Derivation of a biologically contained replication system for human immunodeficiency virus type 1

Thailandamide, a Fatty Acid Synthesis Antibiotic That Is Coexpressed with a Resistant Target Gene

Microbes encode many uncharacterized gene clusters that may produce antibiotics and other bioactive small molecules. Methods for activating these genes are needed to explore their biosynthetic potential. A transposon containing an inducible promoter was randomly inserted into the genome of the soil bacterium Burkholderia thailandensis to induce antibiotic expression. This screen identified the polyketide/nonribosomal peptide thailandamide as an antibiotic and discovered its regulator, AtsR. Mutants of Salmonella resistant to thailandamide had mutations in the accA gene for acetyl coenzyme A (acetyl-CoA) carboxylase, which is one of the first enzymes in the fatty acid synthesis pathway. A second copy of accA in the thailandamide synthesis gene cluster keeps B. thailandensis resistant to its own antibiotic. These genetic techniques will likely be powerful tools for discovering other unusual antibiotics.

Accessing chemical diversity from the uncultivated symbionts of small marine animals

Chemistry drives many biological interactions between the microbiota and host animals, yet it is often challenging to identify the chemicals involved. This poses a problem, as such small molecules are excellent sources of potential pharmaceuticals, pretested by nature for animal compatibility. We discovered anti-HIV compounds from small, marine tunicates from the Eastern Fields of Papua New Guinea. Tunicates are a reservoir for novel bioactive chemicals, yet their small size often impedes identification or even detection of the chemicals within. We solved this problem by combining chemistry, metagenomics, and synthetic biology to directly identify and synthesize the natural products. We show that these anti-HIV compounds, the divamides, are a novel family of lanthipeptides produced by symbiotic bacteria living in the tunicate. Neighboring animal colonies contain structurally related divamides that differ starkly in their biological properties, suggesting a role for biosynthetic plasticity in a native context where biological interactions take place.

Naturally Occurring Fc-Dependent Antibody From HIV-Seronegative Individuals Promotes HIV-Induced IFN-α Production

A majority of adults without HIV infection and with a low risk of HIV-exposure have plasma IgG antibodies that enhance the rate and magnitude of HIV-induced interferon alpha (IFN-α) production. Fc-dependent IgG-HIV complexes induce IFN-α rapidly and in high titers in response to HIV concentrations that are too low to otherwise stimulate an effective IFN-α response. IFN-α promoting antibody (IPA) counters HIV-specific inhibition of IFN-α production, and compensates for the inherent delay in IFN-α production common to HIV infection and other viruses. Naturally occurring IPA has the potential to initiate a potent IFN-α response early in the course of HIV mucosal invasion in time to terminate infection prior to the creation of a pool of persistently infected cells. The current study adds IPA as a mediator of an Fc-dependent antiviral state capable of preventing HIV infection.

Isolation of pyrrolocins A-C: cis- and trans-decalin tetramic acid antibiotics from an endophytic fungal-derived pathway

Three new decalin-type tetramic acid analogues, pyrrolocins A (1), B (2), and C (3), were defined as products of a metabolic pathway from a fern endophyte, NRRL 50135, from Papua New Guinea. NRRL 50135 initially produced 1 but ceased its production before chemical or biological evaluation could be completed. Upon transfer of the biosynthetic pathway to a model host, 1-3 were produced. All three compounds are structurally related to equisetin-type compounds, with 1 and 3 having a trans-decalin ring system, while 2 has a cis-fused decalin. All were active against Mycobacterium tuberculosis, with the trans-decalin analogues 1 and 3 exhibiting lower MICs than the cis-decalin analogue 2. Here we report the isolation, structure elucidation, and antimycobacterial activities of 1-3 from the recombinant expression as well as the isolation of 1 from the wild-type fungus NRRL 50135.

Synthesis of bicyclic guanidines via cascade hydroamination/Michael additions of mono-N-acryloylpropargylguanidines

A cascade silver(I)-catalyzed hydroamination/Michael addition sequence has been developed to deliver highly substituted bicyclic guanidines. This transformation gives rise to geometrically and constitutionally stable ene-guanidines and generates a remote stereocenter with moderate to high diastereoselectivity.

Structure and activity of lobophorins from a turrid mollusk-associated Streptomyces sp

A novel lumun-lumun sampling methodology was used to obtain a large diversity of micromollusks, including the new species Lienardia totopotens. In turn, from L. totopotens we cultivated a Streptomyces sp. strain that contained new and known spirotetronate polyketides, lobophorins (1-5). The structures were elucidated using spectroscopy, and the compounds were evaluated for cytotoxicity to human cells and activity against Mycobacterium tuberculosis, Bacillus subtilis, Pseudomonas aeruginosa and Burkholderia cepacia. Compounds 2-5 showed varying degrees of activity against human cells, M. tuberculosis and B. subtilis in the low μM to mid nM range but were inactive against the other strains, while 1 lacking digitoxose was inactive. Very slight structural changes in 2-5 led to varying antibacterial:cytotoxicity ratios, providing a possible basis to synthesize more selective derivatives.

HIV-1 causes CD4 cell death through DNA-dependent protein kinase during viral integration

Human immunodeficiency virus-1 (HIV-1) has infected more than 60 million people and caused nearly 30 million deaths worldwide, ultimately the consequence of cytolytic infection of CD4(+) T cells. In humans and in macaque models, most of these cells contain viral DNA and are rapidly eliminated at the peak of viraemia, yet the mechanism by which HIV-1 induces helper T-cell death has not been defined. Here we show that virus-induced cell killing is triggered by viral integration. Infection by wild-type HIV-1, but not an integrase-deficient mutant, induced the death of activated primary CD4 lymphocytes. Similarly, raltegravir, a pharmacologic integrase inhibitor, abolished HIV-1-induced cell killing both in cell culture and in CD4(+) T cells from acutely infected subjects. The mechanism of killing during viral integration involved the activation of DNA-dependent protein kinase (DNA-PK), a central integrator of the DNA damage response, which caused phosphorylation of p53 and histone H2AX. Pharmacological inhibition of DNA-PK abolished cell death during HIV-1 infection in vitro, suggesting that processes which reduce DNA-PK activation in CD4 cells could facilitate the formation of latently infected cells that give rise to reservoirs in vivo. We propose that activation of DNA-PK during viral integration has a central role in CD4(+) T-cell depletion, raising the possibility that integrase inhibitors and interventions directed towards DNA-PK may improve T-cell survival and immune function in infected individuals.

Making the most of Papua New Guinea's biodiversity: Establishment of an integrated set of programs that link botanical survey with pharmacological assessment in "The Land of the Unexpected"

An integrated and coordinated set of programs has been established to meet ICBG goals in Papua New Guinea (PNG). Here we give an overview of the PNG ICBG and focus on the key elements and major steps taken to establish a program necessary for the pharmacological assessment of botanicals and traditional medicines in PNG and, by extrapolation, in other developing countries.

Analysis of the interaction of primate retroviruses with the human RNA interference machinery

The question of whether retroviruses, including human immunodeficiency virus type 1 (HIV-1), interact with the cellular RNA interference machinery has been controversial. Here, we present data showing that neither HIV-1 nor human T-cell leukemia virus type 1 (HTLV-1) expresses significant levels of either small interfering RNAs or microRNAs in persistently infected T cells. We also demonstrate that the retroviral nuclear transcription factors HIV-1 Tat and HTLV-1 Tax, as well as the Tas transactivator encoded by primate foamy virus, fail to inhibit RNA interference in human cells. Moreover, the stable expression of physiological levels of HIV-1 Tat did not globally inhibit microRNA production or expression in infected human cells. Together, these data argue that HIV-1 and HTLV-1 neither induce the production of viral small interfering RNAs or microRNAs nor repress the cellular RNA interference machinery in infected cells.

Role for CD21 in the establishment of an extracellular HIV reservoir in lymphoid tissues

Follicular dendritic cells (FDC) represent a major extracellular reservoir for HIV. A better understanding of the mechanisms of virion attachment to FDC may offer new avenues for reducing viral burdens in infected individuals. We used a murine model to investigate the establishment of extracellular HIV reservoirs in lymph nodes (LN). Consistent with findings in human tissues, CD21 was required for trapping of HIV to LN cells, as evidenced by significantly reduced virion binding when mice were pretreated with a C3 ligand-blocking anti-CD21 mAb and absence of virion trapping in CD21 knockout mice. Also consistent with findings in human tissues, the majority of HIV virions were associated with the FDC-enriched fraction of LN cell preparations. Somewhat surprisingly, HIV-specific Abs were not essential for HIV binding to LN cells, indicating that seeding of the FDC reservoir may begin shortly after infection and before the development of HIV-specific Abs. Finally, the virion-displacing potential for anti-CD21 mAbs was investigated. Treatment of mice with anti-CD21 mAbs several days after injection of HIV significantly reduced HIV bound to LN cells. Our findings demonstrate a critical role for CD21 in HIV trapping by LN cells and suggest a new therapeutic avenue for reducing HIV reservoirs.

Confocal microscopy studies of a model oligoribonucleotide HIV inhibitor

Previous work has shown that novel amphipalhic oligo and polyribonucleotides are potent inhibitors of HIV. It was hypothesized that the mechanism(s) of action for these compounds might be inhibition of retroviral reverse transcriptase (RT) and/or viral uptake by cells. A fluorescent oligonucleotide analog was prepared, and confocal microscopy studies were undertaken in order to examine oligonucleotide-cell interactions.

An anti-HIV-1 gp120 antibody expressed as an endocytotic transmembrane protein mediates internalization of HIV-1

In this study, we used HIV-1 as a model to demonstrate a novel approach for receptor-independent cell entry of virus. The heavy chain of an anti-HIV-1 gp120 antibody was engineered with endocytotic and transmembrane motifs from either the cation-independent mannose 6-phosphate receptor or the low-density lipoprotein receptor. Flow cytometry and immunofluorescence studies showed that the chimeric antibodies were expressed on the cell surface and can undergo rapid internalization. Furthermore, one of the chimeric antibodies was able to bind and internalize HIV-1. Using a luciferase reporter HIV-1, we further showed that internalized viruses could undergo replication. Therefore, we have demonstrated a proof-of-principle of a novel method that can be used to internalize virus into cells, without prior knowledge of the cellular receptor for the virus. We propose that this approach would be particularly useful for studying viruses whose cellular receptor(s) is not known.

Raf-1 activation suppresses neuroendocrine marker and hormone levels in human gastrointestinal carcinoid cells

Gastrointestinal carcinoid cells secrete multiple neuroendocrine markers and hormones including 5-HT and chromogranin A. The intracellular signaling pathways that regulate production of bioactive molecules are not completely understood. Our aim was to determine whether activation of the raf-1/MEK/MAPK signal transduction pathway in carcinoid cells could modulate production of neuroendocrine markers and hormones. Human pancreatic carcinoid cells (BON) were stably transduced with an estrogen-inducible raf-1 construct creating BON-raf cells. Activation of raf-1 in BON-raf cells led to a marked induction of phosphorylated MEK and ERK1/2 within 48 h. Importantly, raf-1 activation resulted in morphological changes accompanied by a marked decrease in neuroendocrine secretory granules by electronmicroscopy. Moreover, induction of raf-1 in BON-raf cells led to significant reductions in 5-HT, chromogranin A, and synaptophysin levels. Furthermore, treatment of BON-raf cells with MEK inhibitors PD-98059 and U-0126 blocked raf-1-mediated morphological changes and hormone suppression but not ERK1/2 phosphorylation. These results show that raf-1 induction suppresses neuroendocrine marker and hormone production in human gastrointestinal carcinoid cells via a pathway dependent on MEK activation.

Apoptotic effects in primary human umbilical vein endothelial cell cultures caused by exposure to virion-associated and cell membrane-associated HIV-1 gp120

During the course of HIV-1 infection, free virus, infected cells, and free HIV-1 proteins circulate within the host, exposing the host endothelium to these viral factors. We have previously presented evidence showing that soluble HIV-1 gp120 protein interacts with chemokine receptors on primary human endothelium and (through those interactions) induces apoptosis as well as other intracellular effects. The current study examines the effect of exposure of vascular endothelium to gp120 IIIb expressed on the surface of Jurkat cells and in the context of viral particles. Apoptosis was observed in human umbilical vein endothelial cell (HUVEC) cultures exposed to gp160-transfected Jurkat cells as well as to virion particles with gp120 on their surface. Additional experiments show that this apoptotic effect was caused by gp120 protein acting through chemokine receptors on the HUVEC surface, primarily the CXCR4 receptor. At higher concentrations of gp120, this lymphotrophic variant, which has been shown to interact predominantly with CXCR4, seems to interact with and induce apoptosis through the CCR5 receptor. Finally, this apoptotic effect in HUVEC cultures occurs at low levels of the inducing agent, gp120, on cell membranes or on virion particles. These results demonstrate that HIV-1 gp120 is capable of interacting with and killing vascular endothelial cells in multiple in vivo contexts.

HIV-1 tat induced apoptosis of T-cells is not mediated by TGF-beta

Recent reports have demonstrated that the HIV-1 transactivator protein, tat, induces apoptosis in T-lymphocyte cell lines, as well as in peripheral blood mononuclear cells, and stimulates a cascade of events resulting in up-regulation of the potent immunosuppressive cytokine, transforming growth factor-beta (TGF-beta). In this study we evaluated the ability of TGF-beta to mediate tat induced apoptosis in T-lymphocyte cell lines. T-cells treated exogenously with either TGF-beta1 or a combination of tat and pan-specific TGF-beta neutralizing antibodies showed little change in the amount of apoptosis. When treated with pan-specific TGF-beta neutralizing antibodies, Jurkat cells that stably express tat protein (Jurkat-tat ) showed only a modest decrease in apoptosis, while CEM-TART cells (CEM T-cells expressing both HIV-1 tat and rev ) demonstrated little change in the amount of apoptosis. In conclusion, we have demonstrated that TGF-beta does not play a significant role in mediating tat induced T-cell apoptosis.

A new contained human immunodeficiency virus type 1 host cell system for evaluation of antiviral activities of interferons and other agents in vitro

HIV-host infection systems in vitro are important in the pre-clinical assessment of anti-retroviral drug activity. The present report describes the development of a new HIV-host model comprised of an epithelial cell line of HeLa lineage (HeLa-1), transfected with expression vectors bearing tat and rev (TART) genes of HIV-1 as well as the CD4 receptor gene, and HIV-1(delta Tat/Rev), a biologically contained strain of HIV-1 deleted in tat and rev. Measurement of infectivity, by syncytium formation and reverse transcriptase assay, revealed that HeLa-1 is infected with HIV-1(deltaTat/Rev). This virus failed to productively infect the TART-deficient CD4-positive HeLa cells, confirming its contained, non-infectious nature. The HeLa-1/HIV-1deltaTat/Rev system was used to measure the anti-retroviral activity of a human leukocyte-derived interferon (IFN-alphan3) preparation, several nucleoside analogs, and protease inhibitors. The HeLa-1/ HIV-1(deltaTat/Rev model provides a biologically contained system for the study of the HIV pathogenesis and the relative and combined therapeutic effects of anti-retroviral agents in vitro.

Armored RNA technology for production of ribonuclease-resistant viral RNA controls and standards

The widespread use of sensitive assays for the detection of viral and cellular RNA sequences has created a need for stable, well-characterized controls and standards. We describe the development of a versatile, novel system for creating RNase-resistant RNA. "Armored RNA" is a complex of MS2 bacteriophage coat protein and RNA produced in Escherichia coli by the induction of an expression plasmid that encodes the coat protein and an RNA standard sequence. The RNA sequences are completely protected from RNase digestion within the bacteriophage-like complexes. As a prototype, a 172-base consensus sequence from a portion of the human immunodeficiency virus type 1 (HIV-1) gag gene was synthesized and cloned into the packaging vector used to produce the bacteriophage-like particles. After production and purification, the resulting HIV-1 Armored RNA particles were shown to be resistant to degradation in human plasma and produced reproducible results in the Amplicor HIV-1 Monitor assay for 180 days when stored at -20 degreesC or for 60 days at 4 degreesC. Additionally, Armored RNA preparations are homogeneous and noninfectious.

The activation domain of a hormone inducible HTLV-1 Rex protein determines colocalization with the nuclear pore

Human T-cell leukemia/lymphoma virus type 1 (HTLV-1) Rex is an essential regulatory protein that acts at the posttranscriptional level to promote expression of unspliced and singly spliced genes of the virus. Rex functions have been attributed to at least three separate domains of the protein determining nuclear/nucleolar accumulation and RNA binding (overlapping), multimerization, and nuclear export of Rex-responsive RNA. The steady-state intracellular localization of functional Rex molecules is mainly nucleolar. Fusions of wild-type Rex and the ligand binding domain of human estrogen receptor (ER) produced conditional molecules (ERRex and ERalaRex), which remained cytoplasmic in the absence of hormone and in response to hormone colocalized with the nuclear pore complex (NPC). These molecules induced in a hormone-dependent manner the expression of a Rex reporter plasmid and of the HTLV-1 Env protein and fusion of Env expressing cells. In contrast, activation domain mutants (ERRex delta and ERRexGly) translocated from the cytoplasm and acquired a diffuse nuclear localization. These mutants did not associate with the NPC and failed to show any of the expected Rex functions. Rex functions were perturbed by inactivating the RNA binding domain (mutant ERM2) or the oligomerization domain (mutant ERM7). However, these two mutant fusion proteins exhibited a hormone-dependent NPC colocalization. These observations provide in vivo evidence that intranuclear translocation of intact Rex to the NPC is dependent exclusively on a functional activation domain and is not influenced by binding to the target RNA.

Expression of human immunodeficiency virus type 1 reverse transcriptase in trans during virion release and after infection

The normal reverse transcription of retroviral RNA is a complex process which depends on the orchestration of several steps throughout the virus life cycle. During the assembly of retroviruses, reverse transcriptase (RT) is directed into the virion as a component of the Gag-Pol polyprotein. In the maturation of the Gag-Pol polyprotein of human immunodeficiency virus type 1 (HIV-1), cleavage by the viral protease occurs during viral budding. After infection, reverse transcription of viral RNA into double-stranded DNA is completed in the cytoplasm of the infected cell. In this study, the processing and reverse transcription of HIV-1 have been examined by separate expression of mature HIV-1 RT and proviral molecules bearing RT mutations. The effects of RT expression in trans during virion release and after viral entry were investigated. Constitutive expression of HIV-1 RT was established in CD4- and non-CD4-expressing cells via the coexpression of its individual subunits, and three HIV-1 RT mutant constructs were generated. The results indicate that a bona fide RT trans complementation does not occur during virion release or after infection. However, after infection of an RT-expressing cell with a high titer RT-defective virus, intracellular reverse transcription can be detected.

Inhibition of HIV type 1 Tat-mediated trans-activation by oncostatin M in HLtat cells

We have tested the effect of oncostatin M (OSM) on the Tat-mediated trans-activation in a HeLa cell line (HLtat) expressing Tat, using a transfection assay with the LacZ gene under the control of the HIV-1 LTR. Oncostatin M reduced the LacZ expression by 50% at a concentration of 9.5 ng/ml (IC50), which was far below the 50% cytotoxic concentration (CC50 > 400 ng/ml). Although HLtat cells may represent an interesting model for the study of the signal transduction pathway of OSM, this cytokine did not inhibit the tumor necrosis factor (TNF)-dependent activation of the HIV LTR in Molt pNAZ cells or the Tat-mediated trans-activation in HeLa, HeLa-CD4, Hep-II, COS-7, or Jurkat-tat cells. Likewise, OSM did not show any anti-HIV-1 activity in the MT4 cell/MTT assay. Our findings with OSM indicate that, for the screening of HIV Tat inhibitors, care must be taken in selecting a system that not only emulates HIV Tat trans-activation, but is also representative for in vivo-infected cells.

Discovery and in vitro development of AIDS antiviral drugs as biopharmaceuticals

The goal of developing an effective drug against HIV-1 and AIDS has been approached by several routes, with enough encouraging results to stimulate further efforts. Compounds active against HIV-1 have been discovered for many of the functions in the reproductive cycle recognized as virus-specific targets. Discoveries have been made in cell-based assays as well as mechanistic assays, and the value of both types of assays in the drug discovery process has been discussed. Although the final test of a drug's efficacy comes in the clinical experience, submission of an antiviral compound to an in vitro developmental gauntlet can save much time, effort, expense, and human resource in the in vivo developmental regimen required prior to human use. Emergence of viral resistance to drugs in several structural classes has compromised their clinical efficacy, suggesting that development of other potential drugs in those classes may not be good investments. Strains of HIV-1 resistant to specific compound classes are used to categorize new active discoveries for possible developmental exclusion, and defining the mechanism of action of such a new compound may confirm the discouraging judgement. On the other hand, novel compounds which exhibit a broad range of activity in drug-resistant and other HIV-1 strains deserve greater scrutiny. Clinicians most likely will be hesitant to treat patients with compounds shown to act on virus-cell surface interactions, given the failure in the past of several such compounds in clinical studies. But a compound shown to have a unique and novel mechanism of action will be looked upon more favorably, and surviving other tests of potency, solubility, and stability will be unhesitatingly presented for in vivo development. The partial successes of drugs currently in clinical use against AIDS offers great encouragement that other more-effective, less-toxic drugs will be found. Exquisite techniques for identifying new targets on virus gene products, the selection of compounds on activity paradigms, and the enormous variety of compounds becoming available through synthesis libraries, all offer opportunities for anti-HIV drug discovery, which, in our view, cannot fail to present potent antiviral compounds which will survive the rigorous preclinical and clinical tests leading to a drug effective against AIDS.

Tat-independent replication of human immunodeficiency viruses

The replication of human immunodeficiency retroviruses involves a complex series of events that is regulated at both transcriptional and posttranscriptional levels. The tat gene product is a potent trans-activator of viral transcription and therefore an attractive target for the development of antiviral drugs. Tat-defective HIV-1 proviral DNA clones have been shown previously to be replication defective. In this study, we report that tat-defective HIV-1 and HIV-2 viral DNA transfected into U937 cells can direct efficient viral replication in the presence of transcriptional stimulators such as TNF-alpha and PMA. In MT-4 cells, tat-defective HIV-1 can replicate without any stimulation. The viruses recovered from MT-4 cells remained tat defective defined by their inability to infect T cell lines (e.g., Molt 4/8) although replication could be rescued with cytokines. Limited replication was observed in primary mononuclear cells. Furthermore, we showed that Ro 24-7429, a potent tat antagonist and antiviral compound, failed to suppress HIV-1 replication in TNF-alpha-stimulated T cells. These results have important implications for targeting tat as a therapeutic strategy for AIDS.

Retrovirus vector-mediated transfer of functional HIV-1 regulatory genes

Replication of the human immunodeficiency virus depends on the expression of its regulatory genes. We have constructed three plasmids, based on the retrovirus vector LXSN, that contain the tat, rev, and env (pLTRESN), the rev and env (pLRESN), and the nef (pLnefSN) genes of HIV-1. In a two-step virus rescue protocol, during which introns are removed from the DNA fragments inserted into pLXSN, these plasmids were used to establish amphotropic retrovirus vector producer lines for the transfer of tat (LtatSN), rev (LrevSN), and nef (LnefSN). These vectors have titers greater or equal to 10(6) CFU/ml and efficiently transduced each of these genes into a variety of human and murine cell lines. Representative populations of cells constitutively expressing the tat and rev genes were obtained. Cell lines transduced with LtatSN were able to trans-activate an HIV-LTRCAT construct, indicating the presence of a functional Tat protein. Similarly, cells transduced with LrevSN were able to rescue a rev- HIV-1 provirus, indicating the presence of a functional Rev. We also used LnefSN to obtain clones of cells expressing Nef. Our results indicate that these retrovirus vectors are useful reagents for the efficient transfer of functional Tat, Rev, and Nef and for the establishment of cell lines constitutively expressing these genes.

Characterization of bovine immunodeficiency virus rev cDNAs and identification and subcellular localization of the Rev protein

One of the six putative accessory genes of bovine immunodeficiency virus (BIV) is similar to those identified as rev in the human immunodeficiency virus and visna virus genomes. To further analyze the BIV rev gene locus, protein, and function, rev cDNAs were cloned and characterized. BIV rev mRNA is derived from the full-length transcript by multiple splicing events and consists of three exons, including the untranslated leader sequence and two coding exons. BIV rev cDNA was expressed in bacteria and in a mammalian in vitro translation expression system. A 23-kDa Rev protein (p23rev) was immunologically detected in lysates from both systems by using an antiserum made to a synthetic Rev peptide. Recombinant p23rev made in bacteria was purified and used to make a polyvalent antiserum. Antisera to Rev peptide and recombinant p23rev immunoprecipitated p23rev from BIV-infected mammalian cells but not from virions. A mammalian expression vector using the BIV rev cDNA was constructed; p23rev was immunoprecipitated with anti-Rev serum from 32P-labeled lysates of monkey cells transfected with this plasmid, demonstrating that BIV Rev is phosphorylated. Immunofluorescence and immunoelectron microscopy with anti-BIV Rev antisera localized Rev in the nucleus and, particularly, in the nucleoli of BIV-infected cells. In functional studies, the expression of BIV Rev was shown to positively regulate the appearance both of Gag protein, which is translated from the unspliced primary viral transcript, and of singly spliced env mRNA but not that of the multiply spliced tat mRNA. These results demonstrate that BIV Rev activity correlates with the known function of lentivirus Rev proteins.