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Rana P, Hollingshead B, Mangipudy R. Rethinking the necessity of long-term toxicity studies for biotherapeutics using weight of evidence assessment. Regul Toxicol Pharmacol 2024; 153:105710. [PMID: 39332576 DOI: 10.1016/j.yrtph.2024.105710] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 08/08/2024] [Revised: 09/23/2024] [Accepted: 09/25/2024] [Indexed: 09/29/2024]
Abstract
The registration of biotherapeutics for chronic indications requires 6-month toxicity studies. However, extensive experience has shown that the non-clinical safety profiles of biotherapeutics are generally predictable. This suggests that conducting multiple studies, especially a 6-month study may not be necessary. In a meta-analysis of biologics developed for non-oncology indications over last 25 years at Pfizer, we compared organ system findings between short-term (1-3 month) and long-term (6-month) animal studies. Our goal was to determine if there were differences in the safety profiles between the two study durations and their relevance to human risk assessment. Our analysis revealed that most clinically relevant toxicities could be detected in shorter-term studies (87%; 26/30 programs). This suggests either an undifferentiated safety profile between short-and long-term studies, or anticipated toxicities based on the modality, such as immunogenicity or exaggerated pharmacology. However, for 4 out of 30 programs (13%), long-term studies did identify either potential new toxicities or more severe manifestation of exaggerated pharmacology, leading to modifications in clinical trial designs and human risk assessment. Our experience suggests that 3-month toxicity studies may be sufficient to support late-stage clinical development for a majority of standard biotherapeutic programs. This pragmatic and science-based approach aligns with the goal of advancing 3R's initiatives in nonclinical safety assessment.
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Affiliation(s)
- Payal Rana
- Pfizer Inc., Drug Safety Research and Development, 445 Eastern Point Road, Groton, CT, 06340, USA.
| | - Brett Hollingshead
- Pfizer Inc., Drug Safety Research and Development, 1 Portland St, Cambridge, MA, 02139, USA
| | - Raja Mangipudy
- Pfizer Inc., Drug Safety Research and Development, 445 Eastern Point Road, Groton, CT, 06340, USA
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2
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Herb M, Schatz V, Hadrian K, Hos D, Holoborodko B, Jantsch J, Brigo N. Macrophage variants in laboratory research: most are well done, but some are RAW. Front Cell Infect Microbiol 2024; 14:1457323. [PMID: 39445217 PMCID: PMC11496307 DOI: 10.3389/fcimb.2024.1457323] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 06/30/2024] [Accepted: 09/06/2024] [Indexed: 10/25/2024] Open
Abstract
Macrophages play a pivotal role in the innate immune response. While their most characteristic function is phagocytosis, it is important not to solely characterize macrophages by this activity. Their crucial roles in body development, homeostasis, repair, and immune responses against pathogens necessitate a broader understanding. Macrophages exhibit remarkable plasticity, allowing them to modify their functional characteristics in response to the tissue microenvironment (tissue type, presence of pathogens or inflammation, and specific signals from neighboring cells) swiftly. While there is no single defined "macrophage" entity, there is a diverse array of macrophage types because macrophage ontogeny involves the differentiation of progenitor cells into tissue-resident macrophages, as well as the recruitment and differentiation of circulating monocytes in response to tissue-specific cues. In addition, macrophages continuously sense and respond to environmental cues and tissue conditions, adjusting their functional and metabolic states accordingly. Consequently, it is of paramount importance to comprehend the heterogeneous origins and functions of macrophages employed in in vitro studies, as each available in vitro macrophage model is associated with specific sets of strengths and limitations. This review centers its attention on a comprehensive comparison between immortalized mouse macrophage cell lines and primary mouse macrophages. It provides a detailed analysis of the strengths and weaknesses inherent in these in vitro models. Finally, it explores the subtle distinctions between diverse macrophage cell lines, offering insights into numerous factors beyond the model type that can profoundly influence macrophage function.
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Affiliation(s)
- Marc Herb
- Institute for Medical Microbiology, Immunology and Hygiene, Faculty of Medicine and University Hospital Cologne, University of Cologne, Cologne, Germany
| | - Valentin Schatz
- Institute for Medical Microbiology, Immunology and Hygiene, Faculty of Medicine and University Hospital Cologne, University of Cologne, Cologne, Germany
| | - Karina Hadrian
- Department of Ophthalmology, Faculty of Medicine and University Hospital Cologne, University of Cologne, Cologne, Germany
| | - Deniz Hos
- Department of Ophthalmology, Faculty of Medicine and University Hospital Cologne, University of Cologne, Cologne, Germany
| | - Bohdan Holoborodko
- Institute of Clinical Microbiology and Hygiene, University Hospital Regensburg and University of Regensburg, Regensburg, Germany
| | - Jonathan Jantsch
- Institute for Medical Microbiology, Immunology and Hygiene, Faculty of Medicine and University Hospital Cologne, University of Cologne, Cologne, Germany
| | - Natascha Brigo
- Institute for Medical Microbiology, Immunology and Hygiene, Faculty of Medicine and University Hospital Cologne, University of Cologne, Cologne, Germany
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3
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Thierry GR, Baudon EM, Bijnen M, Bellomo A, Lagueyrie M, Mondor I, Simonnet L, Carrette F, Fenouil R, Keshvari S, Hume DA, Dombrowicz D, Bajenoff M. Non-classical monocytes scavenge the growth factor CSF1 from endothelial cells in the peripheral vascular tree to ensure survival and homeostasis. Immunity 2024; 57:2108-2121.e6. [PMID: 39089257 DOI: 10.1016/j.immuni.2024.07.005] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 09/22/2023] [Revised: 04/15/2024] [Accepted: 07/09/2024] [Indexed: 08/03/2024]
Abstract
Unlike sessile macrophages that occupy specialized tissue niches, non-classical monocytes (NCMs)-circulating phagocytes that patrol and cleanse the luminal surface of the vascular tree-are characterized by constant movement. Here, we examined the nature of the NCM's nurturing niche. Expression of the growth factor CSF1 on endothelial cells was required for survival of NCMs in the bloodstream. Lack of endothelial-derived CSF1 did not affect blood CSF1 concentration, suggesting that NCMs rely on scavenging CSF1 present on endothelial cells. Deletion of the transmembrane chemokine and adhesion factor CX3CL1 on endothelial cells impaired NCM survival. Mechanistically, endothelial-derived CX3CL1 and integrin subunit alpha L (ITGAL) facilitated the uptake of CSF1 by NCMs. CSF1 was produced by all tissular endothelial cells, and deletion of Csf1 in all endothelial cells except bone marrow sinusoids impaired NCM survival, arguing for a model where the full vascular tree acts as a niche for NCMs and where survival and patrolling function are connected.
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Affiliation(s)
- Guilhem R Thierry
- Centre d'Immunologie Marseille-Luminy, Aix Marseille Univ UM 2, CNRS UMR 7280, INSERM U1104, 13009 Marseille, France
| | - Elisa M Baudon
- Centre d'Immunologie Marseille-Luminy, Aix Marseille Univ UM 2, CNRS UMR 7280, INSERM U1104, 13009 Marseille, France
| | - Mitchell Bijnen
- Centre d'Immunologie Marseille-Luminy, Aix Marseille Univ UM 2, CNRS UMR 7280, INSERM U1104, 13009 Marseille, France
| | - Alicia Bellomo
- Centre d'Immunologie Marseille-Luminy, Aix Marseille Univ UM 2, CNRS UMR 7280, INSERM U1104, 13009 Marseille, France
| | - Marine Lagueyrie
- Centre d'Immunologie Marseille-Luminy, Aix Marseille Univ UM 2, CNRS UMR 7280, INSERM U1104, 13009 Marseille, France
| | - Isabelle Mondor
- Centre d'Immunologie Marseille-Luminy, Aix Marseille Univ UM 2, CNRS UMR 7280, INSERM U1104, 13009 Marseille, France
| | - Louise Simonnet
- Centre d'Immunologie Marseille-Luminy, Aix Marseille Univ UM 2, CNRS UMR 7280, INSERM U1104, 13009 Marseille, France
| | - Florent Carrette
- Centre d'Immunologie Marseille-Luminy, Aix Marseille Univ UM 2, CNRS UMR 7280, INSERM U1104, 13009 Marseille, France
| | - Romain Fenouil
- Centre d'Immunologie Marseille-Luminy, Aix Marseille Univ UM 2, CNRS UMR 7280, INSERM U1104, 13009 Marseille, France
| | - Sahar Keshvari
- Mater Research Institute, University of Queensland, Translational Research Institute, Brisbane, QLD 4102, Australia
| | - David A Hume
- Mater Research Institute, University of Queensland, Translational Research Institute, Brisbane, QLD 4102, Australia
| | - David Dombrowicz
- University Lille, Inserm, CHU Lille, Institut Pasteur de Lille, U1011-EGID, 59000 Lille, France
| | - Marc Bajenoff
- Centre d'Immunologie Marseille-Luminy, Aix Marseille Univ UM 2, CNRS UMR 7280, INSERM U1104, 13009 Marseille, France.
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4
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Keshvari S, Masson JJR, Ferrari-Cestari M, Bodea LG, Nooru-Mohamed F, Tse BWC, Sokolowski KA, Batoon L, Patkar OL, Sullivan MA, Ebersbach H, Stutz C, Parton RG, Summers KM, Pettit AR, Hume DA, Irvine KM. Reversible expansion of tissue macrophages in response to macrophage colony-stimulating factor (CSF1) transforms systemic lipid and carbohydrate metabolism. Am J Physiol Endocrinol Metab 2024; 326:E149-E165. [PMID: 38117267 DOI: 10.1152/ajpendo.00347.2023] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Submit a Manuscript] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 10/26/2023] [Revised: 12/01/2023] [Accepted: 12/17/2023] [Indexed: 12/21/2023]
Abstract
Macrophages regulate metabolic homeostasis in health and disease. Macrophage colony-stimulating factor (CSF1)-dependent macrophages contribute to homeostatic control of the size of the liver. This study aimed to determine the systemic metabolic consequences of elevating circulating CSF1. Acute administration of a CSF1-Fc fusion protein to mice led to monocytosis, increased resident tissue macrophages in the liver and all major organs, and liver growth. These effects were associated with increased hepatic glucose uptake and extensive mobilization of body fat. The impacts of CSF1 on macrophage abundance, liver size, and body composition were rapidly reversed to restore homeostasis. The effects of CSF1 on metabolism were independent of several known endocrine regulators and did not impact the physiological fasting response. Analysis using implantable telemetry in metabolic cages revealed progressively reduced body temperature and physical activity with no change in diurnal food intake. These results demonstrate the existence of a dynamic equilibrium between CSF1, the mononuclear phagocyte system, and control of liver-to-body weight ratio, which in turn controls systemic metabolic homeostasis. This novel macrophage regulatory axis has the potential to promote fat mobilization, without changes in appetence, which may have novel implications for managing metabolic syndrome.NEW & NOTEWORTHY CSF1 administration expands tissue macrophages, which transforms systemic metabolism. CSF1 drives fat mobilization and glucose uptake to support liver growth. The effects of CSF1 are independent of normal hormonal metabolic regulation. The effects of CSF1 are rapidly reversible, restoring homeostatic body composition. CSF1-dependent macrophages and liver size are coupled in a dynamic equilibrium.
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Affiliation(s)
- Sahar Keshvari
- Mater Research Institute-The University of Queensland, Translational Research Institute, Brisbane, Queensland, Australia
| | - Jesse J R Masson
- Mater Research Institute-The University of Queensland, Translational Research Institute, Brisbane, Queensland, Australia
| | - Michelle Ferrari-Cestari
- Mater Research Institute-The University of Queensland, Translational Research Institute, Brisbane, Queensland, Australia
| | - Liviu-Gabriel Bodea
- Clem Jones Centre for Ageing and Dementia Research, Queensland Brain Institute, The University of Queensland, Brisbane, Queensland, Australia
| | - Fathima Nooru-Mohamed
- Mater Research Institute-The University of Queensland, Translational Research Institute, Brisbane, Queensland, Australia
| | - Brian W C Tse
- Preclinical Imaging Facility, Translational Research Institute, Brisbane, Queensland, Australia
| | - Kamil A Sokolowski
- Preclinical Imaging Facility, Translational Research Institute, Brisbane, Queensland, Australia
| | - Lena Batoon
- Mater Research Institute-The University of Queensland, Translational Research Institute, Brisbane, Queensland, Australia
| | - Omkar L Patkar
- Mater Research Institute-The University of Queensland, Translational Research Institute, Brisbane, Queensland, Australia
| | - Mitchell A Sullivan
- Mater Research Institute-The University of Queensland, Translational Research Institute, Brisbane, Queensland, Australia
| | - Hilmar Ebersbach
- Novartis Institutes for Biomedical Research (NIBR), Basel, Switzerland
| | - Cian Stutz
- Novartis Institutes for Biomedical Research (NIBR), Basel, Switzerland
| | - Robert G Parton
- Institute for Molecular Bioscience, The University of Queensland, Brisbane, Queensland, Australia
- Centre for Microscopy and Microanalysis, The University of Queensland, Brisbane, Queensland, Australia
| | - Kim M Summers
- Mater Research Institute-The University of Queensland, Translational Research Institute, Brisbane, Queensland, Australia
| | - Allison R Pettit
- Mater Research Institute-The University of Queensland, Translational Research Institute, Brisbane, Queensland, Australia
| | - David A Hume
- Mater Research Institute-The University of Queensland, Translational Research Institute, Brisbane, Queensland, Australia
| | - Katharine M Irvine
- Mater Research Institute-The University of Queensland, Translational Research Institute, Brisbane, Queensland, Australia
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5
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Bosch AJT, Keller L, Steiger L, Rohm TV, Wiedemann SJ, Low AJY, Stawiski M, Rachid L, Roux J, Konrad D, Wueest S, Tugues S, Greter M, Böni-Schnetzler M, Meier DT, Cavelti-Weder C. CSF1R inhibition with PLX5622 affects multiple immune cell compartments and induces tissue-specific metabolic effects in lean mice. Diabetologia 2023; 66:2292-2306. [PMID: 37792013 PMCID: PMC10627931 DOI: 10.1007/s00125-023-06007-1] [Citation(s) in RCA: 2] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Submit a Manuscript] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 05/25/2023] [Accepted: 07/07/2023] [Indexed: 10/05/2023]
Abstract
AIMS/HYPOTHESIS Colony stimulating factor 1 (CSF1) promotes the proliferation, differentiation and survival of macrophages, which have been implicated in both beneficial and detrimental effects on glucose metabolism. However, the physiological role of CSF1 signalling in glucose homeostasis and the potential therapeutic implications of modulating this pathway are not known. We aimed to study the composition of tissue macrophages (and other immune cells) following CSF1 receptor (CSF1R) inhibition and elucidate the metabolic consequences of CSF1R inhibition. METHODS We assessed immune cell populations in various organs by flow cytometry, and tissue-specific metabolic effects by hyperinsulinaemic-euglycaemic clamps and insulin secretion assays in mice fed a chow diet containing PLX5622 (a CSF1R inhibitor) or a control diet. RESULTS CSF1R inhibition depleted macrophages in multiple tissues while simultaneously increasing eosinophils and group 2 innate lymphoid cells. These immunological changes were consistent across different organs and were sex independent and reversible after cessation of the PLX5622. CSF1R inhibition improved hepatic insulin sensitivity but concomitantly impaired insulin secretion. In healthy islets, we found a high frequency of IL-1β+ islet macrophages. Their depletion by CSF1R inhibition led to downregulation of macrophage-related pathways and mediators of cytokine activity, including Nlrp3, suggesting IL-1β as a candidate insulin secretagogue. Partial restoration of physiological insulin secretion was achieved by injecting recombinant IL-1β prior to glucose stimulation in mice lacking macrophages. CONCLUSIONS/INTERPRETATION Macrophages and macrophage-derived factors, such as IL-1β, play an important role in physiological insulin secretion. A better understanding of the tissue-specific effects of CSF1R inhibition on immune cells and glucose homeostasis is crucial for the development of targeted immune-modulatory treatments in metabolic disease. DATA AVAILABILITY The RNA-Seq dataset is available in the Gene Expression Omnibus (GEO) under the accession number GSE189434 ( http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/geo/query/acc.cgi?acc=GSE189434 ).
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Affiliation(s)
- Angela J T Bosch
- Department of Biomedicine, University of Basel, Basel, Switzerland
| | - Lena Keller
- Department of Biomedicine, University of Basel, Basel, Switzerland
| | - Laura Steiger
- Department of Biomedicine, University of Basel, Basel, Switzerland
| | - Theresa V Rohm
- Department of Biomedicine, University of Basel, Basel, Switzerland
| | | | - Andy J Y Low
- Department of Biomedicine, University of Basel, Basel, Switzerland
| | - Marc Stawiski
- Department of Biomedicine, University of Basel, Basel, Switzerland
| | - Leila Rachid
- Department of Biomedicine, University of Basel, Basel, Switzerland
| | - Julien Roux
- Department of Biomedicine, University of Basel, Basel, Switzerland
- Swiss Institute of Bioinformatics, Basel, Switzerland
| | - Daniel Konrad
- Division of Pediatric Endocrinology and Diabetology, University Children's Hospital, University of Zurich, Zurich, Switzerland
- Children's Research Centre, University Children's Hospital, University of Zurich, Zurich, Switzerland
| | - Stephan Wueest
- Division of Pediatric Endocrinology and Diabetology, University Children's Hospital, University of Zurich, Zurich, Switzerland
- Children's Research Centre, University Children's Hospital, University of Zurich, Zurich, Switzerland
| | - Sonia Tugues
- Institute of Experimental Immunology, University of Zurich, Zurich, Switzerland
| | - Melanie Greter
- Institute of Experimental Immunology, University of Zurich, Zurich, Switzerland
| | | | - Daniel T Meier
- Department of Biomedicine, University of Basel, Basel, Switzerland
| | - Claudia Cavelti-Weder
- Department of Biomedicine, University of Basel, Basel, Switzerland.
- Department of Endocrinology, Diabetology and Clinical Nutrition, University Hospital Zurich (USZ), University of Zurich (UZH), Zurich, Switzerland.
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6
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Waddell LA, Wu Z, Sauter KA, Hope JC, Hume DA. A novel monoclonal antibody against porcine macrophage colony-stimulating factor (CSF1) detects expression on the cell surface of macrophages. Vet Immunol Immunopathol 2023; 266:110681. [PMID: 37992576 DOI: 10.1016/j.vetimm.2023.110681] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 09/20/2023] [Revised: 11/06/2023] [Accepted: 11/10/2023] [Indexed: 11/24/2023]
Abstract
Macrophage colony-stimulating factor (CSF1) controls the proliferation and differentiation of cells of the mononuclear phagocyte system through binding to the receptor CSF1R. The expression and function of CSF1 has been well-studied in rodents and humans, but knowledge is lacking in other veterinary species. The development of a novel mouse anti-porcine CSF1 monoclonal antibody (mAb) facilitates the characterisation of this growth factor in pigs. Cell surface expression of CSF1 was confirmed on differentiated macrophage populations derived from blood and bone marrow monocytes, and on lung resident macrophages, the first species for this to be confirmed. However, monocytes isolated from blood and bone marrow lacked CSF1 expression. This species-specific mAb delivers the opportunity to further understanding of porcine myeloid cell biology. This is not only vital for the role of pigs as a model for human health, but also as a veterinary species of significant economic and agricultural importance.
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Affiliation(s)
- Lindsey A Waddell
- The Roslin Institute and R(D)SVS, University of Edinburgh, Easter Bush, Midlothian EH25 9RG, UK
| | - Zhiguang Wu
- The Roslin Institute and R(D)SVS, University of Edinburgh, Easter Bush, Midlothian EH25 9RG, UK
| | - Kristin A Sauter
- The Roslin Institute and R(D)SVS, University of Edinburgh, Easter Bush, Midlothian EH25 9RG, UK
| | - Jayne C Hope
- The Roslin Institute and R(D)SVS, University of Edinburgh, Easter Bush, Midlothian EH25 9RG, UK.
| | - David A Hume
- Mater Research Institute-University of Queensland, 37 Kent St, Woolloongabba, Qld 4104, Australia
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7
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Stanley ER, Biundo F, Gökhan Ş, Chitu V. Differential regulation of microglial states by colony stimulating factors. Front Cell Neurosci 2023; 17:1275935. [PMID: 37964794 PMCID: PMC10642290 DOI: 10.3389/fncel.2023.1275935] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 08/10/2023] [Accepted: 10/09/2023] [Indexed: 11/16/2023] Open
Abstract
Recent studies have emphasized the role of microglia in the progression of many neurodegenerative diseases. The colony stimulating factors, CSF-1 (M-CSF), granulocyte-macrophage CSF (GM-CSF) and granulocyte CSF (G-CSF) regulate microglia through different cognate receptors. While the receptors for GM-CSF (GM-CSFR) and G-CSF (G-CSFR) are specific for their ligands, CSF-1 shares its receptor, the CSF-1 receptor-tyrosine kinase (CSF-1R), with interleukin-34 (IL-34). All four cytokines are expressed locally in the CNS. Activation of the CSF-1R in macrophages is anti-inflammatory. In contrast, the actions of GM-CSF and G-CSF elicit different activated states. We here review the roles of each of these cytokines in the CNS and how they contribute to the development of disease in a mouse model of CSF-1R-related leukodystrophy. Understanding their roles in this model may illuminate their contribution to the development or exacerbation of other neurodegenerative diseases.
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Affiliation(s)
- E. Richard Stanley
- Department of Developmental and Molecular Biology, Albert Einstein College of Medicine, Bronx, NY, United States
| | - Fabrizio Biundo
- Department of Developmental and Molecular Biology, Albert Einstein College of Medicine, Bronx, NY, United States
| | - Şölen Gökhan
- Department of Neurology, Albert Einstein College of Medicine, Institute for Brain Disorders and Neural Regeneration, Bronx, NY, United States
| | - Violeta Chitu
- Department of Developmental and Molecular Biology, Albert Einstein College of Medicine, Bronx, NY, United States
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8
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Cheruku S, Rao V, Pandey R, Rao Chamallamudi M, Velayutham R, Kumar N. Tumor-associated macrophages employ immunoediting mechanisms in colorectal tumor progression: Current research in Macrophage repolarization immunotherapy. Int Immunopharmacol 2023; 116:109569. [PMID: 36773572 DOI: 10.1016/j.intimp.2022.109569] [Citation(s) in RCA: 15] [Impact Index Per Article: 15.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 10/14/2022] [Revised: 12/01/2022] [Accepted: 12/07/2022] [Indexed: 02/11/2023]
Abstract
Tumor-associated macrophages (TAMs) constitute the most prolific resident of the tumor microenvironment (TME) that regulate its TME into tumor suppressive or progressive milieu by utilizing immunoediting machinery. Here, the tumor cells construct an immunosuppressive microenvironment that educates TAMs to polarize from anti-tumor TAM-M1 to pro-tumor TAM-M2 phenotype consequently contributing to tumor progression. In colorectal cancer (CRC), the TME displays a prominent pro-tumorigenic immune profile with elevated expression of immune-checkpoint molecules notably PD-1, CTLA4, etc., in both MSI and ultra-mutated MSS tumors. This authenticated immune-checkpoint inhibition (ICI) immunotherapy as a pre-requisite for clinical benefit in CRC. However, in response to ICI, specifically, the MSIhi tumors evolved to produce novel immune escape variants thus undermining ICI. Lately, TAM-directed therapies extending from macrophage depletion to repolarization have enabled TME alteration. While TAM accrual implicates clinical benefit in CRC, sustained inflammatory insult may program TAMs to shift from M1 to M2 phenotype. Their ability to oscillate on both facets of the spectrum represents macrophage repolarization immunotherapy as an effective approach to treating CRC. In this review, we briefly discuss the differentiation heterogeneity of colonic macrophages that partake in macrophage-directed immunoediting mechanisms in CRC progression and its employment in macrophage re-polarization immunotherapy.
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Affiliation(s)
- SriPragnya Cheruku
- Department of Pharmacology, Manipal College of Pharmaceutical Sciences, Manipal Academy of Higher Education, Manipal- 576104, Karnataka, India
| | - Vanishree Rao
- Department of Pharmacology, Manipal College of Pharmaceutical Sciences, Manipal Academy of Higher Education, Manipal- 576104, Karnataka, India
| | - Ruchi Pandey
- Department of Pharmacology and Toxicology, National Institute of Pharmaceutical Education, and Research, Hajipur, Export Promotions Industrial Park (EPIP), Industrial area, Hajipur, Vaishali, 844102, Bihar, India
| | - Mallikarjuna Rao Chamallamudi
- Department of Pharmacology, Manipal College of Pharmaceutical Sciences, Manipal Academy of Higher Education, Manipal- 576104, Karnataka, India
| | - Ravichandiran Velayutham
- Department of Pharmacology and Toxicology, National Institute of Pharmaceutical Education, and Research, Hajipur, Export Promotions Industrial Park (EPIP), Industrial area, Hajipur, Vaishali, 844102, Bihar, India
| | - Nitesh Kumar
- Department of Pharmacology and Toxicology, National Institute of Pharmaceutical Education, and Research, Hajipur, Export Promotions Industrial Park (EPIP), Industrial area, Hajipur, Vaishali, 844102, Bihar, India.
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9
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Awasthi BP, Guragain D, Chaudhary P, Jee JG, Kim JA, Jeong BS. Antitumor activity of a pexidartinib bioisostere inhibiting CSF1 production and CSF1R kinase activity in human hepatocellular carcinoma. Chem Biol Interact 2023; 369:110255. [PMID: 36368339 DOI: 10.1016/j.cbi.2022.110255] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 02/20/2022] [Revised: 09/25/2022] [Accepted: 11/02/2022] [Indexed: 11/10/2022]
Abstract
Macrophage colony-stimulating factor (M-CSF, also known as CSF1) in tumor tissues stimulates tumor growth and tumor-induced angiogenesis through an autocrine and paracrine action on CSF1 receptor (CSF1R). In the present study, novel bioisosteres of pexidartinib (1) were synthesized and evaluated their inhibitory activities against CSF1R kinase and tumor growth. Among newly synthesized bioisosteres, compound 3 showed the highest inhibition (95.1%) against CSF1R tyrosine kinase at a fixed concentration (1 μM). The half maximal inhibitory concentration (IC50) of pexidartinib (1) and compound 3 was 2.7 and 57.8 nM, respectively. Unlike pexidartinib (1), which cross-reacts to three targets with structural homology, such as CSF1R, c-KIT, and FLT3, compound 3 inhibited CSF1R, c-KIT, but not FLT3, indicating compound 3 may be a more selective CSF1R inhibitor than pexidartinib (1). The inhibitory effect of compound 3 on the proliferation of various cancer cell lines was the strongest in U937 cells followed by THP-1 cells. In the case of cancer cell lines derived from solid tumors, the anti-proliferative activity of compound 3 was weaker than pexidartinib (1), except for Hep3B. However, compound 3 was safer than pexidartinib (1) in terminally differentiated normal cells such as macrophages. Pexidartinib (1) and compound 3 suppressed the production of CSF1 in Hep3B liver cancer cells as well as in the co-culture of Hep3B cells and macrophages. Also, pexidartinib (1) and compound 3 decreased the population ratio of the M2/M1 phenotype and inhibited their migration. Importantly, compound 3 preferentially inhibited M2 phenotype over M1, and the effect was about 4 times greater than that of pexidartinib (1). In addition, compound 3 inhibited maintenance of cancer stem cell population. In a chick chorioallantoic membrane (CAM) tumor model implanted with Hep3B cells, tumor growth and tumor-induced angiogenesis were significantly blocked by compound 3 to a similar extent as pexidartinib (1). Overall, compound 3, a bioisostere of pexidartinib, is an effective dual inhibitor to block CSF1R kinase and CSF1 production, resulting in significant inhibition of tumor growth.
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Affiliation(s)
| | - Diwakar Guragain
- College of Pharmacy, Yeungnam University, Gyeongsan, 38541, Republic of Korea
| | - Prakash Chaudhary
- College of Pharmacy, Yeungnam University, Gyeongsan, 38541, Republic of Korea
| | - Jun-Goo Jee
- College of Pharmacy, Kyungpook National University, Daegu, 41566, Republic of Korea
| | - Jung-Ae Kim
- College of Pharmacy, Yeungnam University, Gyeongsan, 38541, Republic of Korea.
| | - Byeong-Seon Jeong
- College of Pharmacy, Yeungnam University, Gyeongsan, 38541, Republic of Korea.
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10
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Wu Y, Yang Y, Wang L, Chen Y, Han X, Sun L, Chen H, Chen Q. Effect of Bifidobacterium on osteoclasts: TNF-α/NF-κB inflammatory signal pathway-mediated mechanism. Front Endocrinol (Lausanne) 2023; 14:1109296. [PMID: 36967748 PMCID: PMC10034056 DOI: 10.3389/fendo.2023.1109296] [Citation(s) in RCA: 6] [Impact Index Per Article: 6.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Submit a Manuscript] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 11/27/2022] [Accepted: 02/14/2023] [Indexed: 03/11/2023] Open
Abstract
Osteoporosis is a systemic multifactorial bone disease characterized by low bone quality and density and bone microstructure damage, increasing bone fragility and fracture vulnerability. Increased osteoclast differentiation and activity are important factors contributing to bone loss, which is a common pathological manifestation of bone diseases such as osteoporosis. TNF-a/NF-κB is an inflammatory signaling pathway with a key regulatory role in regulating osteoclast formation, and the classical pathway RANKL/RANK/OPG assists osteoclast formation. Activation of this inflammatory pathway promotes the formation of osteoclasts and accelerates the process of osteoporosis. Recent studies and emerging evidence have consistently demonstrated the potential of probiotics to modulate bone health. Secretions of Bifidobacterium, a genus of probiotic bacteria in the phylum Actinobacteria, such as short-chain fatty acids, equol, and exopolysaccharides, have indicated beneficial effects on bone health. This review discusses the molecular mechanisms of the TNF-a/NF-κB inflammatory pathway in regulating osteoclast formation and describes the secretions produced by Bifidobacterium and their potential effects on bone health through this pathway, opening up new directions for future research.
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Affiliation(s)
- Yue Wu
- School of Clinical Medicine, Chengdu University of Traditional Chinese Medicine, Chengdu, China
| | - Yunjiao Yang
- Department of Endocrinology, Hospital of Chengdu University of Traditional Chinese Medicine, Chengdu, China
| | - Lan Wang
- Department of Endocrinology, Hospital of Chengdu University of Traditional Chinese Medicine, Chengdu, China
| | - Yiding Chen
- Department of Endocrinology, Hospital of Chengdu University of Traditional Chinese Medicine, Chengdu, China
| | - Xuke Han
- College of Acupuncture & Tuina, Shaanxi University of Chinese Medicine, Xianyang, China
| | - Lisha Sun
- Department of Endocrinology, Hospital of Chengdu University of Traditional Chinese Medicine, Chengdu, China
| | - Huizhen Chen
- Department of Endocrinology, Hospital of Chengdu University of Traditional Chinese Medicine, Chengdu, China
| | - Qiu Chen
- Department of Endocrinology, Hospital of Chengdu University of Traditional Chinese Medicine, Chengdu, China
- *Correspondence: Qiu Chen,
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11
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Hume DA, Batoon L, Sehgal A, Keshvari S, Irvine KM. CSF1R as a Therapeutic Target in Bone Diseases: Obvious but Not so Simple. Curr Osteoporos Rep 2022; 20:516-531. [PMID: 36197652 PMCID: PMC9718875 DOI: 10.1007/s11914-022-00757-4] [Citation(s) in RCA: 4] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Submit a Manuscript] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Accepted: 08/19/2022] [Indexed: 01/30/2023]
Abstract
PURPOSE OF REVIEW The purpose of the review is to summarize the expression and function of CSF1R and its ligands in bone homeostasis and constraints on therapeutic targeting of this axis. RECENT FINDINGS Bone development and homeostasis depends upon interactions between mesenchymal cells and cells of the mononuclear phagocyte lineage (MPS), macrophages, and osteoclasts (OCL). The homeostatic interaction is mediated in part by the systemic and local production of growth factors, macrophage colony-stimulating factor (CSF1), and interleukin 34 (IL34) that interact with a receptor (CSF1R) expressed exclusively by MPS cells and their progenitors. Loss-of-function mutations in CSF1 or CSF1R lead to loss of OCL and macrophages and dysregulation of postnatal bone development. MPS cells continuously degrade CSF1R ligands via receptor-mediated endocytosis. As a consequence, any local or systemic increase or decrease in macrophage or OCL abundance is rapidly reversible. In principle, both CSF1R agonists and antagonists have potential in bone regenerative medicine but their evaluation in disease models and therapeutic application needs to carefully consider the intrinsic feedback control of MPS biology.
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Affiliation(s)
- David A Hume
- Mater Research Institute-University of Queensland, Translational Research Institute, 37 Kent Street, Woolloongabba, QLD, 4102, Australia.
| | - Lena Batoon
- Mater Research Institute-University of Queensland, Translational Research Institute, 37 Kent Street, Woolloongabba, QLD, 4102, Australia
| | - Anuj Sehgal
- Mater Research Institute-University of Queensland, Translational Research Institute, 37 Kent Street, Woolloongabba, QLD, 4102, Australia
| | - Sahar Keshvari
- Mater Research Institute-University of Queensland, Translational Research Institute, 37 Kent Street, Woolloongabba, QLD, 4102, Australia
| | - Katharine M Irvine
- Mater Research Institute-University of Queensland, Translational Research Institute, 37 Kent Street, Woolloongabba, QLD, 4102, Australia
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12
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Shen X, Zhou S, Yang Y, Hong T, Xiang Z, Zhao J, Zhu C, Zeng L, Zhang L. TAM-targeted reeducation for enhanced cancer immunotherapy: Mechanism and recent progress. Front Oncol 2022; 12:1034842. [PMID: 36419877 PMCID: PMC9677115 DOI: 10.3389/fonc.2022.1034842] [Citation(s) in RCA: 9] [Impact Index Per Article: 4.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 09/05/2022] [Accepted: 10/10/2022] [Indexed: 11/09/2022] Open
Abstract
Tumor-associated macrophage (TAM) as an important component of tumor microenvironment (TME) are closely related with the occurrence, development, and metastasis of malignant tumors. TAMs are generally identified as two distinct functional populations in TME, i.e., inflammatory/anti-tumorigenic (M1) and regenerative/pro-tumorigenic (M2) phenotype. Evidence suggests that occupation of the TME by M2-TAMs is closely related to the inactivation of anti-tumor immune cells such as T cells in TME. Recently, efforts have been made to reeducate TAMs from M2- to M1- phenotype to enhance cancer immunotherapy, and great progress has been made in realizing efficient modulation of TAMs using nanomedicines. To help readers better understand this emerging field, the potential TAM reeducation targets for potentiating cancer immunotherapy and the underlying mechanisms are summarized in this review. Moreover, the most recent advances in utilizing nanomedicine for the TAM immunomodulation for augmented cancer immunotherapy are introduced. Finally, we conclude with our perspectives on the future development in this field.
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Affiliation(s)
- Xinyuan Shen
- Key Laboratory of Novel Targets and Drug Study for Neural Repair of Zhejiang Province, School of Medicine, Zhejiang University City College, Hangzhou, China
- College of Pharmaceutical Sciences, Zhejiang University, Hangzhou, China
| | - Shengcheng Zhou
- College of Pharmaceutical Sciences, Zhejiang University, Hangzhou, China
| | - Yidong Yang
- College of Pharmaceutical Sciences, Zhejiang University, Hangzhou, China
| | - Tu Hong
- College of Pharmaceutical Sciences, Zhejiang University, Hangzhou, China
| | - Ze Xiang
- College of Pharmaceutical Sciences, Zhejiang University, Hangzhou, China
| | - Jing Zhao
- College of Pharmaceutical Sciences, Zhejiang University, Hangzhou, China
| | - Chaojie Zhu
- College of Pharmaceutical Sciences, Zhejiang University, Hangzhou, China
| | - Linghui Zeng
- Key Laboratory of Novel Targets and Drug Study for Neural Repair of Zhejiang Province, School of Medicine, Zhejiang University City College, Hangzhou, China
- *Correspondence: Linghui Zeng, ; Lingxiao Zhang,
| | - Lingxiao Zhang
- Key Laboratory of Novel Targets and Drug Study for Neural Repair of Zhejiang Province, School of Medicine, Zhejiang University City College, Hangzhou, China
- College of Pharmaceutical Sciences, Zhejiang University, Hangzhou, China
- Key Laboratory of Diagnosis and Treatment of Digestive System Tumors of Zhejiang Province, Ningbo Hwa Mei Hospital, University of Chinese Academy of Sciences, Ningbo, China
- Ningbo Institute of Life and Health Industry, University of Chinese Academy of Sciences, Ningbo, China
- *Correspondence: Linghui Zeng, ; Lingxiao Zhang,
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13
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Spiteri AG, Ni D, Ling ZL, Macia L, Campbell IL, Hofer MJ, King NJC. PLX5622 Reduces Disease Severity in Lethal CNS Infection by Off-Target Inhibition of Peripheral Inflammatory Monocyte Production. Front Immunol 2022; 13:851556. [PMID: 35401512 PMCID: PMC8990748 DOI: 10.3389/fimmu.2022.851556] [Citation(s) in RCA: 36] [Impact Index Per Article: 18.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 01/10/2022] [Accepted: 03/03/2022] [Indexed: 11/18/2022] Open
Abstract
PLX5622 is a CSF-1R inhibitor and microglia-depleting reagent, widely used to investigate the biology of this central nervous system (CNS)-resident myeloid population, but the indirect or off-target effects of this agent remain largely unexplored. In a murine model of severe neuroinflammation induced by West Nile virus encephalitis (WNE), we showed PLX5622 efficiently depleted both microglia and a sub-population of border-associated macrophages in the CNS. However, PLX5622 also significantly depleted mature Ly6Chi monocytes in the bone marrow (BM), inhibiting their proliferation and lethal recruitment into the infected brain, reducing neuroinflammation and clinical disease scores. Notably, in addition, BM dendritic cell subsets, plasmacytoid DC and classical DC, were depleted differentially in infected and uninfected mice. Confirming its protective effect in WNE, cessation of PLX5622 treatment exacerbated disease scores and was associated with robust repopulation of microglia, rebound BM monopoiesis and markedly increased inflammatory monocyte infiltration into the CNS. Monoclonal anti-CSF-1R antibody blockade late in WNE also impeded BM monocyte proliferation and recruitment to the brain, suggesting that the protective effect of PLX5622 is via the inhibition of CSF-1R, rather than other kinase targets. Importantly, BrdU incorporation in PLX5622-treated mice, suggest remaining microglia proliferate independently of CSF-1 in WNE. Our study uncovers significantly broader effects of PLX5622 on the myeloid lineage beyond microglia depletion, advising caution in the interpretation of PLX5622 data as microglia-specific. However, this work also strikingly demonstrates the unexpected therapeutic potential of this molecule in CNS viral infection, as well as other monocyte-mediated diseases.
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Affiliation(s)
- Alanna G Spiteri
- Viral Immunopathology Laboratory, Infection, Immunity and Inflammation Research Theme, School of Medical Sciences, Faculty of Medicine and Health, The University of Sydney, Sydney, NSW, Australia.,Sydney Cytometry, The University of Sydney and Centenary Institute, Sydney, NSW, Australia.,Ramaciotti Facility for Human Systems Biology, The University of Sydney and Centenary Institute, Sydney, NSW, Australia.,Charles Perkins Centre, The University of Sydney, Sydney, NSW, Australia
| | - Duan Ni
- Sydney Cytometry, The University of Sydney and Centenary Institute, Sydney, NSW, Australia.,Charles Perkins Centre, The University of Sydney, Sydney, NSW, Australia.,Chronic Diseases Research Theme, School of Medical Sciences, Faculty of Medicine and Health, The University of Sydney, Sydney, NSW, Australia
| | - Zheng Lung Ling
- Viral Immunopathology Laboratory, Infection, Immunity and Inflammation Research Theme, School of Medical Sciences, Faculty of Medicine and Health, The University of Sydney, Sydney, NSW, Australia.,Sydney Cytometry, The University of Sydney and Centenary Institute, Sydney, NSW, Australia.,Ramaciotti Facility for Human Systems Biology, The University of Sydney and Centenary Institute, Sydney, NSW, Australia.,Charles Perkins Centre, The University of Sydney, Sydney, NSW, Australia
| | - Laurence Macia
- Sydney Cytometry, The University of Sydney and Centenary Institute, Sydney, NSW, Australia.,Ramaciotti Facility for Human Systems Biology, The University of Sydney and Centenary Institute, Sydney, NSW, Australia.,Charles Perkins Centre, The University of Sydney, Sydney, NSW, Australia.,Chronic Diseases Research Theme, School of Medical Sciences, Faculty of Medicine and Health, The University of Sydney, Sydney, NSW, Australia
| | - Iain L Campbell
- School of Life and Environmental Sciences, The University of Sydney, Sydney, NSW, Australia
| | - Markus J Hofer
- Charles Perkins Centre, The University of Sydney, Sydney, NSW, Australia.,School of Life and Environmental Sciences, The University of Sydney, Sydney, NSW, Australia.,The University of Sydney Institute for Infectious Diseases, The University of Sydney, Sydney, NSW, Australia
| | - Nicholas J C King
- Viral Immunopathology Laboratory, Infection, Immunity and Inflammation Research Theme, School of Medical Sciences, Faculty of Medicine and Health, The University of Sydney, Sydney, NSW, Australia.,Sydney Cytometry, The University of Sydney and Centenary Institute, Sydney, NSW, Australia.,Ramaciotti Facility for Human Systems Biology, The University of Sydney and Centenary Institute, Sydney, NSW, Australia.,Charles Perkins Centre, The University of Sydney, Sydney, NSW, Australia.,The University of Sydney Institute for Infectious Diseases, The University of Sydney, Sydney, NSW, Australia.,The University of Sydney Nano Institute, The University of Sydney, Sydney, NSW, Australia
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14
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Ponce-de-Leon M, Linseisen J, Peters A, Linkohr B, Heier M, Grallert H, Schöttker B, Trares K, Bhardwaj M, Gào X, Brenner H, Kamiński KA, Paniczko M, Kowalska I, Baumeister SE, Meisinger C. Novel associations between inflammation-related proteins and adiposity: A targeted proteomics approach across four population-based studies. Transl Res 2022; 242:93-104. [PMID: 34780968 DOI: 10.1016/j.trsl.2021.11.004] [Citation(s) in RCA: 13] [Impact Index Per Article: 6.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Submit a Manuscript] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 05/17/2021] [Revised: 10/28/2021] [Accepted: 11/04/2021] [Indexed: 11/27/2022]
Abstract
Chronic low-grade inflammation has been proposed as a linking mechanism between obesity and the development of inflammation-related conditions such as insulin resistance and cardiovascular disease. Despite major advances in the last 2 decades, the complex relationship between inflammation and obesity remains poorly understood. Therefore, we aimed to identify novel inflammation-related proteins associated with adiposity. We investigated the association between BMI and waist circumference and 72 circulating inflammation-related proteins, measured using the Proximity Extension Assay (Olink Proteomics), in 3,308 participants of four independent European population-based studies (KORA-Fit, BVSII, ESTHER, and Bialystok PLUS). In addition, we used body fat mass measurements obtained by Dual-energy X-ray absorptiometry (DXA) in the Bialystok PLUS study to further validate our results and to explore the relationship between inflammation-related proteins and body fat distribution. We found 14 proteins associated with at least one measure of adiposity across all four studies, including four proteins for which the association is novel: DNER, SLAMF1, RANKL, and CSF-1. We confirmed previously reported associations with CCL19, CCL28, FGF-21, HGF, IL-10RB, IL-18, IL-18R1, IL-6, SCF, and VEGF-A. The majority of the identified inflammation-related proteins were associated with visceral fat as well as with the accumulation of adipose tissue in the abdomen and the trunk. In conclusion, our study provides new insights into the immune dysregulation observed in obesity that might help uncover pathophysiological mechanisms of disease development.
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Affiliation(s)
- Mariana Ponce-de-Leon
- Institute for Medical Information Processing, Biometry, and Epidemiology, Ludwig-Maximilians-Universität München, Munich, Germany; Chair of Epidemiology, University of Augsburg, University Hospital Augsburg, Augsburg, Germany; Independent Research Group Clinical Epidemiology, Helmholtz Zentrum München, Neuherberg, Germany.
| | - Jakob Linseisen
- Institute for Medical Information Processing, Biometry, and Epidemiology, Ludwig-Maximilians-Universität München, Munich, Germany; Chair of Epidemiology, University of Augsburg, University Hospital Augsburg, Augsburg, Germany; Independent Research Group Clinical Epidemiology, Helmholtz Zentrum München, Neuherberg, Germany
| | - Annette Peters
- Institute of Epidemiology, Helmholtz Zentrum Munich, Neuherberg, Germany
| | - Birgit Linkohr
- Institute of Epidemiology, Helmholtz Zentrum Munich, Neuherberg, Germany
| | - Margit Heier
- Institute of Epidemiology, Helmholtz Zentrum Munich, Neuherberg, Germany; KORA Study Centre, University Hospital Augsburg, Augsburg, Germany
| | - Harald Grallert
- Institute of Epidemiology, Helmholtz Zentrum Munich, Neuherberg, Germany; German Center for Diabetes Research, Neuherberg, Germany
| | - Ben Schöttker
- Division of Clinical Epidemiology and Ageing Research, German Cancer Research Center, Heidelberg, Germany; Network Aging Research, University of Heidelberg, Heidelberg, Germany
| | - Kira Trares
- Division of Clinical Epidemiology and Ageing Research, German Cancer Research Center, Heidelberg, Germany; Network Aging Research, University of Heidelberg, Heidelberg, Germany
| | - Megha Bhardwaj
- Division of Clinical Epidemiology and Ageing Research, German Cancer Research Center, Heidelberg, Germany
| | - Xīn Gào
- Division of Clinical Epidemiology and Ageing Research, German Cancer Research Center, Heidelberg, Germany
| | - Herman Brenner
- Division of Clinical Epidemiology and Ageing Research, German Cancer Research Center, Heidelberg, Germany; Network Aging Research, University of Heidelberg, Heidelberg, Germany
| | - Karol Adam Kamiński
- Department of Population Medicine and Lifestyle Diseases Prevention, Medical University of Białystok, Białystok, Poland
| | - Marlena Paniczko
- Department of Population Medicine and Lifestyle Diseases Prevention, Medical University of Białystok, Białystok, Poland
| | - Irina Kowalska
- Department of Internal Medicine and Metabolic Diseases, Medical University of Białystok, Białystok, Poland
| | | | - Christa Meisinger
- Institute for Medical Information Processing, Biometry, and Epidemiology, Ludwig-Maximilians-Universität München, Munich, Germany; Chair of Epidemiology, University of Augsburg, University Hospital Augsburg, Augsburg, Germany; Independent Research Group Clinical Epidemiology, Helmholtz Zentrum München, Neuherberg, Germany
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15
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Keshvari S, Genz B, Teakle N, Caruso M, Cestari MF, Patkar OL, Tse BWC, Sokolowski KA, Ebersbach H, Jascur J, MacDonald KPA, Miller G, Ramm GA, Pettit AR, Clouston AD, Powell EE, Hume DA, Irvine KM. Therapeutic potential of macrophage colony-stimulating factor (CSF1) in chronic liver disease. Dis Model Mech 2022; 15:274391. [PMID: 35169835 PMCID: PMC9044210 DOI: 10.1242/dmm.049387] [Citation(s) in RCA: 7] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 11/07/2021] [Accepted: 02/08/2022] [Indexed: 11/20/2022] Open
Abstract
Resident and recruited macrophages control the development and proliferation of the liver. We showed previously in multiple species that treatment with a macrophage colony stimulating factor (CSF1)-Fc fusion protein initiated hepatocyte proliferation and promoted repair in models of acute hepatic injury in mice. Here we investigated the impact of CSF1-Fc on resolution of advanced fibrosis and liver regeneration, utilizing a non-resolving toxin-induced model of chronic liver injury and fibrosis in C57BL/6J mice. Co-administration of CSF1-Fc with exposure to thioacetamide (TAA) exacerbated inflammation consistent with monocyte contributions to initiation of pathology. After removal of TAA, either acute or chronic CSF1-Fc treatment promoted liver growth, prevented progression and promoted resolution of fibrosis. Acute CSF1-Fc treatment was also anti-fibrotic and pro-regenerative in a model of partial hepatectomy in mice with established fibrosis. The beneficial impacts of CSF1-Fc treatment were associated with monocyte-macrophage recruitment and increased expression of remodeling enzymes and growth factors. These studies indicate that CSF1-dependent macrophages contribute to both initiation and resolution of fibrotic injury and that CSF1-Fc has therapeutic potential in human liver disease.
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Affiliation(s)
- Sahar Keshvari
- Mater Research Institute-The University of Queensland, Translational Research Institute, Brisbane, Queensland, Australia
| | - Berit Genz
- Mater Research Institute-The University of Queensland, Translational Research Institute, Brisbane, Queensland, Australia.,QIMR Berghofer Medical Research Institute, Brisbane, Queensland, Australia
| | - Ngari Teakle
- Mater Research Institute-The University of Queensland, Translational Research Institute, Brisbane, Queensland, Australia
| | - Melanie Caruso
- Mater Research Institute-The University of Queensland, Translational Research Institute, Brisbane, Queensland, Australia
| | - Michelle F Cestari
- Mater Research Institute-The University of Queensland, Translational Research Institute, Brisbane, Queensland, Australia
| | - Omkar L Patkar
- Mater Research Institute-The University of Queensland, Translational Research Institute, Brisbane, Queensland, Australia
| | - Brian W C Tse
- Preclinical Imaging Facility, Translational Research Institute, Brisbane, Queensland, Australia
| | - Kamil A Sokolowski
- Preclinical Imaging Facility, Translational Research Institute, Brisbane, Queensland, Australia
| | - Hilmar Ebersbach
- Novartis Institutes for Biomedical Research (NIBR), Fabrikstrasse 2, Novartis Campus, CH-4056 Basel, Switzerland
| | - Julia Jascur
- Novartis Institutes for Biomedical Research (NIBR), Fabrikstrasse 2, Novartis Campus, CH-4056 Basel, Switzerland
| | | | | | - Grant A Ramm
- QIMR Berghofer Medical Research Institute, Brisbane, Queensland, Australia.,Faculty of Medicine, The University of Queensland, Brisbane, Australia
| | - Allison R Pettit
- Mater Research Institute-The University of Queensland, Translational Research Institute, Brisbane, Queensland, Australia
| | - Andrew D Clouston
- Envoi Specialist Pathologists, Brisbane, Qld, Australia.,Faculty of Medicine, The University of Queensland, Brisbane, Australia
| | - Elizabeth E Powell
- Faculty of Medicine, The University of Queensland, Brisbane, Australia.,Department of Gastroenterology and Hepatology, Princess Alexandra Hospital, Brisbane, Queensland, Australia
| | - David A Hume
- Mater Research Institute-The University of Queensland, Translational Research Institute, Brisbane, Queensland, Australia
| | - Katharine M Irvine
- Mater Research Institute-The University of Queensland, Translational Research Institute, Brisbane, Queensland, Australia
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16
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Papachristoforou E, Ramachandran P. Macrophages as key regulators of liver health and disease. INTERNATIONAL REVIEW OF CELL AND MOLECULAR BIOLOGY 2022; 368:143-212. [PMID: 35636927 DOI: 10.1016/bs.ircmb.2022.04.006] [Citation(s) in RCA: 13] [Impact Index Per Article: 6.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 02/08/2023]
Abstract
Macrophages are a heterogeneous population of innate immune cells and key cellular components of the liver. Hepatic macrophages consist of embryologically-derived resident Kupffer cells (KC), recruited monocyte-derived macrophages (MDM) and capsular macrophages. Both the diversity and plasticity of hepatic macrophage subsets explain their different functions in the maintenance of hepatic homeostasis and in injury processes in acute and chronic liver diseases. In this review, we assess the evidence for macrophage involvement in regulating both liver health and injury responses in liver diseases including acute liver injury (ALI), chronic liver disease (CLD) (including liver fibrosis) and hepatocellular carcinoma (HCC). In healthy livers, KC display critical functions such as phagocytosis, danger signal recognition, cytokine release, antigen processing and the ability to orchestrate immune responses and maintain immunological tolerance. However, in most liver diseases there is a striking hepatic MDM expansion, which orchestrate both disease progression and regression. Single-cell approaches have transformed our understanding of liver macrophage heterogeneity, dynamics, and functions in both human samples and preclinical models. We will further discuss the new insights provided by these approaches and how they are enabling high-fidelity work to specifically identify pathogenic macrophage subpopulations. Given the important role of macrophages in regulating injury responses in a broad range of settings, there is now a huge interest in developing new therapeutic strategies aimed at targeting macrophages. Therefore, we also review the current approaches being used to modulate macrophage function in liver diseases and discuss the therapeutic potential of targeting macrophage subpopulations as a novel treatment strategy for patients with liver disorders.
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Affiliation(s)
- Eleni Papachristoforou
- University of Edinburgh Centre for Inflammation Research, The Queen's Medical Research Institute, Edinburgh BioQuarter, Edinburgh, United Kingdom
| | - Prakash Ramachandran
- University of Edinburgh Centre for Inflammation Research, The Queen's Medical Research Institute, Edinburgh BioQuarter, Edinburgh, United Kingdom.
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17
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Chitu V, Biundo F, Stanley ER. Colony stimulating factors in the nervous system. Semin Immunol 2021; 54:101511. [PMID: 34743926 DOI: 10.1016/j.smim.2021.101511] [Citation(s) in RCA: 26] [Impact Index Per Article: 8.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Submit a Manuscript] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 09/14/2021] [Accepted: 10/23/2021] [Indexed: 01/02/2023]
Abstract
Although traditionally seen as regulators of hematopoiesis, colony-stimulating factors (CSFs) have emerged as important players in the nervous system, both in health and disease. This review summarizes the cellular sources, patterns of expression and physiological roles of the macrophage (CSF-1, IL-34), granulocyte-macrophage (GM-CSF) and granulocyte (G-CSF) colony stimulating factors within the nervous system, with a particular focus on their actions on microglia. CSF-1 and IL-34, via the CSF-1R, are required for the development, proliferation and maintenance of essentially all CNS microglia in a temporal and regional specific manner. In contrast, in steady state, GM-CSF and G-CSF are mainly involved in regulation of microglial function. The alterations in expression of these growth factors and their receptors, that have been reported in several neurological diseases, are described and the outcomes of their therapeutic targeting in mouse models and humans are discussed.
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Affiliation(s)
- Violeta Chitu
- Department of Developmental and Molecular Biology, Albert Einstein College of Medicine, Bronx, NY 10461, USA.
| | - Fabrizio Biundo
- Department of Developmental and Molecular Biology, Albert Einstein College of Medicine, Bronx, NY 10461, USA.
| | - E Richard Stanley
- Department of Developmental and Molecular Biology, Albert Einstein College of Medicine, Bronx, NY 10461, USA.
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18
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Sehgal A, Irvine KM, Hume DA. Functions of macrophage colony-stimulating factor (CSF1) in development, homeostasis, and tissue repair. Semin Immunol 2021; 54:101509. [PMID: 34742624 DOI: 10.1016/j.smim.2021.101509] [Citation(s) in RCA: 39] [Impact Index Per Article: 13.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Submit a Manuscript] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 07/23/2021] [Accepted: 10/23/2021] [Indexed: 12/16/2022]
Abstract
Macrophage colony-stimulating factor (CSF1) is the primary growth factor required for the control of monocyte and macrophage differentiation, survival, proliferation and renewal. Although the cDNAs encoding multiple isoforms of human CSF1 were cloned in the 1980s, and recombinant proteins were available for testing in humans, CSF1 has not yet found substantial clinical application. Here we present an overview of CSF1 biology, including evolution, regulation and functions of cell surface and secreted isoforms. CSF1 is widely-expressed, primarily by cells of mesenchymal lineages, in all mouse tissues. Cell-specific deletion of a floxed Csf1 allele in mice indicates that local CSF1 production contributes to the maintenance of tissue-specific macrophage populations but is not saturating. CSF1 in the circulation is controlled primarily by receptor-mediated clearance by macrophages in liver and spleen. Administration of recombinant CSF1 to humans or animals leads to monocytosis and expansion of tissue macrophage populations and growth of the liver and spleen. In a wide variety of tissue injury models, CSF1 administration promotes monocyte infiltration, clearance of damaged cells and repair. We suggest that CSF1 has therapeutic potential in regenerative medicine.
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Affiliation(s)
- Anuj Sehgal
- Mater Research Institute-University of Queensland, Translational Research Institute, Brisbane, Queensland, Australia
| | - Katharine M Irvine
- Mater Research Institute-University of Queensland, Translational Research Institute, Brisbane, Queensland, Australia
| | - David A Hume
- Mater Research Institute-University of Queensland, Translational Research Institute, Brisbane, Queensland, Australia.
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19
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Keshvari S, Caruso M, Teakle N, Batoon L, Sehgal A, Patkar OL, Ferrari-Cestari M, Snell CE, Chen C, Stevenson A, Davis FM, Bush SJ, Pridans C, Summers KM, Pettit AR, Irvine KM, Hume DA. CSF1R-dependent macrophages control postnatal somatic growth and organ maturation. PLoS Genet 2021; 17:e1009605. [PMID: 34081701 PMCID: PMC8205168 DOI: 10.1371/journal.pgen.1009605] [Citation(s) in RCA: 39] [Impact Index Per Article: 13.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 04/08/2021] [Revised: 06/15/2021] [Accepted: 05/17/2021] [Indexed: 12/12/2022] Open
Abstract
Homozygous mutation of the Csf1r locus (Csf1rko) in mice, rats and humans leads to multiple postnatal developmental abnormalities. To enable analysis of the mechanisms underlying the phenotypic impacts of Csf1r mutation, we bred a rat Csf1rko allele to the inbred dark agouti (DA) genetic background and to a Csf1r-mApple reporter transgene. The Csf1rko led to almost complete loss of embryonic macrophages and ablation of most adult tissue macrophage populations. We extended previous analysis of the Csf1rko phenotype to early postnatal development to reveal impacts on musculoskeletal development and proliferation and morphogenesis in multiple organs. Expression profiling of 3-week old wild-type (WT) and Csf1rko livers identified 2760 differentially expressed genes associated with the loss of macrophages, severe hypoplasia, delayed hepatocyte maturation, disrupted lipid metabolism and the IGF1/IGF binding protein system. Older Csf1rko rats developed severe hepatic steatosis. Consistent with the developmental delay in the liver Csf1rko rats had greatly-reduced circulating IGF1. Transfer of WT bone marrow (BM) cells at weaning without conditioning repopulated resident macrophages in all organs, including microglia in the brain, and reversed the mutant phenotypes enabling long term survival and fertility. WT BM transfer restored osteoclasts, eliminated osteopetrosis, restored bone marrow cellularity and architecture and reversed granulocytosis and B cell deficiency. Csf1rko rats had an elevated circulating CSF1 concentration which was rapidly reduced to WT levels following BM transfer. However, CD43hi non-classical monocytes, absent in the Csf1rko, were not rescued and bone marrow progenitors remained unresponsive to CSF1. The results demonstrate that the Csf1rko phenotype is autonomous to BM-derived cells and indicate that BM contains a progenitor of tissue macrophages distinct from hematopoietic stem cells. The model provides a unique system in which to define the pathways of development of resident tissue macrophages and their local and systemic roles in growth and organ maturation.
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Affiliation(s)
- Sahar Keshvari
- Mater Research Institute-University of Queensland, Translational Research Institute, Woolloongabba, Brisbane, Qld, Australia
| | - Melanie Caruso
- Mater Research Institute-University of Queensland, Translational Research Institute, Woolloongabba, Brisbane, Qld, Australia
| | - Ngari Teakle
- Mater Research Institute-University of Queensland, Translational Research Institute, Woolloongabba, Brisbane, Qld, Australia
| | - Lena Batoon
- Mater Research Institute-University of Queensland, Translational Research Institute, Woolloongabba, Brisbane, Qld, Australia
| | - Anuj Sehgal
- Mater Research Institute-University of Queensland, Translational Research Institute, Woolloongabba, Brisbane, Qld, Australia
| | - Omkar L. Patkar
- Mater Research Institute-University of Queensland, Translational Research Institute, Woolloongabba, Brisbane, Qld, Australia
| | - Michelle Ferrari-Cestari
- Mater Research Institute-University of Queensland, Translational Research Institute, Woolloongabba, Brisbane, Qld, Australia
| | - Cameron E. Snell
- Mater Research Institute-University of Queensland, Translational Research Institute, Woolloongabba, Brisbane, Qld, Australia
| | - Chen Chen
- School of Biomedical Sciences, University of Queensland, St Lucia, Qld, Australia
| | - Alex Stevenson
- Mater Research Institute-University of Queensland, Translational Research Institute, Woolloongabba, Brisbane, Qld, Australia
| | - Felicity M. Davis
- Mater Research Institute-University of Queensland, Translational Research Institute, Woolloongabba, Brisbane, Qld, Australia
| | - Stephen J. Bush
- Nuffield Department of Clinical Medicine, John Radcliffe Hospital, University of Oxford, Oxford, United Kingdom
| | - Clare Pridans
- Centre for Inflammation Research and Simons Initiative for the Developing Brain, Centre for Discovery Brain Sciences, University of Edinburgh, Edinburgh, United Kingdom
| | - Kim M. Summers
- Mater Research Institute-University of Queensland, Translational Research Institute, Woolloongabba, Brisbane, Qld, Australia
| | - Allison R. Pettit
- Mater Research Institute-University of Queensland, Translational Research Institute, Woolloongabba, Brisbane, Qld, Australia
| | - Katharine M. Irvine
- Mater Research Institute-University of Queensland, Translational Research Institute, Woolloongabba, Brisbane, Qld, Australia
- * E-mail: (KMI); (DAH)
| | - David A. Hume
- Mater Research Institute-University of Queensland, Translational Research Institute, Woolloongabba, Brisbane, Qld, Australia
- * E-mail: (KMI); (DAH)
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20
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Freuchet A, Salama A, Remy S, Guillonneau C, Anegon I. IL-34 and CSF-1, deciphering similarities and differences at steady state and in diseases. J Leukoc Biol 2021; 110:771-796. [PMID: 33600012 DOI: 10.1002/jlb.3ru1120-773r] [Citation(s) in RCA: 24] [Impact Index Per Article: 8.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 11/26/2020] [Revised: 01/04/2021] [Accepted: 01/04/2021] [Indexed: 12/11/2022] Open
Abstract
Although IL-34 and CSF-1 share actions as key mediators of monocytes/macrophages survival and differentiation, they also display differences that should be identified to better define their respective roles in health and diseases. IL-34 displays low sequence homology with CSF-1 but has a similar general structure and they both bind to a common receptor CSF-1R, although binding and subsequent intracellular signaling shows differences. CSF-1R expression has been until now mainly described at a steady state in monocytes/macrophages and myeloid dendritic cells, as well as in some cancers. IL-34 has also 2 other receptors, protein-tyrosine phosphatase zeta (PTPζ) and CD138 (Syndecan-1), expressed in some epithelium, cells of the central nervous system (CNS), as well as in numerous cancers. While most, if not all, of CSF-1 actions are mediated through monocyte/macrophages, IL-34 has also other potential actions through PTPζ and CD138. Additionally, IL-34 and CSF-1 are produced by different cells in different tissues. This review describes and discusses similarities and differences between IL-34 and CSF-1 at steady state and in pathological situations and identifies possible ways to target IL-34, CSF-1, and its receptors.
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Affiliation(s)
- Antoine Freuchet
- Centre de Recherche en Transplantation et Immunologie UMR1064, INSERM, Université de Nantes, Nantes, France.,Institut de Transplantation Urologie Néphrologie (ITUN), CHU Nantes, Nantes, France.,LabEx IGO "Immunotherapy, Graft, Oncology", Nantes, France
| | - Apolline Salama
- Centre de Recherche en Transplantation et Immunologie UMR1064, INSERM, Université de Nantes, Nantes, France.,Institut de Transplantation Urologie Néphrologie (ITUN), CHU Nantes, Nantes, France.,LabEx IGO "Immunotherapy, Graft, Oncology", Nantes, France
| | - Séverine Remy
- Centre de Recherche en Transplantation et Immunologie UMR1064, INSERM, Université de Nantes, Nantes, France.,Institut de Transplantation Urologie Néphrologie (ITUN), CHU Nantes, Nantes, France.,LabEx IGO "Immunotherapy, Graft, Oncology", Nantes, France
| | - Carole Guillonneau
- Centre de Recherche en Transplantation et Immunologie UMR1064, INSERM, Université de Nantes, Nantes, France.,Institut de Transplantation Urologie Néphrologie (ITUN), CHU Nantes, Nantes, France.,LabEx IGO "Immunotherapy, Graft, Oncology", Nantes, France
| | - Ignacio Anegon
- Centre de Recherche en Transplantation et Immunologie UMR1064, INSERM, Université de Nantes, Nantes, France.,Institut de Transplantation Urologie Néphrologie (ITUN), CHU Nantes, Nantes, France.,LabEx IGO "Immunotherapy, Graft, Oncology", Nantes, France
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21
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Grubišić V, McClain JL, Fried DE, Grants I, Rajasekhar P, Csizmadia E, Ajijola OA, Watson RE, Poole DP, Robson SC, Christofi FL, Gulbransen BD. Enteric Glia Modulate Macrophage Phenotype and Visceral Sensitivity following Inflammation. Cell Rep 2020; 32:108100. [PMID: 32905782 PMCID: PMC7518300 DOI: 10.1016/j.celrep.2020.108100] [Citation(s) in RCA: 87] [Impact Index Per Article: 21.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 08/15/2019] [Revised: 07/02/2020] [Accepted: 08/11/2020] [Indexed: 12/20/2022] Open
Abstract
Mechanisms resulting in abdominal pain include altered neuro-immune interactions in the gastrointestinal tract, but the signaling processes that link immune activation with visceral hypersensitivity are unresolved. We hypothesized that enteric glia link the neural and immune systems of the gut and that communication between enteric glia and immune cells modulates the development of visceral hypersensitivity. To this end, we manipulated a major mechanism of glial intercellular communication that requires connexin-43 and assessed the effects on acute and chronic inflammation, visceral hypersensitivity, and immune responses. Deleting connexin-43 in glia protected against the development of visceral hypersensitivity following chronic colitis. Mechanistically, the protective effects of glial manipulation were mediated by disrupting the glial-mediated activation of macrophages through the macrophage colony-stimulating factor. Collectively, our data identified enteric glia as a critical link between gastrointestinal neural and immune systems that could be harnessed by therapies to ameliorate abdominal pain.
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Affiliation(s)
- Vladimir Grubišić
- Department of Physiology and Neuroscience Program, Michigan State University, 567 Wilson Road, East Lansing, MI 48824, USA
| | - Jonathon L McClain
- Department of Physiology and Neuroscience Program, Michigan State University, 567 Wilson Road, East Lansing, MI 48824, USA
| | - David E Fried
- Department of Physiology and Neuroscience Program, Michigan State University, 567 Wilson Road, East Lansing, MI 48824, USA
| | - Iveta Grants
- Department of Anesthesiology, The Wexner Medical Center, The Ohio State University, 420 West 12th Avenue, Room 216, Columbus, OH 43210, USA
| | - Pradeep Rajasekhar
- Drug Discovery Biology, Monash Institute of Pharmaceutical Sciences, Monash University, Parkville, VIC, Australia; ARC Centre of Excellence in Convergent Bio-Nano Science & Technology, Melbourne, VIC, Australia
| | - Eva Csizmadia
- Division of Gastroenterology, Department of Medicine and of Anesthesia, Beth Israel Deaconess Medical Center, Harvard Medical School, 330 Brookline Avenue, Boston, MA 02215, USA
| | - Olujimi A Ajijola
- Cardiac Arrhythmia Center, David Geffen School of Medicine at University of California, Los Angeles, Los Angeles, CA, USA
| | - Ralph E Watson
- Department of Medicine, Michigan State University, East Lansing, MI 48824, USA
| | - Daniel P Poole
- Drug Discovery Biology, Monash Institute of Pharmaceutical Sciences, Monash University, Parkville, VIC, Australia; ARC Centre of Excellence in Convergent Bio-Nano Science & Technology, Melbourne, VIC, Australia
| | - Simon C Robson
- Division of Gastroenterology, Department of Medicine and of Anesthesia, Beth Israel Deaconess Medical Center, Harvard Medical School, 330 Brookline Avenue, Boston, MA 02215, USA
| | - Fievos L Christofi
- Department of Anesthesiology, The Wexner Medical Center, The Ohio State University, 420 West 12th Avenue, Room 216, Columbus, OH 43210, USA
| | - Brian D Gulbransen
- Department of Physiology and Neuroscience Program, Michigan State University, 567 Wilson Road, East Lansing, MI 48824, USA.
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22
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Beirão BCB, Raposo TP, Imamura LM, Ingberman M, Hupp T, Vojtěšek B, Argyle DJ. A blocking antibody against canine CSF-1R maturated by limited CDR mutagenesis. Antib Ther 2020; 3:193-204. [PMID: 33937625 PMCID: PMC7990251 DOI: 10.1093/abt/tbaa018] [Citation(s) in RCA: 1] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 02/25/2020] [Revised: 07/02/2020] [Accepted: 07/29/2020] [Indexed: 01/15/2023] Open
Abstract
CSF-1R is a receptor mostly associated with the mononuclear phagocytic system. However, its expression within tumors has been linked with poor prognosis in both humans and dogs. Accordingly, several reports have demonstrated the beneficial effects of blocking CSF-1R in model systems of cancer. In this study, we generated a monoclonal antibody that could block CSF-1R in dogs as the first step to develop an anticancer drug for this species. Initially, an antibody was raised by the hybridoma methodology against the fragment responsible for receptor dimerization. mAb3.1, one of the resulting hybridoma clones, was able to bind macrophages in fixed tissues and was shown to inhibit cells of the mononuclear phagocytic line. Nevertheless, mAb 3.1 could not bind to some glycoforms of the receptor in its native form, while also demonstrating cross-reactivity with other proteins. To enhance binding properties of the mAb, five amino acids of the complementarity-determining region 2 of the variable heavy chain of mAb3.1 were mutated by PCR, and the variant scFv clones were screened by phage display. The selected scFv clones demonstrated improved binding to the native receptor as well as increased anti-macrophage activity. The resulting scFv antibody fragment presented here has the potential for use in cancer patients and in inflammatory diseases. Furthermore, this work provides insights into the use of such restricted mutations in antibody engineering.
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Affiliation(s)
- Breno C B Beirão
- The Royal (Dick) School of Veterinary Studies and Roslin Institute, The University of Edinburgh-Easter Bush, Midlothian, EH25 9RG, UK
| | - Teresa P Raposo
- The Royal (Dick) School of Veterinary Studies and Roslin Institute, The University of Edinburgh-Easter Bush, Midlothian, EH25 9RG, UK
| | - Louise M Imamura
- Department of Research and Development, Imunova Análises Biológicas, Curitiba, PR 80215-182, Brazil
| | - Max Ingberman
- Department of Research and Development, Imunova Análises Biológicas, Curitiba, PR 80215-182, Brazil
| | - Ted Hupp
- Cancer Research UK Edinburgh Centre MRC Institute of Genetics & Molecular Medicine, Western General Hospital, The University of Edinburgh, Edinburgh, EH4 2XR, UK
| | - Bořivoj Vojtěšek
- Regional Centre for Applied Molecular Oncology, Masaryk Memorial Cancer Institute, Brno, 656 53, Czech Republic
| | - David J Argyle
- The Royal (Dick) School of Veterinary Studies and Roslin Institute, The University of Edinburgh-Easter Bush, Midlothian, EH25 9RG, UK
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23
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Heinrich A, DeFalco T. Essential roles of interstitial cells in testicular development and function. Andrology 2020; 8:903-914. [PMID: 31444950 PMCID: PMC7036326 DOI: 10.1111/andr.12703] [Citation(s) in RCA: 68] [Impact Index Per Article: 17.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 07/18/2019] [Revised: 08/08/2019] [Accepted: 08/19/2019] [Indexed: 12/22/2022]
Abstract
BACKGROUND Testicular architecture and sperm production are supported by a complex network of communication between various cell types. These signals ensure fertility by: regulating spermatogonial stem/progenitor cells; promoting steroidogenesis; and driving male-specific differentiation of the gonad. Sertoli cells have long been assumed to be the major cellular player in testis organogenesis and spermatogenesis. However, cells in the interstitial compartment, such as Leydig, vascular, immune, and peritubular cells, also play prominent roles in the testis but are less well understood. OBJECTIVES Here, we aim to outline our current knowledge of the cellular and molecular mechanisms by which interstitial cell types contribute to spermatogenesis and testicular development, and how these diverse constituents of the testis play essential roles in ensuring male sexual differentiation and fertility. METHODS We surveyed scientific literature and summarized findings in the field that address how interstitial cells interact with other interstitial cell populations and seminiferous tubules (i.e., Sertoli and germ cells) to support spermatogenesis, male-specific differentiation, and testicular function. These studies focused on 4 major cell types: Leydig cells, vascular cells, immune cells, and peritubular cells. RESULTS AND DISCUSSION A growing number of studies have demonstrated that interstitial cells play a wide range of functions in the fetal and adult testis. Leydig cells, through secretion of hormones and growth factors, are responsible for steroidogenesis and progression of spermatogenesis. Vascular, immune, and peritubular cells, apart from their traditionally acknowledged physiological roles, have a broader importance than previously appreciated and are emerging as essential players in stem/progenitor cell biology. CONCLUSION Interstitial cells take part in complex signaling interactions with both interstitial and tubular cell populations, which are required for several biological processes, such as steroidogenesis, Sertoli cell function, spermatogenesis, and immune regulation. These various processes are essential for testicular function and demonstrate how interstitial cells are indispensable for male fertility.
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Affiliation(s)
- Anna Heinrich
- Division of Reproductive Sciences, Cincinnati Children’s Hospital Medical Center, 3333 Burnet Avenue, MLC 7045, Cincinnati, OH, 45229, USA
| | - Tony DeFalco
- Division of Reproductive Sciences, Cincinnati Children’s Hospital Medical Center, 3333 Burnet Avenue, MLC 7045, Cincinnati, OH, 45229, USA
- Department of Pediatrics, University of Cincinnati College of Medicine, 3230 Eden Avenue, Suite E-870, Cincinnati, OH, 45267, USA
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24
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Lohrmann F, Forde AJ, Merck P, Henneke P. Control of myeloid cell density in barrier tissues. FEBS J 2020; 288:405-426. [PMID: 32502309 DOI: 10.1111/febs.15436] [Citation(s) in RCA: 2] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 11/12/2019] [Revised: 04/21/2020] [Accepted: 06/01/2020] [Indexed: 12/19/2022]
Abstract
The interface between the mammalian host and its environment is formed by barrier tissues, for example, of the skin, and the respiratory and the intestinal tracts. On the one hand, barrier tissues are colonized by site-adapted microbial communities, and on the other hand, they contain specific myeloid cell networks comprising macrophages, dendritic cells, and granulocytes. These immune cells are tightly regulated in function and cell number, indicating important roles in maintaining tissue homeostasis and immune balance in the presence of commensal microorganisms. The regulation of myeloid cell density and activation involves cell-autonomous 'single-loop circuits' including autocrine mechanisms. However, an array of microenvironmental factors originating from nonimmune cells and the microbiota, as well as the microanatomical structure, impose additional layers of regulation onto resident myeloid cells. This review discusses models integrating these factors into cell-specific programs to instruct differentiation and proliferation best suited for the maintenance and renewal of immune homeostasis in the tissue-specific environment.
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Affiliation(s)
- Florens Lohrmann
- Department of Pediatrics and Adolescent Medicine, Faculty of Medicine, Medical Center - University of Freiburg, Germany.,Institute for Immunodeficiency (IFI), Faculty of Medicine, Center for Chronic Immunodeficiency, Medical Center, University of Freiburg, Germany.,Spemann Graduate School for Biology and Medicine, University of Freiburg, Germany.,IMM-PACT Clinician Scientist Program, Faculty of Medicine, University of Freiburg, Germany
| | - Aaron J Forde
- Institute for Immunodeficiency (IFI), Faculty of Medicine, Center for Chronic Immunodeficiency, Medical Center, University of Freiburg, Germany.,Faculty of Biology, university of Freiburg, Germany
| | - Philipp Merck
- Institute for Immunodeficiency (IFI), Faculty of Medicine, Center for Chronic Immunodeficiency, Medical Center, University of Freiburg, Germany
| | - Philipp Henneke
- Department of Pediatrics and Adolescent Medicine, Faculty of Medicine, Medical Center - University of Freiburg, Germany.,Institute for Immunodeficiency (IFI), Faculty of Medicine, Center for Chronic Immunodeficiency, Medical Center, University of Freiburg, Germany
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25
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Establishment and Maintenance of the Macrophage Niche. Immunity 2020; 52:434-451. [DOI: 10.1016/j.immuni.2020.02.015] [Citation(s) in RCA: 183] [Impact Index Per Article: 45.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 12/20/2019] [Revised: 02/21/2020] [Accepted: 02/24/2020] [Indexed: 01/22/2023]
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26
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Blagih J, Zani F, Chakravarty P, Hennequart M, Pilley S, Hobor S, Hock AK, Walton JB, Morton JP, Gronroos E, Mason S, Yang M, McNeish I, Swanton C, Blyth K, Vousden KH. Cancer-Specific Loss of p53 Leads to a Modulation of Myeloid and T Cell Responses. Cell Rep 2020; 30:481-496.e6. [PMID: 31940491 PMCID: PMC6963783 DOI: 10.1016/j.celrep.2019.12.028] [Citation(s) in RCA: 109] [Impact Index Per Article: 27.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 02/21/2019] [Revised: 07/19/2019] [Accepted: 12/06/2019] [Indexed: 12/13/2022] Open
Abstract
Loss of p53 function contributes to the development of many cancers. While cell-autonomous consequences of p53 mutation have been studied extensively, the role of p53 in regulating the anti-tumor immune response is still poorly understood. Here, we show that loss of p53 in cancer cells modulates the tumor-immune landscape to circumvent immune destruction. Deletion of p53 promotes the recruitment and instruction of suppressive myeloid CD11b+ cells, in part through increased expression of CXCR3/CCR2-associated chemokines and macrophage colony-stimulating factor (M-CSF), and attenuates the CD4+ T helper 1 (Th1) and CD8+ T cell responses in vivo. p53-null tumors also show an accumulation of suppressive regulatory T (Treg) cells. Finally, we show that two key drivers of tumorigenesis, activation of KRAS and deletion of p53, cooperate to promote immune tolerance.
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Affiliation(s)
- Julianna Blagih
- The Francis Crick Institute, 1 Midland Road, London NW1 1AT, UK
| | - Fabio Zani
- The Francis Crick Institute, 1 Midland Road, London NW1 1AT, UK
| | | | - Marc Hennequart
- The Francis Crick Institute, 1 Midland Road, London NW1 1AT, UK
| | - Steven Pilley
- The Francis Crick Institute, 1 Midland Road, London NW1 1AT, UK
| | | | - Andreas K Hock
- Cancer Research UK Beatson Institute, Switchback Road, Glasgow G61 1BD, UK; Discovery Sciences, R&D BioPharmaceuticals, AstraZeneca, Cambridge CB4 0WG, UK
| | - Josephine B Walton
- Institute of Cancer Sciences, University of Glasgow, Garscube Estate, Glasgow G61 1QH, UK
| | - Jennifer P Morton
- Cancer Research UK Beatson Institute, Switchback Road, Glasgow G61 1BD, UK; Institute of Cancer Sciences, University of Glasgow, Garscube Estate, Glasgow G61 1QH, UK
| | - Eva Gronroos
- The Francis Crick Institute, 1 Midland Road, London NW1 1AT, UK
| | - Susan Mason
- Cancer Research UK Beatson Institute, Switchback Road, Glasgow G61 1BD, UK
| | - Ming Yang
- The Francis Crick Institute, 1 Midland Road, London NW1 1AT, UK
| | - Iain McNeish
- Institute of Cancer Sciences, University of Glasgow, Garscube Estate, Glasgow G61 1QH, UK; Ovarian Cancer Action Research Centre, Department of Surgery and Cancer, Imperial College London, London W12 0NN, UK
| | - Charles Swanton
- The Francis Crick Institute, 1 Midland Road, London NW1 1AT, UK
| | - Karen Blyth
- Cancer Research UK Beatson Institute, Switchback Road, Glasgow G61 1BD, UK; Institute of Cancer Sciences, University of Glasgow, Garscube Estate, Glasgow G61 1QH, UK
| | - Karen H Vousden
- The Francis Crick Institute, 1 Midland Road, London NW1 1AT, UK.
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27
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Hume DA, Caruso M, Ferrari-Cestari M, Summers KM, Pridans C, Irvine KM. Phenotypic impacts of CSF1R deficiencies in humans and model organisms. J Leukoc Biol 2019; 107:205-219. [PMID: 31330095 DOI: 10.1002/jlb.mr0519-143r] [Citation(s) in RCA: 72] [Impact Index Per Article: 14.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 05/16/2019] [Revised: 06/20/2019] [Accepted: 07/01/2019] [Indexed: 12/12/2022] Open
Abstract
Mϕ proliferation, differentiation, and survival are controlled by signals from the Mϕ CSF receptor (CSF1R). Mono-allelic gain-of-function mutations in CSF1R in humans are associated with an autosomal-dominant leukodystrophy and bi-allelic loss-of-function mutations with recessive skeletal dysplasia, brain disorders, and developmental anomalies. Most of the phenotypes observed in these human disease states are also observed in mice and rats with loss-of-function mutations in Csf1r or in Csf1 encoding one of its two ligands. Studies in rodent models also highlight the importance of genetic background and likely epistatic interactions between Csf1r and other loci. The impacts of Csf1r mutations on the brain are usually attributed solely to direct impacts on microglial number and function. However, analysis of hypomorphic Csf1r mutants in mice and several other lines of evidence suggest that primary hydrocephalus and loss of the physiological functions of Mϕs in the periphery contribute to the development of brain pathology. In this review, we outline the evidence that CSF1R is expressed exclusively in mononuclear phagocytes and explore the mechanisms linking CSF1R mutations to pleiotropic impacts on postnatal growth and development.
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Affiliation(s)
- David A Hume
- Mater Research Institute, University of Queensland, Woolloongabba, Queensland, Australia
| | - Melanie Caruso
- Mater Research Institute, University of Queensland, Woolloongabba, Queensland, Australia
| | | | - Kim M Summers
- Mater Research Institute, University of Queensland, Woolloongabba, Queensland, Australia
| | - Clare Pridans
- Centre for Inflammation Research, The University of Edinburgh, Edinburgh, United Kingdom
| | - Katharine M Irvine
- Mater Research Institute, University of Queensland, Woolloongabba, Queensland, Australia
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28
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Wesolowski R, Sharma N, Reebel L, Rodal MB, Peck A, West BL, Marimuthu A, Severson P, Karlin DA, Dowlati A, Le MH, Coussens LM, Rugo HS. Phase Ib study of the combination of pexidartinib (PLX3397), a CSF-1R inhibitor, and paclitaxel in patients with advanced solid tumors. Ther Adv Med Oncol 2019; 11:1758835919854238. [PMID: 31258629 PMCID: PMC6589951 DOI: 10.1177/1758835919854238] [Citation(s) in RCA: 87] [Impact Index Per Article: 17.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 11/08/2018] [Accepted: 05/01/2019] [Indexed: 12/22/2022] Open
Abstract
Purpose: To evaluate the safety, recommended phase II dose (RP2D) and efficacy of pexidartinib, a colony stimulating factor receptor 1 (CSF-1R) inhibitor, in combination with weekly paclitaxel in patients with advanced solid tumors. Patients and Methods: In part 1 of this phase Ib study, 24 patients with advanced solid tumors received escalating doses of pexidartinib with weekly paclitaxel (80 mg/m2). Pexidartinib was administered at 600 mg/day in cohort 1. For subsequent cohorts, the dose was increased by ⩽50% using a standard 3+3 design. In part 2, 30 patients with metastatic solid tumors were enrolled to examine safety, tolerability and efficacy of the RP2D. Pharmacokinetics and biomarkers were also assessed. Results: A total of 51 patients reported ≥1 adverse event(s) (AEs) that were at least possibly related to either study drug. Grade 3–4 AEs, including anemia (26%), neutropenia (22%), lymphopenia (19%), fatigue (15%), and hypertension (11%), were recorded in 38 patients (70%). In part 1, no maximum tolerated dose was achieved and 1600 mg/day was determined to be the RP2D. Of 38 patients evaluable for efficacy, 1 (3%) had complete response, 5 (13%) partial response, 13 (34%) stable disease, and 17 (45%) progressive disease. No drug–drug interactions were found. Plasma CSF-1 levels increased 1.6- to 53-fold, and CD14dim/CD16+ monocyte levels decreased by 57–100%. Conclusions: The combination of pexidartinib and paclitaxel was generally well tolerated. RP2D for pexidartinib was 1600 mg/day. Pexidartinib blocked CSF-1R signaling, indicating potential for mitigating macrophage tumor infiltration.
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Affiliation(s)
- Robert Wesolowski
- Division of Medical Oncology, The Ohio State University Comprehensive Cancer Center, 1800 Cannon Dr 1250 Lincoln Tower Columbus, OH, 43210, USA
| | | | - Laura Reebel
- The Ohio State University Comprehensive Cancer Center, Columbus, OH, USA
| | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | - Mai H Le
- Plexxikon Inc. Berkeley, CA, USA
| | | | - Hope S Rugo
- University of California San Francisco, CA, USA
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29
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Hu T, Wu Z, Bush SJ, Freem L, Vervelde L, Summers KM, Hume DA, Balic A, Kaiser P. Characterization of Subpopulations of Chicken Mononuclear Phagocytes That Express TIM4 and CSF1R. THE JOURNAL OF IMMUNOLOGY 2019; 202:1186-1199. [PMID: 30626692 DOI: 10.4049/jimmunol.1800504] [Citation(s) in RCA: 24] [Impact Index Per Article: 4.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 04/09/2018] [Accepted: 12/03/2018] [Indexed: 01/08/2023]
Abstract
The phosphatidylserine receptor TIM4, encoded by TIMD4, mediates the phagocytic uptake of apoptotic cells. We applied anti-chicken TIM4 mAbs in combination with CSF1R reporter transgenes to dissect the function of TIM4 in the chick (Gallus gallus). During development in ovo, TIM4 was present on the large majority of macrophages, but expression became more heterogeneous posthatch. Blood monocytes expressed KUL01, class II MHC, and CSF1R-mApple uniformly. Around 50% of monocytes were positive for surface TIM4. They also expressed many other monocyte-specific transcripts at a higher level than TIM4- monocytes. In liver, highly phagocytic TIM4hi cells shared many transcripts with mammalian Kupffer cells and were associated with uptake of apoptotic cells. Although they expressed CSF1R mRNA, Kupffer cells did not express the CSF1R-mApple transgene, suggesting that additional CSF1R transcriptional regulatory elements are required by these cells. By contrast, CSF1R-mApple was detected in liver TIM4lo and TIM4- cells, which were not phagocytic and were more abundant than Kupffer cells. These cells expressed CSF1R alongside high levels of FLT3, MHCII, XCR1, and other markers associated with conventional dendritic cells in mice. In bursa, TIM4 was present on the cell surface of two populations. Like Kupffer cells, bursal TIM4hi phagocytes coexpressed many receptors involved in apoptotic cell recognition. TIM4lo cells appear to be a subpopulation of bursal B cells. In overview, TIM4 is associated with phagocytes that eliminate apoptotic cells in the chick. In the liver, TIM4 and CSF1R reporters distinguished Kupffer cells from an abundant population of dendritic cell-like cells.
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Affiliation(s)
- Tuanjun Hu
- The Roslin Institute, University of Edinburgh, Easter Bush, Midlothian EH25 9RG, United Kingdom
| | - Zhiguang Wu
- The Roslin Institute, University of Edinburgh, Easter Bush, Midlothian EH25 9RG, United Kingdom
| | - Stephen J Bush
- The Roslin Institute, University of Edinburgh, Easter Bush, Midlothian EH25 9RG, United Kingdom
| | - Lucy Freem
- The Roslin Institute, University of Edinburgh, Easter Bush, Midlothian EH25 9RG, United Kingdom
| | - Lonneke Vervelde
- The Roslin Institute, University of Edinburgh, Easter Bush, Midlothian EH25 9RG, United Kingdom
| | - Kim M Summers
- The Roslin Institute, University of Edinburgh, Easter Bush, Midlothian EH25 9RG, United Kingdom.,Mater Research Institute-University of Queensland, Translational Research Institute, Woolloongabba, Queensland 4102, Australia
| | - David A Hume
- The Roslin Institute, University of Edinburgh, Easter Bush, Midlothian EH25 9RG, United Kingdom; .,Mater Research Institute-University of Queensland, Translational Research Institute, Woolloongabba, Queensland 4102, Australia
| | - Adam Balic
- The Roslin Institute, University of Edinburgh, Easter Bush, Midlothian EH25 9RG, United Kingdom;
| | - Pete Kaiser
- The Roslin Institute, University of Edinburgh, Easter Bush, Midlothian EH25 9RG, United Kingdom
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Abstract
Research during the last decade has generated numerous insights on the presence, phenotype, and function of myeloid cells in cardiovascular organs. Newer tools with improved detection sensitivities revealed sizable populations of tissue-resident macrophages in all major healthy tissues. The heart and blood vessels contain robust numbers of these cells; for instance, 8% of noncardiomyocytes in the heart are macrophages. This number and the cell's phenotype change dramatically in disease conditions. While steady-state macrophages are mostly monocyte independent, macrophages residing in the inflamed vascular wall and the diseased heart derive from hematopoietic organs. In this review, we will highlight signals that regulate macrophage supply and function, imaging applications that can detect changes in cell numbers and phenotype, and opportunities to modulate cardiovascular inflammation by targeting macrophage biology. We strive to provide a systems-wide picture, i.e., to focus not only on cardiovascular organs but also on tissues involved in regulating cell supply and phenotype, as well as comorbidities that promote cardiovascular disease. We will summarize current developments at the intersection of immunology, detection technology, and cardiovascular health.
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Affiliation(s)
- Vanessa Frodermann
- Center for Systems Biology, Massachusetts General Hospital, Harvard Medical School , Boston, Massachusetts ; and Cardiovascular Research Center, Massachusetts General Hospital and Harvard Medical School , Boston, Massachusetts
| | - Matthias Nahrendorf
- Center for Systems Biology, Massachusetts General Hospital, Harvard Medical School , Boston, Massachusetts ; and Cardiovascular Research Center, Massachusetts General Hospital and Harvard Medical School , Boston, Massachusetts
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31
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Guilliams M, Mildner A, Yona S. Developmental and Functional Heterogeneity of Monocytes. Immunity 2018; 49:595-613. [DOI: 10.1016/j.immuni.2018.10.005] [Citation(s) in RCA: 395] [Impact Index Per Article: 65.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 04/25/2018] [Revised: 06/04/2018] [Accepted: 10/02/2018] [Indexed: 02/07/2023]
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32
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Röszer T. Understanding the Biology of Self-Renewing Macrophages. Cells 2018; 7:cells7080103. [PMID: 30096862 PMCID: PMC6115929 DOI: 10.3390/cells7080103] [Citation(s) in RCA: 66] [Impact Index Per Article: 11.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 06/29/2018] [Revised: 08/02/2018] [Accepted: 08/08/2018] [Indexed: 12/21/2022] Open
Abstract
Macrophages reside in specific territories in organs, where they contribute to the development, homeostasis, and repair of tissues. Recent work has shown that the size of tissue macrophage populations has an impact on tissue functions and is determined by the balance between replenishment and elimination. Macrophage replenishment is mainly due to self-renewal of macrophages, with a secondary contribution from blood monocytes. Self-renewal is a recently discovered trait of macrophages, which can have a major impact on their physiological functions and hence on the wellbeing of the organism. In this review, I discuss our current understanding of the developmental origin of self-renewing macrophages and the mechanisms used to maintain a physiologically stable macrophage pool.
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Affiliation(s)
- Tamás Röszer
- Institute of Neurobiology, University of Ulm, Albert-Einstein-Allee 11, 89081 Ulm, Germany.
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33
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Pridans C, Sauter KA, Irvine KM, Davis GM, Lefevre L, Raper A, Rojo R, Nirmal AJ, Beard P, Cheeseman M, Hume DA. Macrophage colony-stimulating factor increases hepatic macrophage content, liver growth, and lipid accumulation in neonatal rats. Am J Physiol Gastrointest Liver Physiol 2018; 314:G388-G398. [PMID: 29351395 PMCID: PMC5899243 DOI: 10.1152/ajpgi.00343.2017] [Citation(s) in RCA: 36] [Impact Index Per Article: 6.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Submit a Manuscript] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 01/31/2023]
Abstract
Signaling via the colony-stimulating factor 1 receptor (CSF1R) controls the survival, differentiation, and proliferation of macrophages. Mutations in CSF1 or CSF1R in mice and rats have pleiotropic effects on postnatal somatic growth. We tested the possible application of pig CSF1-Fc fusion protein as a therapy for low birth weight (LBW) at term, using a model based on maternal dexamethasone treatment in rats. Neonatal CSF1-Fc treatment did not alter somatic growth and did not increase the blood monocyte count. Instead, there was a substantial increase in the size of liver in both control and LBW rats, and the treatment greatly exacerbated lipid droplet accumulation seen in the dexamethasone LBW model. These effects were reversed upon cessation of treatment. Transcriptional profiling of the livers supported histochemical evidence of a large increase in macrophages with a resident Kupffer cell phenotype and revealed increased expression of many genes implicated in lipid droplet formation. There was no further increase in hepatocyte proliferation over the already high rates in neonatal liver. In conclusion, treatment of neonatal rats with CSF1-Fc caused an increase in liver size and hepatic lipid accumulation, due to Kupffer cell expansion and/or activation rather than hepatocyte proliferation. Increased liver macrophage numbers and expression of endocytic receptors could mitigate defective clearance functions in neonates. NEW & NOTEWORTHY This study is based on extensive studies in mice and pigs of the role of CSF1/CSF1R in macrophage development and postnatal growth. We extended the study to neonatal rats as a possible therapy for low birth weight. Unlike our previous studies in mice and pigs, there was no increase in hepatocyte proliferation and no increase in monocyte numbers. Instead, neonatal rats treated with CSF1 displayed reversible hepatic steatosis and Kupffer cell expansion.
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Affiliation(s)
- Clare Pridans
- 1The Roslin Institute, University of Edinburgh, Edinburgh, United Kingdom,2Medical Research Council Centre for Inflammation Research, University of Edinburgh, The Queen's Medical Research Institute, Edinburgh, United Kingdom
| | - Kristin A. Sauter
- 1The Roslin Institute, University of Edinburgh, Edinburgh, United Kingdom
| | - Katharine M. Irvine
- 3Mater Research-University of Queensland, Translational Research Institute, Woolloongabba, Australia
| | - Gemma M. Davis
- 1The Roslin Institute, University of Edinburgh, Edinburgh, United Kingdom
| | - Lucas Lefevre
- 1The Roslin Institute, University of Edinburgh, Edinburgh, United Kingdom
| | - Anna Raper
- 1The Roslin Institute, University of Edinburgh, Edinburgh, United Kingdom
| | - Rocio Rojo
- 1The Roslin Institute, University of Edinburgh, Edinburgh, United Kingdom
| | - Ajit J. Nirmal
- 1The Roslin Institute, University of Edinburgh, Edinburgh, United Kingdom
| | - Philippa Beard
- 1The Roslin Institute, University of Edinburgh, Edinburgh, United Kingdom,4The Pirbright Institute, Surrey, United Kingdom
| | - Michael Cheeseman
- 1The Roslin Institute, University of Edinburgh, Edinburgh, United Kingdom
| | - David A. Hume
- 1The Roslin Institute, University of Edinburgh, Edinburgh, United Kingdom,2Medical Research Council Centre for Inflammation Research, University of Edinburgh, The Queen's Medical Research Institute, Edinburgh, United Kingdom,3Mater Research-University of Queensland, Translational Research Institute, Woolloongabba, Australia
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34
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Adler M, Mayo A, Zhou X, Franklin RA, Jacox JB, Medzhitov R, Alon U. Endocytosis as a stabilizing mechanism for tissue homeostasis. Proc Natl Acad Sci U S A 2018; 115:E1926-E1935. [PMID: 29429964 PMCID: PMC5828590 DOI: 10.1073/pnas.1714377115] [Citation(s) in RCA: 29] [Impact Index Per Article: 4.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/13/2022] Open
Abstract
Cells in tissues communicate by secreted growth factors (GF) and other signals. An important function of cell circuits is tissue homeostasis: maintaining proper balance between the amounts of different cell types. Homeostasis requires negative feedback on the GFs, to avoid a runaway situation in which cells stimulate each other and grow without control. Feedback can be obtained in at least two ways: endocytosis in which a cell removes its cognate GF by internalization and cross-inhibition in which a GF down-regulates the production of another GF. Here we ask whether there are design principles for cell circuits to achieve tissue homeostasis. We develop an analytically solvable framework for circuits with multiple cell types and find that feedback by endocytosis is far more robust to parameter variation and has faster responses than cross-inhibition. Endocytosis, which is found ubiquitously across tissues, can even provide homeostasis to three and four communicating cell types. These design principles form a conceptual basis for how tissues maintain a healthy balance of cell types and how balance may be disrupted in diseases such as degeneration and fibrosis.
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Affiliation(s)
- Miri Adler
- Department of Molecular Cell Biology, Weizmann Institute of Science, 76100 Rehovot, Israel
| | - Avi Mayo
- Department of Molecular Cell Biology, Weizmann Institute of Science, 76100 Rehovot, Israel
| | - Xu Zhou
- Howard Hughes Medical Institute, Yale University School of Medicine, New Haven, CT 06510
- Department of Immunobiology, Yale University School of Medicine, New Haven, CT 06510
| | - Ruth A Franklin
- Howard Hughes Medical Institute, Yale University School of Medicine, New Haven, CT 06510
- Department of Immunobiology, Yale University School of Medicine, New Haven, CT 06510
| | - Jeremy B Jacox
- Howard Hughes Medical Institute, Yale University School of Medicine, New Haven, CT 06510
- Department of Immunobiology, Yale University School of Medicine, New Haven, CT 06510
| | - Ruslan Medzhitov
- Howard Hughes Medical Institute, Yale University School of Medicine, New Haven, CT 06510;
- Department of Immunobiology, Yale University School of Medicine, New Haven, CT 06510
| | - Uri Alon
- Department of Molecular Cell Biology, Weizmann Institute of Science, 76100 Rehovot, Israel;
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35
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Hawley CA, Rojo R, Raper A, Sauter KA, Lisowski ZM, Grabert K, Bain CC, Davis GM, Louwe PA, Ostrowski MC, Hume DA, Pridans C, Jenkins SJ. Csf1r-mApple Transgene Expression and Ligand Binding In Vivo Reveal Dynamics of CSF1R Expression within the Mononuclear Phagocyte System. THE JOURNAL OF IMMUNOLOGY 2018; 200:2209-2223. [PMID: 29440354 PMCID: PMC5834790 DOI: 10.4049/jimmunol.1701488] [Citation(s) in RCA: 66] [Impact Index Per Article: 11.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 10/30/2017] [Accepted: 01/17/2018] [Indexed: 01/18/2023]
Abstract
CSF1 is the primary growth factor controlling macrophage numbers, but whether expression of the CSF1 receptor differs between discrete populations of mononuclear phagocytes remains unclear. We have generated a Csf1r-mApple transgenic fluorescent reporter mouse that, in combination with lineage tracing, Alexa Fluor 647–labeled CSF1-Fc and CSF1, and a modified ΔCsf1–enhanced cyan fluorescent protein (ECFP) transgene that lacks a 150 bp segment of the distal promoter, we have used to dissect the differentiation and CSF1 responsiveness of mononuclear phagocyte populations in situ. Consistent with previous Csf1r-driven reporter lines, Csf1r-mApple was expressed in blood monocytes and at higher levels in tissue macrophages, and was readily detectable in whole mounts or with multiphoton microscopy. In the liver and peritoneal cavity, uptake of labeled CSF1 largely reflected transgene expression, with greater receptor activity in mature macrophages than monocytes and tissue-specific expression in conventional dendritic cells. However, CSF1 uptake also differed between subsets of monocytes and discrete populations of tissue macrophages, which in macrophages correlated with their level of dependence on CSF1 receptor signaling for survival rather than degree of transgene expression. A double ΔCsf1r-ECFP-Csf1r-mApple transgenic mouse distinguished subpopulations of microglia in the brain, and permitted imaging of interstitial macrophages distinct from alveolar macrophages, and pulmonary monocytes and conventional dendritic cells. The Csf1r-mApple mice and fluorescently labeled CSF1 will be valuable resources for the study of macrophage and CSF1 biology, which are compatible with existing EGFP-based reporter lines.
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Affiliation(s)
- Catherine A Hawley
- Medical Research Council Centre for Inflammation Research, University of Edinburgh, Edinburgh EH16 4TJ, United Kingdom
| | - Rocio Rojo
- The Roslin Institute, University of Edinburgh, Midlothian EH25 9RG, United Kingdom
| | - Anna Raper
- The Roslin Institute, University of Edinburgh, Midlothian EH25 9RG, United Kingdom
| | - Kristin A Sauter
- The Roslin Institute, University of Edinburgh, Midlothian EH25 9RG, United Kingdom
| | - Zofia M Lisowski
- The Roslin Institute, University of Edinburgh, Midlothian EH25 9RG, United Kingdom
| | - Kathleen Grabert
- The Roslin Institute, University of Edinburgh, Midlothian EH25 9RG, United Kingdom
| | - Calum C Bain
- Medical Research Council Centre for Inflammation Research, University of Edinburgh, Edinburgh EH16 4TJ, United Kingdom
| | - Gemma M Davis
- The Roslin Institute, University of Edinburgh, Midlothian EH25 9RG, United Kingdom.,Faculty of Life Sciences, The University of Manchester, Manchester M13 9PL, United Kingdom
| | - Pieter A Louwe
- Medical Research Council Centre for Inflammation Research, University of Edinburgh, Edinburgh EH16 4TJ, United Kingdom
| | - Michael C Ostrowski
- Hollings Cancer Center, Medical University of South Carolina, Charleston, SC 29425; and
| | - David A Hume
- Medical Research Council Centre for Inflammation Research, University of Edinburgh, Edinburgh EH16 4TJ, United Kingdom.,The Roslin Institute, University of Edinburgh, Midlothian EH25 9RG, United Kingdom.,Mater Research-University of Queensland, Translational Research Institute, Woolloongabba, Queensland 4104, Australia
| | - Clare Pridans
- Medical Research Council Centre for Inflammation Research, University of Edinburgh, Edinburgh EH16 4TJ, United Kingdom.,The Roslin Institute, University of Edinburgh, Midlothian EH25 9RG, United Kingdom
| | - Stephen J Jenkins
- Medical Research Council Centre for Inflammation Research, University of Edinburgh, Edinburgh EH16 4TJ, United Kingdom;
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36
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Abstract
Monocytes are short-lived mononuclear phagocytes that circulate in the bloodstream and comprise two main subpopulations that in the mouse are best defined by the Ly6C marker. Intravascular functions of "classical" Ly6C+ monocytes and their interactions with other lymphoid and myeloid leukocytes in the circulation remain poorly understood. Rather, these cells are known to efficiently extravasate into tissues. Indeed, Ly6C+ monocytes and their descendants have emerged as a third, highly plastic and dynamic cellular system that complements the two classical, tissue-resident mononuclear phagocyte compartments, i.e., macrophages and dendritic cells, on demand. Following recruitment to injured tissue, Ly6C+ monocytes respond to local cues and can critically contribute to the initiation and resolution of inflammatory reactions. The second main murine monocyte subset, Ly6C- cells, derive in steady state from Ly6C+ monocytes and remain in the vasculature, where the cells act as scavengers. Moreover, a major fraction of Ly6C- monocytes adheres to the capillary endothelium and patrols the vessel wall for surveillance. Given the central role of monocytes in homeostasis and pathology, in-depth study of this cellular compartment can be highly informative on the health state of the organism and provides an attractive target for therapeutic intervention.
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37
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Martinez G, Majster M, Bjurshammar N, Johannsen A, Figueredo C, Boström E. Salivary Colony Stimulating Factor-1 and Interleukin-34 in Periodontal Disease. J Periodontol 2017; 88:e140-e149. [DOI: 10.1902/jop.2017.170081] [Citation(s) in RCA: 23] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 01/12/2023]
Affiliation(s)
- G.L. Martinez
- Department of Dental Medicine, Division of Periodontology, Karolinska Institute, Huddinge, Sweden
- Department of Periodontology, Faculty of Odontology, Rio de Janeiro State University, Rio de Janeiro, Brazil
| | - M. Majster
- Department of Dental Medicine, Division of Periodontology, Karolinska Institute, Huddinge, Sweden
| | - N. Bjurshammar
- Department of Dental Medicine, Division of Periodontology, Karolinska Institute, Huddinge, Sweden
| | - A. Johannsen
- Department of Dental Medicine, Division of Periodontology, Karolinska Institute, Huddinge, Sweden
| | - C.M. Figueredo
- Department of Periodontology, Faculty of Odontology, Rio de Janeiro State University, Rio de Janeiro, Brazil
| | - E.A. Boström
- Department of Dental Medicine, Division of Periodontology, Karolinska Institute, Huddinge, Sweden
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38
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Novince CM, Whittow CR, Aartun JD, Hathaway JD, Poulides N, Chavez MB, Steinkamp HM, Kirkwood KA, Huang E, Westwater C, Kirkwood KL. Commensal Gut Microbiota Immunomodulatory Actions in Bone Marrow and Liver have Catabolic Effects on Skeletal Homeostasis in Health. Sci Rep 2017; 7:5747. [PMID: 28720797 PMCID: PMC5515851 DOI: 10.1038/s41598-017-06126-x] [Citation(s) in RCA: 69] [Impact Index Per Article: 9.9] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 10/04/2016] [Accepted: 06/08/2017] [Indexed: 12/11/2022] Open
Abstract
Despite knowledge the gut microbiota regulates bone mass, mechanisms governing the normal gut microbiota’s osteoimmunomodulatory effects on skeletal remodeling and homeostasis are unclear in the healthy adult skeleton. Young adult specific-pathogen-free and germ-free mice were used to delineate the commensal microbiota’s immunoregulatory effects on osteoblastogenesis, osteoclastogenesis, marrow T-cell hematopoiesis, and extra-skeletal endocrine organ function. We report the commensal microbiota has anti-anabolic effects suppressing osteoblastogenesis and pro-catabolic effects enhancing osteoclastogenesis, which drive bone loss in health. Suppression of Sp7(Osterix) and Igf1 in bone, and serum IGF1, in specific-pathogen-free mice suggest the commensal microbiota’s anti-osteoblastic actions are mediated via local disruption of IGF1-signaling. Differences in the RANKL/OPG Axis in vivo, and RANKL-induced maturation of osteoclast-precursors in vitro, indicate the commensal microbiota induces sustained changes in RANKL-mediated osteoclastogenesis. Candidate mechanisms mediating commensal microbiota’s pro-osteoclastic actions include altered marrow effector CD4+T-cells and a novel Gut-Liver-Bone Axis. The previously unidentified Gut-Liver-Bone Axis intriguingly implies the normal gut microbiota’s osteoimmunomodulatory actions are partly mediated via immunostimulatory effects in the liver. The molecular underpinnings defining commensal gut microbiota immunomodulatory actions on physiologic bone remodeling are highly relevant in advancing the understanding of normal osteoimmunological processes, having implications for the prevention of skeletal deterioration in health and disease.
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Affiliation(s)
- Chad M Novince
- Department of Oral Health Sciences and Center for Oral Health Research, College of Dental Medicine, Medical University of South Carolina, Charleston, South Carolina, 29425, USA.
| | - Carolyn R Whittow
- Department of Oral Health Sciences and Center for Oral Health Research, College of Dental Medicine, Medical University of South Carolina, Charleston, South Carolina, 29425, USA
| | - Johannes D Aartun
- Department of Oral Health Sciences and Center for Oral Health Research, College of Dental Medicine, Medical University of South Carolina, Charleston, South Carolina, 29425, USA
| | - Jessica D Hathaway
- Department of Oral Health Sciences and Center for Oral Health Research, College of Dental Medicine, Medical University of South Carolina, Charleston, South Carolina, 29425, USA
| | - Nicole Poulides
- Department of Oral Health Sciences and Center for Oral Health Research, College of Dental Medicine, Medical University of South Carolina, Charleston, South Carolina, 29425, USA
| | - Michael B Chavez
- Department of Oral Health Sciences and Center for Oral Health Research, College of Dental Medicine, Medical University of South Carolina, Charleston, South Carolina, 29425, USA
| | - Heidi M Steinkamp
- Department of Oral Health Sciences and Center for Oral Health Research, College of Dental Medicine, Medical University of South Carolina, Charleston, South Carolina, 29425, USA
| | - Kaeleigh A Kirkwood
- Department of Oral Health Sciences and Center for Oral Health Research, College of Dental Medicine, Medical University of South Carolina, Charleston, South Carolina, 29425, USA
| | - Emily Huang
- Department of Oral Health Sciences and Center for Oral Health Research, College of Dental Medicine, Medical University of South Carolina, Charleston, South Carolina, 29425, USA
| | - Caroline Westwater
- Department of Oral Health Sciences and Center for Oral Health Research, College of Dental Medicine, Medical University of South Carolina, Charleston, South Carolina, 29425, USA.,Department of Microbiology and Immunology, Hollings Cancer Center, Medical University of South Carolina, Charleston, South Carolina, 29425, USA
| | - Keith L Kirkwood
- Department of Oral Health Sciences and Center for Oral Health Research, College of Dental Medicine, Medical University of South Carolina, Charleston, South Carolina, 29425, USA.,Department of Microbiology and Immunology, Hollings Cancer Center, Medical University of South Carolina, Charleston, South Carolina, 29425, USA
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39
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Abstract
Monocytes and macrophages are professional phagocytes that occupy specific niches in every tissue of the body. Their survival, proliferation, and differentiation are controlled by signals from the macrophage colony-stimulating factor receptor (CSF-1R) and its two ligands, CSF-1 and interleukin-34. In this review, we address the developmental and transcriptional relationships between hematopoietic progenitor cells, blood monocytes, and tissue macrophages as well as the distinctions from dendritic cells. A huge repertoire of receptors allows monocytes, tissue-resident macrophages, or pathology-associated macrophages to adapt to specific microenvironments. These processes create a broad spectrum of macrophages with different functions and individual effector capacities. The production of large transcriptomic data sets in mouse, human, and other species provides new insights into the mechanisms that underlie macrophage functional plasticity.
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40
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Papadopoulos KP, Gluck L, Martin LP, Olszanski AJ, Tolcher AW, Ngarmchamnanrith G, Rasmussen E, Amore BM, Nagorsen D, Hill JS, Stephenson J. First-in-Human Study of AMG 820, a Monoclonal Anti-Colony-Stimulating Factor 1 Receptor Antibody, in Patients with Advanced Solid Tumors. Clin Cancer Res 2017; 23:5703-5710. [PMID: 28655795 DOI: 10.1158/1078-0432.ccr-16-3261] [Citation(s) in RCA: 139] [Impact Index Per Article: 19.9] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 01/03/2017] [Revised: 05/19/2017] [Accepted: 06/23/2017] [Indexed: 11/16/2022]
Abstract
Purpose: Binding of colony-stimulating factor 1 (CSF1) ligand to the CSF1 receptor (CSF1R) regulates survival of tumor-associated macrophages, which generally promote an immunosuppressive tumor microenvironment. AMG 820 is an investigational, fully human CSF1R antibody that inhibits binding of the ligands CSF1 and IL34 and subsequent ligand-mediated receptor activation. This first-in-human phase I study evaluated the safety, pharmacokinetics, pharmacodynamics, and antitumor activity of AMG 820.Experimental Design: Adult patients with relapsed or refractory advanced solid tumors received intravenous AMG 820 0.5 mg/kg once weekly or 1.5 to 20 mg/kg every 2 weeks until disease progression, adverse event (AE), or consent withdrawal.Results: Twenty-five patients received ≥1 dose of AMG 820. AMG 820 was tolerated up to 20 mg/kg; the MTD was not reached. One dose-limiting toxicity was observed (20 mg/kg; nonreversible grade 3 deafness). Most patients (76%) had treatment-related AEs; the most common were periorbital edema (44%), increased aspartate aminotransferase (AST; 28%), fatigue (24%), nausea (16%), increased blood alkaline phosphatase (12%), and blurred vision (12%). No patients had serious or fatal treatment-related AEs; 28% had grade ≥3 treatment-related AEs. Grade 3 AST elevations resolved when treatment was withheld. AMG 820 showed linear pharmacokinetics, with minimal accumulation (<2-fold) after repeated dosing. Pharmacodynamic increases in serum CSF1 concentrations and reduced numbers of skin macrophages were observed. Best response was stable disease in 8 patients (32%).Conclusions: AMG 820 was tolerated with manageable toxicities up to 20 mg/kg every 2 weeks. Pharmacodynamic response was demonstrated, and limited antitumor activity was observed. Clin Cancer Res; 23(19); 5703-10. ©2017 AACR.
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Affiliation(s)
- Kyriakos P Papadopoulos
- Hematology/Oncology, START (South Texas Accelerated Research Therapeutics), San Antonio, Texas.
| | - Larry Gluck
- Medical Oncology/Hematology, Greenville Health System Cancer Institute, Greenville, South Carolina
| | - Lainie P Martin
- Department of Medical Oncology, Fox Chase Cancer Center, Philadelphia, Pennsylvania
| | - Anthony J Olszanski
- Department of Medical Oncology, Fox Chase Cancer Center, Philadelphia, Pennsylvania
| | - Anthony W Tolcher
- Clinical Research, START (South Texas Accelerated Research Therapeutics), San Antonio, Texas
| | | | - Erik Rasmussen
- Biostatistical Sciences, Amgen Inc., Thousand Oaks, California
| | - Benny M Amore
- Clinical Pharmacology, Modeling and Simulation, Amgen Inc., South San Francisco, California
| | - Dirk Nagorsen
- Early Development, Hematology and Oncology, Amgen Inc., Thousand Oaks, California
| | - John S Hill
- Early Development, Hematology and Oncology, Amgen Inc., Thousand Oaks, California
| | - Joe Stephenson
- Medical Oncology/Hematology, Greenville Health System Cancer Institute, Greenville, South Carolina
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41
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Abstract
Macrophages represent a key cellular component of the liver, and are essential for maintaining tissue homeostasis and ensuring rapid responses to hepatic injury. Our understanding of liver macrophages has been revolutionized by the delineation of heterogeneous subsets of these cells. Kupffer cells are a self-sustaining, liver-resident population of macrophages and can be distinguished from the monocyte-derived macrophages that rapidly accumulate in the injured liver. Specific environmental signals further determine the polarization and function of hepatic macrophages. These cells promote the restoration of tissue integrity following liver injury or infection, but they can also contribute to the progression of liver diseases, including hepatitis, fibrosis and cancer. In this Review, we highlight novel findings regarding the origin, classification and function of hepatic macrophages, and we discuss their divergent roles in the healthy and diseased liver.
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Affiliation(s)
- Oliver Krenkel
- Department of Medicine III, University Hospital Aachen, D-52074 Aachen, Germany
| | - Frank Tacke
- Department of Medicine III, University Hospital Aachen, D-52074 Aachen, Germany
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42
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Klopfleisch R. Macrophage reaction against biomaterials in the mouse model - Phenotypes, functions and markers. Acta Biomater 2016; 43:3-13. [PMID: 27395828 DOI: 10.1016/j.actbio.2016.07.003] [Citation(s) in RCA: 211] [Impact Index Per Article: 26.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 02/02/2016] [Revised: 06/08/2016] [Accepted: 07/05/2016] [Indexed: 02/07/2023]
Abstract
UNLABELLED The foreign body reaction (FBR) is a response of the host tissue against more or less degradation-resistant foreign macromolecular material. The reaction is divided into five different phases which involve most aspects of the innate and the adaptive immune system: protein adsorption, acute and chronic inflammation, foreign body giant cell formation and fibrosis. It is long known, that macrophages play a central role in all of these phases except for protein adsorption. Initially it was believed that the macrophage driven FBR has a complete negative effect on biocompatibility. Recent progress in biomaterial and macrophage research however describe macrophages as more than pure antigen phagocytosing and presenting cells and thus pro-inflammatory cells involved in biomaterial encapsulation and failure. Quite contrary, both, pro-inflammatory M1 macrophages, the diverse regulatory M2 macrophage subtypes and even foreign body giant cells (FBGC) are after necessary for integration of non-degradable biomaterials and degradation and replacement of degradable biomaterials. This review gives a comprehensive overview on the taxonomy of the currently known macrophage subtypes. Their diverging functions, metabolism and markers are summarized and the relevance of this more diverse macrophage picture for the design of biomaterials is shortly discussed. STATEMENT OF SIGNIFICANCE The view on role of macrophages in the foreign body reaction against biomaterials is rapidly changing. Despite the initial idea that macrophage are mainly involved in undesired degradation and biomaterial rejection it becomes now clear that they are nevertheless necessary for proper integration of non-degradable biomaterials and degradation of placeholder, degradable biomaterials. As a pathologist I experienced a lack on a good summary on the current taxonomy, functions and phenotypes of macrophages in my recent projects on the biocompatibility of biomaterials in the mouse model. The submitted review therefore intends to gives a comprehensive overview on the taxonomy of the currently known macrophage subtypes. Their diverging functions, metabolism and markers are summarized and the relevance of this more diverse macrophage picture for the design of biomaterials is shortly discussed.
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Affiliation(s)
- R Klopfleisch
- Institute of Veterinary Pathology, Freie Universität Berlin, Robert-von-Ostertag-Straße 15, Berlin 14163, Germany.
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Sauter KA, Waddell LA, Lisowski ZM, Young R, Lefevre L, Davis GM, Clohisey SM, McCulloch M, Magowan E, Mabbott NA, Summers KM, Hume DA. Macrophage colony-stimulating factor (CSF1) controls monocyte production and maturation and the steady-state size of the liver in pigs. Am J Physiol Gastrointest Liver Physiol 2016; 311:G533-47. [PMID: 27445344 PMCID: PMC5076001 DOI: 10.1152/ajpgi.00116.2016] [Citation(s) in RCA: 44] [Impact Index Per Article: 5.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Submit a Manuscript] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 03/21/2016] [Accepted: 07/17/2016] [Indexed: 01/31/2023]
Abstract
Macrophage colony-stimulating factor (CSF1) is an essential growth and differentiation factor for cells of the macrophage lineage. To explore the role of CSF1 in steady-state control of monocyte production and differentiation and tissue repair, we previously developed a bioactive protein with a longer half-life in circulation by fusing pig CSF1 with the Fc region of pig IgG1a. CSF1-Fc administration to pigs expanded progenitor pools in the marrow and selectively increased monocyte numbers and their expression of the maturation marker CD163. There was a rapid increase in the size of the liver, and extensive proliferation of hepatocytes associated with increased macrophage infiltration. Despite the large influx of macrophages, there was no evidence of liver injury and no increase in circulating liver enzymes. Microarray expression profiling of livers identified increased expression of macrophage markers, i.e., cytokines such as TNF, IL1, and IL6 known to influence hepatocyte proliferation, alongside cell cycle genes. The analysis also revealed selective enrichment of genes associated with portal, as opposed to centrilobular regions, as seen in hepatic regeneration. Combined with earlier data from the mouse, this study supports the existence of a CSF1-dependent feedback loop, linking macrophages of the liver with bone marrow and blood monocytes, to mediate homeostatic control of the size of the liver. The results also provide evidence of safety and efficacy for possible clinical applications of CSF1-Fc.
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Affiliation(s)
- Kristin A. Sauter
- 1The Roslin Institute and Royal (Dick) School of Veterinary Studies, University of Edinburgh, Easter Bush, Scotland, United Kingdom; and
| | - Lindsey A. Waddell
- 1The Roslin Institute and Royal (Dick) School of Veterinary Studies, University of Edinburgh, Easter Bush, Scotland, United Kingdom; and
| | - Zofia M. Lisowski
- 1The Roslin Institute and Royal (Dick) School of Veterinary Studies, University of Edinburgh, Easter Bush, Scotland, United Kingdom; and
| | - Rachel Young
- 1The Roslin Institute and Royal (Dick) School of Veterinary Studies, University of Edinburgh, Easter Bush, Scotland, United Kingdom; and
| | - Lucas Lefevre
- 1The Roslin Institute and Royal (Dick) School of Veterinary Studies, University of Edinburgh, Easter Bush, Scotland, United Kingdom; and
| | - Gemma M. Davis
- 1The Roslin Institute and Royal (Dick) School of Veterinary Studies, University of Edinburgh, Easter Bush, Scotland, United Kingdom; and
| | - Sara M. Clohisey
- 1The Roslin Institute and Royal (Dick) School of Veterinary Studies, University of Edinburgh, Easter Bush, Scotland, United Kingdom; and
| | - Mary McCulloch
- 1The Roslin Institute and Royal (Dick) School of Veterinary Studies, University of Edinburgh, Easter Bush, Scotland, United Kingdom; and
| | - Elizabeth Magowan
- 2Agri-Food and Biosciences Institute, Large Park, Hillsborough, Northern Ireland, United Kingdom
| | - Neil A. Mabbott
- 1The Roslin Institute and Royal (Dick) School of Veterinary Studies, University of Edinburgh, Easter Bush, Scotland, United Kingdom; and
| | - Kim M. Summers
- 1The Roslin Institute and Royal (Dick) School of Veterinary Studies, University of Edinburgh, Easter Bush, Scotland, United Kingdom; and
| | - David A. Hume
- 1The Roslin Institute and Royal (Dick) School of Veterinary Studies, University of Edinburgh, Easter Bush, Scotland, United Kingdom; and
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Ushach I, Zlotnik A. Biological role of granulocyte macrophage colony-stimulating factor (GM-CSF) and macrophage colony-stimulating factor (M-CSF) on cells of the myeloid lineage. J Leukoc Biol 2016; 100:481-9. [PMID: 27354413 DOI: 10.1189/jlb.3ru0316-144r] [Citation(s) in RCA: 324] [Impact Index Per Article: 40.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 03/21/2016] [Accepted: 06/07/2016] [Indexed: 12/14/2022] Open
Abstract
M-CSF and GM-CSF are 2 important cytokines that regulate macrophage numbers and function. Here, we review their known effects on cells of the macrophage-monocyte lineage. Important clues to their function come from their expression patterns. M-CSF exhibits a mostly homeostatic expression pattern, whereas GM-CSF is a product of cells activated during inflammatory or pathologic conditions. Accordingly, M-CSF regulates the numbers of various tissue macrophage and monocyte populations without altering their "activation" status. Conversely, GM-CSF induces activation of monocytes/macrophages and also mediates differentiation to other states that participate in immune responses [i.e., dendritic cells (DCs)]. Further insights into their function have come from analyses of mice deficient in either cytokine. M-CSF signals through its receptor (CSF-1R). Interestingly, mice deficient in CSF-1R expression exhibit a more significant phenotype than mice deficient in M-CSF. This observation was explained by the discovery of a novel cytokine (IL-34) that represents a second ligand of CSF-1R. Information about the function of these ligands/receptor system is still developing, but its complexity is intriguing and strongly suggests that more interesting biology remains to be elucidated. Based on our current knowledge, several therapeutic molecules targeting either the M-CSF or the GM-CSF pathways have been developed and are currently being tested in clinical trials targeting either autoimmune diseases or cancer. It is intriguing to consider how evolution has directed these pathways to develop; their complexity likely mirrors the multiple functions in which cells of the monocyte/macrophage system are involved.
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Affiliation(s)
- Irina Ushach
- Department of Physiology and Biophysics, Institute for Immunology, University of California, Irvine, California, USA
| | - Albert Zlotnik
- Department of Physiology and Biophysics, Institute for Immunology, University of California, Irvine, California, USA
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Polk A, Lu Y, Wang T, Seymour E, Bailey NG, Singer JW, Boonstra PS, Lim MS, Malek S, Wilcox RA. Colony-Stimulating Factor-1 Receptor Is Required for Nurse-like Cell Survival in Chronic Lymphocytic Leukemia. Clin Cancer Res 2016; 22:6118-6128. [PMID: 27334834 DOI: 10.1158/1078-0432.ccr-15-3099] [Citation(s) in RCA: 32] [Impact Index Per Article: 4.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 12/22/2015] [Revised: 05/31/2016] [Accepted: 06/04/2016] [Indexed: 01/08/2023]
Abstract
PURPOSE Monocytes and their progeny are abundant constituents of the tumor microenvironment in lymphoproliferative disorders, including chronic lymphocytic leukemia (CLL). Monocyte-derived cells, including nurse-like cells (NLC) in CLL, promote lymphocyte proliferation and survival, confer resistance to chemotherapy, and are associated with more rapid disease progression. Colony-stimulating factor-1 receptor (CSF-1R) regulates the homeostatic survival of tissue-resident macrophages. Therefore, we sought to determine whether CSF-1R is similarly required for NLC survival. EXPERIMENTAL DESIGN CSF-1R expression by NLC was examined by flow cytometry and IHC. CSF-1R blocking studies were performed using an antagonistic mAb to examine its role in NLC generation and in CLL survival. A rational search strategy was performed to identify a novel tyrosine kinase inhibitor (TKI) targeting CSF-1R. The influence of TKI-mediated CSF-1R inhibition on NLC and CLL viability was examined. RESULTS We demonstrated that the generation and survival of NLC in CLL is dependent upon CSF-1R signaling. CSF-1R blockade is associated with significant depletion of NLC and consequently inhibits CLL B-cell survival. We found that the JAK2/FLT3 inhibitor pacritinib suppresses CSF-1R signaling, thereby preventing the generation and survival of NLC and impairs CLL B-cell viability. CONCLUSIONS CSF-1R is a novel therapeutic target that may be exploited in lymphoproliferative disorders, like CLL, that are dependent upon lymphoma-associated macrophages. Clin Cancer Res; 22(24); 6118-28. ©2016 AACR.
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Affiliation(s)
- Avery Polk
- Department of Internal Medicine, Division of Hematology and Oncology, University of Michigan, Ann Arbor, Michigan
| | - Ye Lu
- Department of Internal Medicine, Division of Hematology and Oncology, University of Michigan, Ann Arbor, Michigan
| | - Tianjiao Wang
- Department of Internal Medicine, Division of Hematology and Oncology, University of Michigan, Ann Arbor, Michigan
| | - Erlene Seymour
- Department of Internal Medicine, Division of Hematology and Oncology, University of Michigan, Ann Arbor, Michigan
| | | | | | - Philip S Boonstra
- Department of Biostatistics, University of Michigan, Ann Arbor, Michigan
| | - Megan S Lim
- Department of Pathology, University of Michigan, Ann Arbor, Michigan
| | - Sami Malek
- Department of Internal Medicine, Division of Hematology and Oncology, University of Michigan, Ann Arbor, Michigan
| | - Ryan A Wilcox
- Department of Internal Medicine, Division of Hematology and Oncology, University of Michigan, Ann Arbor, Michigan.
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46
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Monocyte Activation in Immunopathology: Cellular Test for Development of Diagnostics and Therapy. J Immunol Res 2016; 2016:4789279. [PMID: 26885534 PMCID: PMC4739459 DOI: 10.1155/2016/4789279] [Citation(s) in RCA: 29] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 10/02/2015] [Revised: 12/20/2015] [Accepted: 12/21/2015] [Indexed: 12/14/2022] Open
Abstract
Several highly prevalent human diseases are associated with immunopathology. Alterations in the immune system are found in such life-threatening disorders as cancer and atherosclerosis. Monocyte activation followed by macrophage polarization is an important step in normal immune response to pathogens and other relevant stimuli. Depending on the nature of the activation signal, macrophages can acquire pro- or anti-inflammatory phenotypes that are characterized by the expression of distinct patterns of secreted cytokines and surface antigens. This process is disturbed in immunopathologies resulting in abnormal monocyte activation and/or bias of macrophage polarization towards one or the other phenotype. Such alterations could be used as important diagnostic markers and also as possible targets for the development of immunomodulating therapy. Recently developed cellular tests are designed to analyze the phenotype and activity of living cells circulating in patient's bloodstream. Monocyte/macrophage activation test is a successful example of cellular test relevant for atherosclerosis and oncopathology. This test demonstrated changes in macrophage activation in subclinical atherosclerosis and breast cancer and could also be used for screening a panel of natural agents with immunomodulatory activity. Further development of cellular tests will allow broadening the scope of their clinical implication. Such tests may become useful tools for drug research and therapy optimization.
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47
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Stutchfield BM, Antoine DJ, Mackinnon AC, Gow DJ, Bain CC, Hawley CA, Hughes MJ, Francis B, Wojtacha D, Man TY, Dear JW, Devey LR, Mowat AM, Pollard JW, Park BK, Jenkins SJ, Simpson KJ, Hume DA, Wigmore SJ, Forbes SJ. CSF1 Restores Innate Immunity After Liver Injury in Mice and Serum Levels Indicate Outcomes of Patients With Acute Liver Failure. Gastroenterology 2015; 149:1896-1909.e14. [PMID: 26344055 PMCID: PMC4672154 DOI: 10.1053/j.gastro.2015.08.053] [Citation(s) in RCA: 146] [Impact Index Per Article: 16.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Submit a Manuscript] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 04/01/2015] [Revised: 08/01/2015] [Accepted: 08/27/2015] [Indexed: 12/13/2022]
Abstract
BACKGROUND & AIMS Liver regeneration requires functional liver macrophages, which provide an immune barrier that is compromised after liver injury. The numbers of liver macrophages are controlled by macrophage colony-stimulating factor (CSF1). We examined the prognostic significance of the serum level of CSF1 in patients with acute liver injury and studied its effects in mice. METHODS We measured levels of CSF1 in serum samples collected from 55 patients who underwent partial hepatectomy at the Royal Infirmary Edinburgh between December 2012 and October 2013, as well as from 78 patients with acetaminophen-induced acute liver failure admitted to the Royal Infirmary Edinburgh or the University of Kansas Medical Centre. We studied the effects of increased levels of CSF1 in uninjured mice that express wild-type CSF1 receptor or a constitutive or inducible CSF1-receptor reporter, as well as in chemokine receptor 2 (Ccr2)-/- mice; we performed fate-tracing experiments using bone marrow chimeras. We administered CSF1-Fc (fragment, crystallizable) to mice after partial hepatectomy and acetaminophen intoxication, and measured regenerative parameters and innate immunity by clearance of fluorescent microbeads and bacterial particles. RESULTS Serum levels of CSF1 increased in patients undergoing liver surgery in proportion to the extent of liver resected. In patients with acetaminophen-induced acute liver failure, a low serum level of CSF1 was associated with increased mortality. In mice, administration of CSF1-Fc promoted hepatic macrophage accumulation via proliferation of resident macrophages and recruitment of monocytes. CSF1-Fc also promoted transdifferentiation of infiltrating monocytes into cells with a hepatic macrophage phenotype. CSF1-Fc increased innate immunity in mice after partial hepatectomy or acetaminophen-induced injury, with resident hepatic macrophage as the main effector cells. CONCLUSIONS Serum CSF1 appears to be a prognostic marker for patients with acute liver injury. CSF1 might be developed as a therapeutic agent to restore innate immune function after liver injury.
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Affiliation(s)
- Benjamin M. Stutchfield
- MRC Centre for Regenerative Medicine, University of Edinburgh, Edinburgh, United Kingdom,Division of Clinical and Surgical Sciences, University of Edinburgh, Edinburgh, United Kingdom
| | - Daniel J. Antoine
- MRC Centre for Drug Safety Science, Department of Molecular and Clinical Pharmacology, University of Edinburgh, Edinburgh, United Kingdom
| | - Alison C. Mackinnon
- MRC Centre for Regenerative Medicine, University of Edinburgh, Edinburgh, United Kingdom
| | - Deborah J. Gow
- The Roslin Institute and Royal (Dick) School of Veterinary Studies, University of Edinburgh, Edinburgh, United Kingdom
| | - Calum C. Bain
- Institute of Infection, Immunity and Inflammation, University of Glasgow, Glasgow, United Kingdom
| | - Catherine A. Hawley
- MRC Centre for Inflammation Research, University of Edinburgh, Edinburgh, United Kingdom
| | - Michael J. Hughes
- Division of Clinical and Surgical Sciences, University of Edinburgh, Edinburgh, United Kingdom
| | - Benjamin Francis
- Department of Biostatistics, Institute of Translational Medicine, University of Liverpool, Liverpool, United Kingdom
| | - Davina Wojtacha
- MRC Centre for Regenerative Medicine, University of Edinburgh, Edinburgh, United Kingdom
| | - Tak Y. Man
- MRC Centre for Regenerative Medicine, University of Edinburgh, Edinburgh, United Kingdom
| | - James W. Dear
- National Poisons Information Service Edinburgh, Royal Infirmary of Edinburgh, University of Edinburgh, Edinburgh, United Kingdom
| | - Luke R. Devey
- MRC Centre for Inflammation Research, University of Edinburgh, Edinburgh, United Kingdom
| | - Alan M. Mowat
- Institute of Infection, Immunity and Inflammation, University of Glasgow, Glasgow, United Kingdom
| | - Jeffrey W. Pollard
- MRC Centre for Reproductive Health, University of Edinburgh, Edinburgh, United Kingdom
| | - B. Kevin Park
- MRC Centre for Drug Safety Science, Department of Molecular and Clinical Pharmacology, University of Edinburgh, Edinburgh, United Kingdom
| | - Stephen J. Jenkins
- MRC Centre for Inflammation Research, University of Edinburgh, Edinburgh, United Kingdom
| | - Kenneth J. Simpson
- Division of Clinical and Surgical Sciences, University of Edinburgh, Edinburgh, United Kingdom
| | - David A. Hume
- MRC Centre for Drug Safety Science, Department of Molecular and Clinical Pharmacology, University of Edinburgh, Edinburgh, United Kingdom
| | - Stephen J. Wigmore
- Division of Clinical and Surgical Sciences, University of Edinburgh, Edinburgh, United Kingdom
| | - Stuart J. Forbes
- MRC Centre for Regenerative Medicine, University of Edinburgh, Edinburgh, United Kingdom,Reprint requests Address requests for reprints to: S. J. Forbes, MD, Scottish Centre for Regenerative Medicine, 5 Little France Drive, Edinburgh BioQuarter, Edinburgh EH16 4UU, United Kingdom. fax: (44) (0)131-651-9501.
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Raposo TP, Beirão BCB, Pang LY, Queiroga FL, Argyle DJ. Inflammation and cancer: till death tears them apart. Vet J 2015; 205:161-74. [PMID: 25981934 DOI: 10.1016/j.tvjl.2015.04.015] [Citation(s) in RCA: 77] [Impact Index Per Article: 8.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 10/31/2014] [Revised: 04/09/2015] [Accepted: 04/11/2015] [Indexed: 01/19/2023]
Abstract
Advances in biotechnology have enabled the collection of an immeasurable amount of information from genomic, transcriptomic, metabolomic and proteomic studies of tumours within their microenvironments. The dissection of cytokine and chemokine networks has provided new clues to the interactions between cancer cells and their surrounding inflammatory landscape. To bridge the gap between chronic inflammation and cancer, dynamic participants in the tumour microenvironment have been identified, including tumour-associated macrophages (TAMs) and regulatory T cells (Tregs). Both of these cell types are notable for their ability to cause immunosuppressive conditions and support the evasion of tumour immune surveillance. It is clear now that the tumour-promoting inflammatory environment has to be included as one of the major cancer hallmarks. This review explores the recent advances in the understanding of cancer-related inflammation and how this is being applied to comparative oncology studies in humans and domestic species, such as the dog.
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Affiliation(s)
- T P Raposo
- The Royal (Dick) School of Veterinary Studies and The Roslin Institute, University of Edinburgh, Easter Bush, Edinburgh EH25 9RG, United Kingdom; Center for Research and Technology of Agro-Environment and Biological Sciences (CITAB), University of Trás-os-Montes and Alto Douro, 5000-801 Vila Real, Portugal
| | - B C B Beirão
- The Royal (Dick) School of Veterinary Studies and The Roslin Institute, University of Edinburgh, Easter Bush, Edinburgh EH25 9RG, United Kingdom
| | - L Y Pang
- The Royal (Dick) School of Veterinary Studies and The Roslin Institute, University of Edinburgh, Easter Bush, Edinburgh EH25 9RG, United Kingdom
| | - F L Queiroga
- Center for Research and Technology of Agro-Environment and Biological Sciences (CITAB), University of Trás-os-Montes and Alto Douro, 5000-801 Vila Real, Portugal
| | - D J Argyle
- The Royal (Dick) School of Veterinary Studies and The Roslin Institute, University of Edinburgh, Easter Bush, Edinburgh EH25 9RG, United Kingdom.
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Gutknecht MF, Bouton AH. Functional significance of mononuclear phagocyte populations generated through adult hematopoiesis. J Leukoc Biol 2014; 96:969-80. [PMID: 25225678 PMCID: PMC4226790 DOI: 10.1189/jlb.1ri0414-195r] [Citation(s) in RCA: 18] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 04/08/2014] [Revised: 08/14/2014] [Accepted: 08/15/2014] [Indexed: 12/23/2022] Open
Abstract
Tissue homeostasis requires a complete repertoire of functional macrophages in peripheral tissues. Recent evidence indicates that many resident tissue macrophages are seeded during embryonic development and persist through adulthood as a consequence of localized proliferation. Mononuclear phagocytes are also produced during adult hematopoiesis; these cells are then recruited to sites throughout the body, where they function in tissue repair and remodeling, resolution of inflammation, maintenance of homeostasis, and disease progression. The focus of this review is on mononuclear phagocytes that comprise the nonresident monocyte/macrophage populations in the body. Key features of monocyte differentiation are presented, focusing primarily on the developmental hierarchy that is established through this process, the markers used to identify discrete cell populations, and novel, functional attributes of these cells. These features are then explored in the context of the tumor microenvironment, where mononuclear phagocytes exhibit extensive plasticity in phenotype and function.
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Affiliation(s)
- Michael F Gutknecht
- Department of Microbiology, Immunology and Cancer Biology, University of Virginia School of Medicine, Charlottesville, Virginia, USA
| | - Amy H Bouton
- Department of Microbiology, Immunology and Cancer Biology, University of Virginia School of Medicine, Charlottesville, Virginia, USA
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50
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Intravital imaging reveals distinct responses of depleting dynamic tumor-associated macrophage and dendritic cell subpopulations. Proc Natl Acad Sci U S A 2014; 111:E5086-95. [PMID: 25385645 DOI: 10.1073/pnas.1419899111] [Citation(s) in RCA: 79] [Impact Index Per Article: 7.9] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 02/06/2023] Open
Abstract
Tumor-infiltrating inflammatory cells comprise a major part of the stromal microenvironment and support cancer progression by multiple mechanisms. High numbers of tumor myeloid cells correlate with poor prognosis in breast cancer and are coupled with the angiogenic switch and malignant progression. However, the specific roles and regulation of heterogeneous tumor myeloid populations are incompletely understood. CSF-1 is a major myeloid cell mitogen, and signaling through its receptor CSF-1R is also linked to poor outcomes. To characterize myeloid cell function in tumors, we combined confocal intravital microscopy with depletion of CSF-1R-dependent cells using a neutralizing CSF-1R antibody in the mouse mammary tumor virus long-terminal region-driven polyoma middle T antigen breast cancer model. The depleted cells shared markers of tumor-associated macrophages and dendritic cells (M-DCs), matching the phenotype of tumor dendritic cells that take up antigens and interact with T cells. We defined functional subgroups within the M-DC population by imaging endocytic and matrix metalloproteinase activity. Anti-CSF-1R treatment altered stromal dynamics and impaired both survival of M-DCs and accumulation of new M-DCs, but did not deplete Gr-1(+) neutrophils or block doxorubicin-induced myeloid cell recruitment, and had a minimal effect on lung myeloid cells. Nevertheless, prolonged treatment led to delayed tumor growth, reduced vascularity, and decreased lung metastasis. Because the myeloid infiltrate in metastatic lungs differed significantly from that in mammary tumors, the reduction in metastasis may result from the impact on primary tumors. The combination of functional analysis by intravital imaging with cellular characterization has refined our understanding of the effects of experimental targeted therapies on the tumor microenvironment.
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