wild-type and oncogenic RAS in real-time, we show that opposing properties integrate with regulators to hyperactivate oncogenic RAS mutants. Q61L and G13D exhibited rapid nucleotide exchange and an unexpected susceptibility to GAP-mediated hydrolysis, in direct contrast with G12V, indicating different approaches must be taken to inhibit these oncoproteins. An NMR methodology was established to directly monitor RAS cycling by intact, multidomain proteins encoded by RASopathy genes in mammalian cell extracts. By measuring GAP activity from tumor cells, we demonstrate how loss of neurofibromatosis type 1 (NF1) increases RAS-GTP levels in NF1-derived cells. We further applied this methodology to profile Noonan Syndrome (NS)-derived SOS1 mutants. Combining NMR with cell-based assays allowed us to differentiate defects in catalysis, allosteric regulation, and membrane targeting of individual mutants, while revealing a membrane-dependent compensatory effect that attenuates dramatic increases in RAS activation shown by Y337C, L550P, and I252T. Our NMR method presents a precise and robust measure of RAS activity, providing mechanistic insights that facilitate discovery of therapeutics targeted against the RAS signaling network.

RAS Mutations and Oncogenesis: Not all RAS Mutations are Created Equally

Mutation in RAS proteins is one of the most common genetic alterations observed in human and experimentally induced rodent cancers. In vivo, oncogenic mutations have been shown to occur at exons 12, 13, and 61, resulting in any 1 of 19 possible point mutations in a given tumor for a specific RAS isoform. While some studies have suggested a possible role of different mutant alleles in determining tumor severity and phenotype, no general consensus has emerged on the oncogenicity of different mutant alleles in tumor formation and progression. Part of this may be due to a lack of a single, signature pathway that shows significant alterations between different mutations. Rather, it is likely that subtle differences in the activation, or lack thereof, of downstream effectors by different RAS mutant alleles may determine the eventual outcome in terms of tumor phenotype. This paper reviews our current understanding of the potential role of different RAS mutations on tumorigenesis, highlights studies in model cell culture and in vivo systems, and discusses the potential of expression array and computational network modeling to dissect out differences in activated RAS genes in conferring a transforming phenotype.

Decreased expression of the RAS-GTPase activating protein RASAL1 is associated with colorectal tumor progression

BACKGROUND & AIMS

Although colorectal cancer (CRC) progression has been associated with alterations in KRAS and RAS signaling, not all CRC cells have KRAS gene mutations. RAS activity is modulated by RAS-GTPase-activating proteins (RASGAPs), so we investigated the role of RASGAPs in CRC progression.

METHODS

The level of RASGAP expression in CRC cells was analyzed using quantitative real-time polymerase chain reaction. The expression of the RAS protein activator like-1 (RASAL1) was examined in clinical colorectal neoplasms using immunohistochemistry. The clinicopathologic (age, sex, and tumor site and grade) and molecular (KRAS gene mutation, as well as CTNNB1 and TP53 expression patterns) factors that could affect RASAL1 expression were examined.

RESULTS

Of 12 RASGAPs examined, expression levels of only RASAL1 decreased in CRC cells; RASAL1 expression decreased in most CRC cells with wild-type KRAS gene but rarely in those with mutant KRAS gene. A transfection assay showed that RASAL1 repressed RAS/mitogen-activated protein kinase signaling in response to growth factor stimulation and reduced proliferation of CRC cells that contained wild-type KRAS gene. RASAL1 expression was detected in 46.9% (30/64) of adenocarcinoma, 17.4% (8/46) of large adenoma, and no (0/42) small adenoma samples. RASAL1 expression levels were correlated with the presence of wild-type KRAS gene in CRC tumor samples (P= .0010), distal location (P= .0066), and abnormal expression of TP53 (P= .0208).

CONCLUSIONS

RASAL1 expression is reduced in CRC cells that contain wild-type KRAS gene. Reductions in RASAL1 expression were detected more frequently in advanced lesions than in small adenomas, suggesting that RASAL1 functions in the progression of benign colonic neoplasms.

Tnk1/Kos1 knockout mice develop spontaneous tumors

Tnk1/Kos1 is a non-receptor protein tyrosine kinase implicated in negatively regulating cell growth in a mechanism requiring its intrinsic catalytic activity. Tnk1/Kos1 null mice were created by homologous recombination by deleting the catalytic domain. Both Tnk1(+/-) and Tnk1(-/-) mice develop spontaneous tumors, including lymphomas and carcinomas, at high rates [27% (14 of 52) and 43% (12 of 28), respectively]. Tnk1/Kos1 expression is silenced in tumors that develop in Tnk1(+/-) mice but not in adjacent uninvolved tissue, and silencing occurs in association with Tnk1 promoter hypermethylation. Tissues and murine embryonic fibroblasts derived from Tnk1/Kos1-null mice exhibit proportionally higher levels of basal and epidermal growth factor-stimulated Ras activation that results from increased Ras-guanine exchange factor (GEF) activity. Mechanistically, Tnk1/Kos1 can directly tyrosine phosphorylate growth factor receptor binding protein 2 (Grb2), which promotes disruption of the Grb2-Sos1 complex that mediates growth factor-induced Ras activation, providing dynamic regulation of Ras GEF activity with suppression of Ras. Thus, Tnk1/Kos1 is a tumor suppressor that functions to down-regulate Ras activity.

Regular cellular distribution of plasmids by oscillating and filament-forming ParA ATPase of plasmid pB171

Centromere-like loci from bacteria segregate plasmids to progeny cells before cell division. The ParA ATPase (a MinD homologue) of the par2 locus from plasmid pB171 forms oscillating helical structures over the nucleoid. Here we show that par2 distributes plasmid foci regularly along the length of the cell even in cells with many plasmids. In vitro, ParA binds ATP and ADP and has a cooperative ATPase activity. Moreover, ParA forms ATP-dependent filaments and cables, suggesting that ParA can provide the mechanical force for the observed regular distribution of plasmids. ParA and ParB interact with each other in a bacterial two-hybrid assay but do not interact with FtsZ, eight other essential cell division proteins or MreB actin. Based on these observations, we propose a simple model for how oscillating ParA filaments can mediate regular cellular distribution of plasmids. The model functions without the involvement of partition-specific host cell receptors and is thus consistent with the striking observation that partition loci can function in heterologous host organisms.

Kos1, a nonreceptor tyrosine kinase that suppresses Ras signaling

Kinase of embryonic stem cells (Kos1), a nonreceptor protein tyrosine kinase (NRPTK), was identified and cloned from differentiating murine embryonic stem cells. Kos1 is localized on mouse chromosome 11 that corresponds to human chromosome 17p13.1 and is homologous to Tnk1, Ack1 and Ack2, making it a new member of the Ack family of NRPTKs. Kos1 is a ubiquitously expressed 47-kDa protein with autotyrosine kinase activity that is developmentally regulated during embryogenesis. Kos1 is also upregulated following IL3 withdrawal from factor-dependent murine NSF/N1.H7 cells that undergo apoptosis, suggesting a role in growth inhibition. Stable overexpression of Kos1 inhibits growth of NIH 3T3 cells, while the kinase-dead Kos1(CN) promotes cell growth in both liquid culture and soft agar. In addition, forced expression of Kos1 inhibits Ras activity in an indirect mechanism that results in the downregulation of the Ras-Raf1-MAPK growth pathway. Furthermore, overexpression of Kos1 in NCI-H82 lung cancer cells that express oncogenic Ha-Ras(G12V) inhibits cell growth under reduced serum (0.5%) conditions in close association with the upregulation of the Ras inhibitor, Rap1A. Collectively, these data support a negative regulatory role for Kos1 in regulating the Ras-Raf1-MAPK growth pathway by a mechanism that requires its autotyrosine kinase activity.

Mouse model for lung tumorigenesis through Cre/lox controlled sporadic activation of the K-Ras oncogene

The onset of human lung cancer occurs through sequential mutations in oncogenes and tumor suppressor genes. Mutations in K-Ras play a prominent role in human non-small cell lung cancer. We have developed a mouse lung tumor model in which K-Ras can be sporadically activated through Cre-lox mediated somatic recombination. Adenoviral mediated delivery of Cre recombinase in lung epithelial cells gave rise to rapid onset of tumorigenesis, yielding pulmonary adenocarcinomas with 100% incidence after a short latency. The lung tumor lesions shared many features with human non-small cell lung cancer. Our data show that sporadic expression of the K-Ras oncogene is sufficient to elicit lung tumorigenesis. Therefore this model has many advantages over conventional transgenic models used thus far.

What we could do now: molecular pathology of colorectal cancer

The contribution of molecular genetics to colorectal cancer has been largely restricted to relatively rare inherited tumours and to the detection of germ line mutations predisposing to these cancers. However, much is now known about the somatic events leading to colorectal cancer in general. Several studies have examined the relation between genetic features and prognosis. The purpose of this article is to review these studies and summarise the current state of this subject. Although many of the published studies are small and inconclusive, it is clear that several different pathways exist for the development of this cancer, and some molecular characteristics seem to correlate with clinicopathological features. At present, studies are confined to evaluating a small number of molecular markers; however, with the advent of methods for the rapid genetic profiling of large numbers of colorectal cancers, it will be possible to evaluate fully the clinical usefulness of a range of colorectal cancer genotypes.

pTAR-encoded proteins in plasmid partitioning

Partition cassettes, essential for the segregational stability of low-copy-number bacterial plasmids, typically encode two autoregulated proteins and an adjacent cis-acting centromere analog to which one or perhaps both proteins bind. The diminutive partition region of pTAR of Agrobacterium spp. was reported to be exceptional, encoding only a single protein, ParA (D. R. Gallie and C. I. Kado, J. Mol. Biol. 193:465-478, 1987). However, resequencing of the region revealed two small downstream genes, parB and orf-84, of which only parB was found to be essential for partitioning in A. tumefaciens. Purified ParA exhibited a weak ATPase activity that was modestly increased by nonspecific DNA. ParB bound in vitro to repeated sequences present in a region, parS, that possesses centromere and operator functions and within which we identified the primary transcription start site by primer extension. In certain respects the Par proteins behave normally in the foreign host Escherichia coli. In E. coli, as in A. tumefaciens, ParB repressed the partition operon; ParA, inactive alone, augmented this repression. Functional similarities between the partition system of pTAR and those of other plasmids and bacteria are prominent, despite differences in size, organization, and amino acid sequence.

Ligand binding is the principal determinant of stability for the p21(H)-ras protein

p21(H-ras) is a 21 kDa, alpha/beta sheet protein that, as a member of the GTPase superfamily, acts as a molecular switch in signal transduction pathways. The essential role of GDP and Mg2+ in maintaining the inactive conformation of p21(H-ras) prompted a study of the influence of these ligands on its structure and stability. The urea-induced equilibrium unfolding transitions for the ternary (p21.GDP.Mg2+), binary (p21.GDP) and apo (p21) forms of p21(H-ras) at pH 7.5 and 25 degreesC were monitored by absorbance and circular dichroism spectroscopies. The cooperative disruptions of the secondary and tertiary structures for all three forms are well-described by a two-state model. Global analysis of the equilibrium unfolding data yields a free energy of folding in the absence of urea and under standard state conditions of 14.1 +/- 0.2 kcal mol-1, 7.5 +/- 0.4 kcal mol-1 and 1.8 +/- 0.2 kcal mol-1 for ternary, binary and apo forms, respectively. Near- and far-UV circular dichroism spectra of these three forms of p21(H-ras) show that removal of the Mg2+ from the ternary complex loosens the aromatic side chain packing but leaves the secondary structure largely unchanged. The removal of both GDP and Mg2+ completely releases the side chain packing but leaves a substantial fraction of the secondary structure intact. These results demonstrate that ligands play a significant role in the stability and structure of the p21.GDP.Mg2+ complex. The amino acid sequence itself only contains sufficient information to direct the formation of a large portion of the secondary structure in a molten globule-like state. Ligand binding is required to drive the formation of specific tertiary structure.

Immunohistochemical analysis of rasGTPase activating protein (rasGAP) in prostate cancer

The ras protooncogene plays a key role in the signal transduction cascade of activated growth factors, and is known to be activated or overexpressed in multiple tumor types, including prostate cancer. rasGTPase activating protein (rasGAP), a major downregulator of ras activity, has been shown to be underexpressed in human trophoblastic tumors, and presumably acts as a tumor suppressor gene product in these neoplasms. To assess the role that rasGAP plays in the development of prostate cancer, we performed immunohistochemical analyses with anti rasGAP antibodies of 125 human prostate tumors from Israel. Staining results were correlated with Gleason grade. In the majority of tumors (99/125-79%) there was either no staining or the tumor and surrounding benign glands had a similar pattern of staining. In up to 16% of the tumors, cytoplasmic, tumor-specific loss of expression was noted, presumably indicative of the role of rasGAP as a tumor suppressor gene. Unexpectedly, in up to 21% of the tumors, nuclear staining was demonstrated, and in about 20% of these, there was an accompanying loss of expression in the non neoplastic cytoplasm. Neither cytoplasmic nor nuclear staining correlated with Gleason grade. These findings of nuclear staining by anti-rasGAP are intriguing, since it is the first time that nuclear translocation of rasGAP is demonstrated, which might indicate that in this subset of tumors, rasGAP acts as a direct acting oncogene. The data indicate that rasGAP may play a dual regulatory role in prostate proliferation and that nuclear expression of it may be associated with malignant transformation of these cells.

Molecular analysis of ras oncogenes in CIN III and in stage I and II invasive squamous cell carcinoma of the uterine cervix

AIM

To examine the prevalence of genital type human papilloma virus (HPV) and mutations at codons 12, 13, and 61 in H, Ki, and N-ras in CIN III and early invasive squamous cell carcinomas of the cervix.

METHODS

Prevalence of HPV was examined in 20 CIN III and 20 stage I and II cervical carcinomas, using non-isotopic in situ hybridisation (NISH) and solution phase polymerase chain reaction (PCR). In addition, mutations at codons 12, 13, and 61 were examined in H, Ki, and N-ras in these CIN III and early invasive squamous cell carcinomas, to assess the prevalence of ras gene point mutations and to define where in the pathobiology of squamous cell carcinoma such events occur. A non-isotopic PCR/RFLP assay was used to define these mutations.

RESULTS

Of the 20 CIN IIIs examined, 19 contained HPV 16 DNA sequences by PCR and NISH. Dual infection was not uncovered. The 20 early (stage I and II) invasive squamous cell carcinomas showed predominant HPV 16 positivity (17/20), with one case HPV 18 positive, confirmed on PCR and NISH. Activating mutations were not identified in any of the CIN III cases. Only one stage I, HPV 16 positive carcinoma showed an activating mutation in H-ras codon 12, which was not present in adjacent normal ectocervical mucosa from the same patient.

CONCLUSIONS

ras Activation does not appear to occur in conjunction with HPV infection, particularly of HPV 16 infected high grade cervical intraepithelial neoplasia, or to occur commonly in early cervical squamous cell carcinoma. The postulated model of HPV linked carcinogenesis suggests malfunctional control of viral transcription as a necessary component of neoplastic progression. It is also clear that host gene alterations are equally necessary for HPV linked carcinogenesis to occur.

Genetic prognostic markers in colorectal cancer

The contribution of molecular genetics to colorectal cancer has been restricted largely to relatively rare inherited tumours and to the detection of germline mutations predisposing to these cancers. However, much is now also known about somatic events leading to colorectal cancer. A number of studies has been undertaken examining possible relations between genetic features and prognostic indices. While many of these studies are small and inconclusive, it is clear that a number of different pathways exist for the development of this cancer and some molecular characteristics correlate with clinicopathological features. With the advent of methods for the rapid genotyping of large numbers of colorectal cancers, it should be possible to evaluate fully the clinical usefulness of colorectal cancer genotypes through multivariate analyses.

Ligand-induced conformational changes in ras p21: a normal mode and energy minimization analysis

A normal mode and energy minimization of ras p21 is used to determine the flexibility of the protein and the origin of the conformational differences between GTP and GDP-bound forms. To preserve the integrity of the structures, a hydration shell of water molecules was included as part of the system. Certain low-frequency modes were found to have high involvement coefficients with the conformational transition between the GTP and GDP-bound structures; the involvement coefficients of some of the modes increase when the gamma-phosphate group is removed. Two unstable modes that appear in the GTP-bound structure upon deletion of the gamma-phosphate group were determined and shown to have dominant contributions in the regions of switch I and switch II; there was also a significant displacement of loop 1. The initial motion in these regions is predicted by the modes to be approximately perpendicular to the direction of the transition from the GTP-bound state to the GDP-bound state. The overall conformational change in the switch I and II regions involves rearrangements of the protein backbone within these regions, rather than rigid body motion. Differences in the low-frequency modes of the GTP and GDP-bound forms appear to play a role in ligand binding. A coupling between the helix alpha3 position and the deletion of the gamma-phosphate group may be involved in the interaction with GAP. The oncogenic mutation G12D leads to a global increase in the rigidity of the protein. Thus, the mutant is likely to have a higher barrier for the conformational change to the inactive form; this would slow the transition and could be related to its oncogenic properties.

Partitioning of plasmid R1. The ParM protein exhibits ATPase activity and interacts with the centromere-like ParR-parC complex

The parA system of plasmid R1 consists of two genes, parM and parR, and a cis-acting centromere-like site parC. The ParM protein exhibits similarity with a superfamily of ATPases that includes actin, hsp70 and hexokinase. ParM was purified to near-homogeneity and assayed for in vitro ATPase activity. The wild-type ParM protein was found to posses ATPase activity. Mutant ParM derivatives that exhibited decreased in vitro ATPase activity were non-functional in vivo, indicating that the ATP turnover by ParM is essential for correct plasmid partitioning. The mutant ParM proteins exhibited trans-dominance, suggesting that ParM participates as a structural component of the partitioning apparatus. The ATPase activity of ParM was activated slightly by the presence of ParR and activated to a much greater extent when ParR was bound to the centromere-like parC region. An analysis using the yeast two-hybrid system indicated that ParM and ParR interact, and demonstrated that ParR interacts with itself. Thus our results suggest a direct interaction of ParM and ParR at the natural partition site parC, and that the ATPase activity of ParM is specifically stimulated by this interaction.

Decreased expression of Ras GTPase activating protein in human trophoblastic tumors

The normally developing placenta undergoes extensive but regulated noninvasive cellular proliferation. Various proto-oncogenes and growth factors have been associated with the regulation of trophoblastic placental growth. Activation of some oncogenes and altered expression of growth factors have been demonstrated in trophoblastic tumors (hydatidiform mole and choriocarcinoma). The ras proto-oncogene plays a key role in the signal transduction cascade of activated growth factors, and is known to be activated or overexpressed in multiple tumor types. Ras GTPase activating protein (RasGAP), a major down-regulator of ras activity, is present at high levels in placenta. To assess the role that Ras-GAP plays in the development of trophoblastic tumors, we performed immunohistochemical analyses with anti RasGAP antibodies of normal placentas, hydatidiform moles, invasive moles, and malignant choriocarcinomas. Normal placentas and noninvasive hydatidiform mole displayed intense positive staining confined to trophoblasts, whereas no staining was observed in the trophoblasts of invasive moles or choriocarcinomas. Thus, there was an inverse correlation between expression levels of RasGAP protein and the invasive potential and malignant phenotype in human trophoblastic tumors. The data indicate that RasGAP may play a regulatory role in trophoblast proliferation and that abolishing its activity may be associated with malignant transformation of these cells.

Expression of the erb B oncogene in the Morris hepatoma 7777

Altered expression of protooncogenes/oncogenes is believed to be involved in hepatocarcinogenesis of the chemically induced, transplantable Morris hepatoma 7777. We compared the mRNA expression of c-N-ras and v-erb B mRNA of normal rat liver with that of Morris hepatoma 7777 using Northern blot analysis and in situ hybridization. Northern blot analysis revealed a strong overexpression of the v-erb B related mRNA, while the c-N-ras mRNA was only slightly increased. In situ hybridization using a c-N-ras mRNA probe also showed only a slightly increased number of silver grains in the hepatoma cells compared with normal rat liver. On the other hand, the v-erb B related mRNA was strongly overexpressed in the hepatoma cells, while the connective-tissue capsule, the blood vessels, blood cells and the necrotic foci did not show an elevated v-erb B related gene mRNA expression. Similar results were obtained in liver metastases. The detectable v-erb B hybridization signal was lost by pretreatment with RNase A. We conclude that the c-N-ras gene is of minor importance in the chemically induced, transplantable Morris hepatoma 7777, while the increased expression of the v-erb B related mRNA is due to a selection of ligand-independent tyrosine kinase activity.

Mechanism of GTP hydrolysis by p21N-ras catalyzed by GAP: studies with a fluorescent GTP analogue

The mechanism of the hydrolysis of GTP by p21N-ras and its activation by the catalytic domain of p120 GTPase activating protein (GAP) have been studied using a combination of chemical and fluorescence measurements with the fluorescent GTP analogue, 2'(3')-O-(N-methylanthraniloyl)GTP (mantGTP). Since the concentration of active p21 is important in these measurements, various assays for both total protein and active p21 were investigated. All assays gave good agreement except the filter binding assay of [3H]-GDP bound to p21, which gave values of 35-40% compared to the other methods. Concentrations of p21 were thus based on the absorbance of the mant-chromophore of the p21-mant-nucleotide complexes. The rate constants of the elementary steps of the p21 intrinsic GTPase activity and the GAP activated activity were similar between GTP and mantGTP. Incubation of a stoichiometric complex of p21.mantGTP results in a biphasic decrease in fluorescence. The second phase occurs with the same rate constant as the cleavage step and is accelerated by GAP. No other steps of the mechanism are affected by GAP. Incubation of a stoichiometric complex of p21.mantGpp[NH]p also results in a biphasic decrease in fluorescence even though cleavage does not occur. This is interpreted that the cleavage step of p21.GTP is preceded by and controlled by an isomerization of the p21.GTP complex. GAP accelerates the rate constant of the second fluorescence phase occurring with p21.mantGpp[NH]p. This result shows that GAP accelerates the proposed isomerization which limits GTP cleavage rather than the cleavage step itself.

Escherichia coli cell division protein FtsZ is a guanine nucleotide binding protein

FtsZ is an essential cell division protein in Escherichia coli that forms a ring structure at the division site under cell cycle control. The dynamic nature of the FtsZ ring suggests possible similarities to eukaryotic filament forming proteins such as tubulin. In this study we have determined that FtsZ is a GTP/GDP binding protein with GTPase activity. A short segment of FtsZ is homologous to a segment in tubulin believed to be involved in the interaction between tubulin and guanine nucleotides. A lethal ftsZ mutation, ftsZ3 (Rsa), that leads to an amino acid alteration in this homologous segment decreased GTP binding and hydrolysis, suggesting that interaction with GTP is essential for ftsZ function.

A sensitive restriction fragment length polymorphism method to detect CAA-->AAA mutations at codon 61 of Ha-ras

A rapid and sensitive assay was developed to detect CAA-->AAA mutations at codon 61 of Ha-ras. The region surrounding codon 61 was amplified by the polymerase chain reaction (PCR) using one primer containing a mismatch at the second position of codon 60. Using this primer creates an Msel restriction enzyme site if codon 61 carries the C.G-->A.T transversion. An aliquot of the second PCR primer was 5'-end-labeled with 32P to increase the sensitivity of detection of the PCR product. After cleavage with Msel, DNA was electrophoresed on a nondenaturing polyacrylamide gel, and the products were visualized by autoradiography. The sensitivity of this assay was such that the mutation could be detected when present in only one of 200 alleles. DNA samples from spontaneous Crl:CD-1(ICR)BR mouse liver tumors were analyzed using this method. Nine of 38 samples contained the mutation, and in one of those nine, the mutation had not been previously detected by either direct sequencing of tumor DNA or by sequencing the DNA from NIH 3T3 cells transfected with the tumor DNA.

Effects of ions on the intrinsic activities of c-H-ras protein p21. A comparison with elongation factor Tu

The influence of the ionic environment on the intrinsic GTPase activity and the guanine-nucleotide interaction of Ha-ras protein p21 were studied in various experimental conditions and compared with the behaviour of elongation factor (EF) Tu. To this purpose, nucleotide-free p21 was prepared, which is much more stable than by any other reported method. Specific differences between p21 and EF-Tu were found in the action of divalent anions which strongly enhance the dissociation rate of p21.GDP without affecting that of EF-Tu. Unlike EF-Tu, the GTPase activity of p21 is only slightly dependent on the presence and concentration of monovalent cations. The concentrations of Mg2+ influencing the dissociation rate of the p21.GDP complex are much higher than for the intrinsic GTPase activity, an effect also observed for EF-Tu. These results point to two distinct roles of Mg2+: as a conformational regulator of the interaction with the substrate and as a key element for the hydrolysis of GTP. The GTPase activity of p21 is not affected by changes in pH over the range 6-9.2, different from that of EF-Tu. However, stabilization by kirromycin confers a pH independence to the GTPase of EF-Tu in the pH range 6.5-10, suggesting that the bell-shaped behaviour of this activity in the absence of the antibiotic is due to denaturation. This implies similar properties in the catalytic mechanism of these two guanine-nucleotide-binding proteins.

The biochemistry of ras p21

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A synthetic peptide corresponding to a sequence in the GTPase activating protein inhibits p21ras stimulation and promotes guanine nucleotide exchange

Amino acid sequence homology between the GTPase Activating Protein (GAP) and the GTP-binding regulatory protein, Gs alpha, suggests that a specific region of GAP primary structure (residues 891-898) may be involved in its stimulation of p21ras GTP hydrolytic activity (McCormick, F. [1989] Nature 340, 678-679). A peptide, designated p891, corresponding to GAP residues 891-906 (M891RTRVVSGFVFLRLIC906) was synthesized and tested for its ability to inhibit GAP-stimulated p21ras GTPase activity. At a concentration of 25 microM, p891 inhibited GAP activity approximately 50%. Unexpectedly, p891 also stimulated GTP binding to p21N-ras independent of GAP. This stimulation correlated with an enhancement of p21N-ras.GDP dissociation; an approximate 15-fold increase in the presence of 10 microM p891. In contrast, dissociation of the p21N-ras.GTP gamma S complex was unaffected by 10 microM p891. The p21N-ras.GDP complex was unresponsive to 100 microM mastoparan, a peptide toxin shown previously to accelerate GDP dissociation from the guanine nucleotide regulatory proteins, Gi and Go. p21H-ras, as well as the two p21H-ras effector mutants, Ala-38, and Ala-35, Leu-36, also exhibited increased rates of GDP dissociation in the presence of p891. Also tested were three ras-related GTP-binding proteins; rap, G25K and rac. The rap.-GDP complex was unaffected by 10 microM p891. Dissociation of the G25K- and rac.GDP complexes were enhanced slightly; approximately 1.3- and 1.8-fold over control, respectively. Thus, the inhibitory effect of p891 on GAP stimulation of p21ras suggests that amino acids within the region 891-906 of GAP may be essential for interaction with p21ras. In addition, p891 independently affects the nucleotide exchange properties of p21ras.

Ras-related genes in Dictyostelium discoideum

Dictyostelium discoideum, like other eukaryotes, has been shown to express several ras-related genes. Two gene products, Ddras and DdrasG, are highly conserved relative to the human ras proteins. Ddras is expressed at the pseudoplasmodial stage of development, whereas DdrasG is expressed in vegetative cells and during early development. In addition, Dictyostelium possesses three ras-related genes, SAS1, SAS2 and Ddrap1, whose gene products are only partially conserved relative to those of the ras genes. The expression of these three genes is also developmentally regulated.

Elevation of glucose transporter, c-myc, and transin RNA levels by Ha-rasT24 is independent of its effect on the cell cycle

Elevation of the steady-state mRNA levels of glucose transporter and c-myc are among the earliest changes in gene expression observed after Ha-rasT24 stimulation of Rat-1 fibroblasts to enter the cell cycle. Since the expression of these genes may be the result of either increased cell proliferation or a specific response to rasT24, we evaluated the expression of glucose transporter and c-myc and their induction during the cell cycle in both parental Rat-1 cells and cell lines bearing a metallothionein rasT24 fusion gene (MTrasT24). We showed that, although levels of glucose transporter and c-myc mRNAs in Rat-1 cells underwent a transient increase within hours of the addition of serum, epidermal growth factor, or 12-O-tetradecanoylphorbol-13-acetate to quiescent (G0) cells, the levels of glucose transporter and c-myc mRNA otherwise remained constant throughout the normal cell cycle. In cells carrying MTrasT24 (MR5 cells), induction of rasT24 expression by ZnSO4 led to a rapid induction of glucose transporter and c-myc mRNA expression in both quiescent (density-arrested) and G1/S-synchronized (aphidicolin-blocked) cells. These increases exceeded the constitutive levels expressed in rapidly proliferating Rat-1 cells, indicating that the ras oncogene has an effect on these genes that is independent of growth status. In addition, the transin gene, which is not expressed in proliferating Rat-1 cells in the continuous presence of serum growth factors, was also induced after increased expression of the mutant ras gene. These results suggest that the induction of glucose transporter, c-myc, and transin is the direct result of rasT24-mediated alterations in cellular gene expression and is distinct from normal cell-cycle events.

The H-ras oncogene product p21 and prognosis in human breast cancer

The protein product of the H-ras oncogene, p21, has been measured semiquantitatively in solubilized particulate fractions of 160 primary tumours from patients presenting without evidence of distant metastatic breast cancer. Levels of p21 have then been related to factors of established prognostic significance, and to clinical outcome after primary treatment in terms of disease-free interval and survival times. p21 was detected by Western blotting in all tumour fractions, but amounts varied markedly between different tumours. There was no significant relationship between levels of p21 and the menopausal status of the patient, tumour oestrogen receptors, grade, and clinical stage. However, there was a significant trend for tumours to be associated with lymph node involvement as p21 was increasingly expressed. Elevated levels of p21 were also significantly related to early disease recurrence and death from cancer. Multivariate stepwise analysis showed that both p21 and lymph node status were independent statistically significant factors for disease recurrence and survival, and that no other parameter was significant for clinical outcome after adjustment for p21 and lymph node status. These results indicate that tumour levels of p21 are an important prognostic variable in patients with early breast cancer.

Identification and preliminary characterization of protein-cysteine farnesyltransferase

Ras proteins must be isoprenylated at a conserved cysteine residue near the carboxyl terminus (Cys-186 in mammalian Ras p21 proteins) in order to exert their biological activity. Previous studies indicate that an intermediate in the mevalonate pathway, most likely farnesyl pyrophosphate, is the donor of this isoprenyl group. Inhibition of mevalonate synthesis reverts the abnormal phenotypes induced by the mutant RAS2Val-19 gene in Saccharomyces cerevisiae and blocks the maturation of Xenopus oocytes induced by an oncogenic Ras p21 protein of human origin. These results have raised the possibility of using inhibitors of the mevalonate pathway to block the transforming properties of ras oncogenes. Unfortunately, mevalonate is a precursor of various end products essential to mammalian cells, such as dolichols, ubiquinones, heme A, and cholesterol. In this study, we describe an enzymatic activity(ies) capable of catalyzing the farnesylation of unprocessed Ras p21 proteins in vitro at the correct (Cys-186) residue. This farnesylating activity is heat-labile, requires Mg2+ or Mn2+ ions, is linear with time and with enzyme concentration, and is present in all mammalian cell lines and tissues tested. Gel filtration analysis of a partially purified preparation of protein farnesyltransferase revealed two peaks of activity at 250-350 kDa and 80-130 kDa. Availability of an in vitro protein farnesyltransferase assay should be useful in screening for potential inhibitors of ras oncogene function that will not interfere with other aspects of the mevalonate pathway.

Regulated expression and phosphorylation of the 23-26-kDa ras protein in the sponge Geodia cydonium

We have cloned, sequenced and examined the sponge Geodia cydonium cDNA encoding a protein homologous to ras proteins. The sponge ras protein has a more conserved N-terminal region and a less conserved C-terminal region, especially in comparison to Dictyostelium discoideum; the similarity to human c-Ha-ras-1 and to Saccharomyces cerevisiae is less pronounced. The sponge ras cDNA comprises five TAG triplets; at the translational level these UAG termination codons are suppressed by a Gln-tRNA. The sponge ras protein was isolated and partially purified (23-26 kDa) and found to undergo phosphorylation at a threonine moiety, when dissociated cells were incubated in the presence of a homologous aggregation factor and insulin. Insulin-mediated phosphorylation of the ras protein resulted in a decrease in its Kd with GTP from 2 microM to 80 nM. The activated ras protein displayed high GTPase activity if the partially purified protein was incubated with homologous lectin and lectin receptor molecules. These results suggest that in the sponge, ras is activated by the insulin/insulin(insulin-like)-receptor system. This transition enables the ras protein to interact with the lectin-receptor/lectin complex, a process which may ultimately lead to an initiation of an intracellular signal-transduction chain.

Transforming ras proteins accelerate hormone-induced maturation and stimulate cyclic AMP phosphodiesterase in Xenopus oocytes

Transforming Harvey (Ha) ras oncogene products accelerated the time course of Xenopus oocyte maturation induced by insulin, insulinlike growth factor 1, or progesterone. The transforming constructs, [Val-12]Ha p21 and [Val-12, Thr-59]Ha p21, displayed equal potency and efficacy in their abilities to accelerate the growth peptide-induced response. Normal Ha p21 was only 60% as powerful and one-fifth as potent as the mutants containing valine in the 12 position. In contrast, two nontransforming constructs, [Val-12, Ala-35, Leu-36, Thr-59]Ha p21 and [Val-12, Thr-59]Ha(term-174) p21, had no effect on the time course of hormone-induced maturation. Effects of the transforming ras proteins on hormone-induced maturation correlated with their abilities to stimulate in vivo phosphodiesterase activity measured after microinjection of 200 microM cyclic [3H] AMP. When p21 injection followed 90 min of insulin treatment, there was no increase in phosphodiesterase activity over that measured after hormone treatment or p21 injection alone, but additive effects of p21 and insulin on enzyme activity were observed during the first 90 min of insulin treatment. Even though normal Ha p21 and transforming [Val-12, Thr-59]Ha p21 stimulated oocyte phosphodiesterase to equal levels when coinjected with substrate at the initiation of the in vivo assay, the transforming protein elicited a more sustained stimulation of enzyme activity. These results suggest that stimulation of a cyclic AMP phosphodiesterase activity associated with insulin-induced maturation is involved in the growth-promoting actions of ras oncogene products in Xenopus oocytes.

Transforming ras proteins accelerate hormone-induced maturation and stimulate cyclic AMP phosphodiesterase in Xenopus oocytes

Transforming Harvey (Ha) ras oncogene products accelerated the time course of Xenopus oocyte maturation induced by insulin, insulinlike growth factor 1, or progesterone. The transforming constructs, [Val-12]Ha p21 and [Val-12, Thr-59]Ha p21, displayed equal potency and efficacy in their abilities to accelerate the growth peptide-induced response. Normal Ha p21 was only 60% as powerful and one-fifth as potent as the mutants containing valine in the 12 position. In contrast, two nontransforming constructs, [Val-12, Ala-35, Leu-36, Thr-59]Ha p21 and [Val-12, Thr-59]Ha(term-174) p21, had no effect on the time course of hormone-induced maturation. Effects of the transforming ras proteins on hormone-induced maturation correlated with their abilities to stimulate in vivo phosphodiesterase activity measured after microinjection of 200 microM cyclic [3H] AMP. When p21 injection followed 90 min of insulin treatment, there was no increase in phosphodiesterase activity over that measured after hormone treatment or p21 injection alone, but additive effects of p21 and insulin on enzyme activity were observed during the first 90 min of insulin treatment. Even though normal Ha p21 and transforming [Val-12, Thr-59]Ha p21 stimulated oocyte phosphodiesterase to equal levels when coinjected with substrate at the initiation of the in vivo assay, the transforming protein elicited a more sustained stimulation of enzyme activity. These results suggest that stimulation of a cyclic AMP phosphodiesterase activity associated with insulin-induced maturation is involved in the growth-promoting actions of ras oncogene products in Xenopus oocytes.

Inhibition of serum- and ras-stimulated DNA synthesis by antibodies to phospholipase C

Several immunologically distinct isozymes of inositol phospholipid-specific phospholipase C (PLC) have been purified from bovine brain. Murine NIH 3T3 fibroblasts were found to express PLC-gamma, but the expression of PLC-beta was barely detectable by radioimmunoassay or protein immunoblot. A mixture of monoclonal antibodies was identified that neutralizes the biological activity of both endogenous and injected purified PLC-gamma. When co-injected with oncogenic Ras protein or PLC-gamma, this mixture of antibodies inhibited the induction of DNA synthesis that characteristically results from the injection of these proteins into quiescent 3T3 cells. However, when oncogenic Ras protein or PLC-gamma was co-injected with a neutralizing monoclonal antibody to Ras, only the DNA synthesis induced by the Ras protein was inhibited--that induced by PLC was unaffected. These results suggest that the Ras protein is an upstream effector of PLC activity in phosphoinositide-specific signal transduction and that PLC-gamma activity is necessary for Ras-mediated induction of DNA synthesis.

No evidence for the mutation of ras gene in psoriatic epidermis

The ras oncogene product, ras p21, is structurally homologous to guanine nucleotide-binding proteins, which play an important role in transmembrane signaling systems. Recently, enhanced expression of ras p21 has been reported in the psoriatic hyperproliferative epidermis, in which various alterations in the transmembrane signaling systems are well established. Since ras-proto-oncogenes are known to be activated by a single point mutation that is restricted to the amino acid residues either at position 12, 61 or in their vicinity, we investigated whether the increased expression of ras p21 in psoriatic epidermis is accompanied by mutation of the ras gene at these sites. The results obtained using samples from five cases of psoriasis revealed no evidence for such mutation. Although the psoriatic epidermis may exhibit enhanced expression of ras p21, this is apparently not accompanied by ras mutation.

A single point mutation of Ala-25 to Asp in the 14,000-Mr envelope protein of vaccinia virus induces a size change that leads to the small plaque size phenotype of the virus

The molecular defect responsible for a structural and functional abnormality of the 14,000-molecular-weight (14K) envelope protein of vaccinia virus has been identified. Through DNA sequence analysis of the entire 14K gene from wild-type vaccinia virus and three vaccinia virus mutants, a single base change of C to A was found that resulted in the substitution of Asp for Ala-25. This mutation is responsible for protein size abnormality, as documented by cell-free translation in a rabbit reticulocyte lysate of in vitro mRNA transcripts. In addition, through marker rescue experiments we show that this mutation is responsible for the small plaque size phenotype of vaccinia virus mutants. The structural consequence of the point mutation is a possible turn in an alpha-helix domain with destabilization of a hydrophobic interaction at the N terminus, resulting in monomers and trimers of vaccinia virus 14K protein with decreased electrophoretic mobilities. The functional consequence of the point mutation is a reduction in virulence of the virus.