An apical permeability barrier to NH3/NH4+ in isolated, perfused colonic crypts

Real time imaging of single extracellular vesicle pH regulation in a microfluidic cross-flow filtration platform

Extracellular vesicles (EVs) are cell-derived membranous structures carrying transmembrane proteins and luminal cargo. Their complex cargo requires pH stability in EVs while traversing diverse body fluids. We used a filtration-based platform to capture and stabilize EVs based on their size and studied their pH regulation at the single EV level. Dead-end filtration facilitated EV capture in the pores of an ultrathin (100 nm thick) and nanoporous silicon nitride (NPN) membrane within a custom microfluidic device. Immobilized EVs were rapidly exposed to test solution changes driven across the backside of the membrane using tangential flow without exposing the EVs to fluid shear forces. The epithelial sodium-hydrogen exchanger, NHE1, is a ubiquitous plasma membrane protein tasked with the maintenance of cytoplasmic pH at neutrality. We show that NHE1 identified on the membrane of EVs is functional in the maintenance of pH neutrality within single vesicles. This is the first mechanistic description of EV function on the single vesicle level.

Riazanski et al describe a platform to capture extracellular vesicles (EVs) using a nanoporous silicon nitride membrane, investigate the expression of NHE1 protein on the surface of EVs and monitor the transport of Na+ and H+ at the single EV level. The authors report a mechanistic function of the proteins found in EVs and specifically identify NHE1 on a single EV, where it maintains pH neutrality within single vesicles.

Carbon dioxide transport across membranes

Carbon dioxide (CO2) movement across cellular membranes is passive and governed by Fick's law of diffusion. Until recently, we believed that gases cross biological membranes exclusively by dissolving in and then diffusing through membrane lipid. However, the observation that some membranes are CO2 impermeable led to the discovery of a gas molecule moving through a channel; namely, CO2 diffusion through aquaporin-1 (AQP1). Later work demonstrated CO2 diffusion through rhesus (Rh) proteins and NH3 diffusion through both AQPs and Rh proteins. The tetrameric AQPs exhibit differential selectivity for CO2 versus NH3 versus H2O, reflecting physico-chemical differences among the small molecules as well as among the hydrophilic monomeric pores and hydrophobic central pores of various AQPs. Preliminary work suggests that NH3 moves through the monomeric pores of AQP1, whereas CO2 moves through both monomeric and central pores. Initial work on AQP5 indicates that it is possible to create a metal-binding site on the central pore's extracellular face, thereby blocking CO2 movement. The trimeric Rh proteins have monomers with hydrophilic pores surrounding a hydrophobic central pore. Preliminary work on the bacterial Rh homologue AmtB suggests that gas can diffuse through the central pore and three sets of interfacial clefts between monomers. Finally, initial work indicates that CO2 diffuses through the electrogenic Na/HCO3 cotransporter NBCe1. At least in some cells, CO2-permeable proteins could provide important pathways for transmembrane CO2 movements. Such pathways could be amenable to cellular regulation and could become valuable drug targets.

Penicillin G Induces H+, K+-ATPase via a Nitric Oxide-Dependent Mechanism in the Rat Colonic Crypt

Background/Aims:

The colonic H⁺, K⁺ ATPase (HKA2) is a heterodimeric membrane protein that exchanges luminal K⁺ for intracellular H⁺ and is involved in maintaining potassium homeostasis. Under homeostatic conditions, the colonic HKA2 remains inactive, since most of the potassium is absorbed by the small intestine. In diarrheal states, potassium is secreted and compensatory potassium absorption becomes necessary. This study proposes a novel mechanism whereby the addition of penicillin G sodium salt (penG) to colonic crypts stimulates potassium uptake in the presence of intracellular nitric oxide (NO), under sodium-free (0-Na⁺) conditions.

Methods:

Sprague Dawley rat colonic crypts were isolated and pHi changes were monitored through the ammonium prepulse technique. Increased proton extrusion in 0-Na⁺ conditions reflected heightened H⁺, K⁺ ATPase activity. Colonic crypts were exposed to penG, L-arginine (a NO precursor), and N-nitro l-arginine methyl ester (L-NAME, a NO synthase inhibitor).

Results:

Isolated administration of penG significantly increased H⁺, K⁺ ATPase activity from baseline, p 0.0067. Co-administration of arginine and penG in 0-Na⁺ conditions further upregulated H⁺, K⁺ ATPase activity, p <0.0001. Crypt perfusion with L-NAME and penG demonstrated a significant reduction in H⁺, K⁺ ATPase activity, p 0.0058.

Conclusion:

Overall, acute exposure of colonic crypts to penG activates the H⁺, K⁺ ATPase in the presence of NO. This study provides new insights into colonic potassium homeostasis.

Acid-Base Basics

Although students initially learn of ionic buffering in basic chemistry, buffering and acid-base transport in biology often is relegated to specialized classes, discussions, or situations. That said, for physiology, nephrology, pulmonology, and anesthesiology, these basic principles often are critically important for mechanistic understanding, medical treatments, and assessing therapy effectiveness. This short introductory perspective focuses on basic chemistry and transport of buffers and acid-base equivalents, provides an outline of basic science acid-base concepts, tools used to monitor intracellular pH, model cellular responses to pH buffer changes, and the more recent development and use of genetically encoded pH-indicators. Examples of newer genetically encoded pH-indicators (pHerry and pHire) are provided, and their use for in vitro, ex vivo, and in vivo experiments are described. The continued use and development of these basic tools provide increasing opportunities for both basic and potentially clinical investigations.

Candida albicans Hyphal Expansion Causes Phagosomal Membrane Damage and Luminal Alkalinization

C. albicans is the most common cause of nosocomial fungal infection, and over 3 million people acquire life-threatening invasive fungal infections every year. Even if antifungal drugs exist, almost half of these patients will die. Despite this, fungi remain underestimated as pathogens. Our study uses quantitative biophysical approaches to demonstrate that yeast-to-hypha transition occurs within the nutrient-deprived, acidic phagosome and that alkalinization is a consequence, as opposed to the cause, of hyphal growth.

Macrophages rely on phagosomal acidity to destroy engulfed microorganisms. To survive this hostile response, opportunistic fungi such as Candida albicans developed strategies to evade the acidic environment. C. albicans is polymorphic and able to convert from yeast to hyphae, and this transition is required to subvert the microbicidal activity of the phagosome. However, the phagosomal lumen, which is acidic and nutrient deprived, is believed to inhibit the yeast-to-hypha transition. To account for this apparent paradox, it was recently proposed that C. albicans produces ammonia that alkalinizes the phagosome, thus facilitating yeast-to-hypha transition. We reexamined the mechanism underlying phagosomal alkalinization by applying dual-wavelength ratiometric pH measurements. The phagosomal membrane was found to be highly permeable to ammonia, which is therefore unlikely to account for the pH elevation. Instead, we find that yeast-to-hypha transition begins within acidic phagosomes and that alkalinization is a consequence of proton leakage induced by excessive membrane distension caused by the expanding hypha.

Cholesterol is the main regulator of the carbon dioxide permeability of biological membranes

We present here a compilation of membrane CO₂ permeabilities (Pco₂) for various cell types from the literature. Pco₂ values vary over more than two orders of magnitude. Relating Pco₂ to the cholesterol content of the membranes shows that, with the exception of red blood cells, it is essentially membrane cholesterol that determines the value of Pco₂. Thus, the observed strong modulation of Pco₂ in the majority of membranes is caused by cholesterol rather than gas channels.

Ammonia Transporters and Their Role in Acid-Base Balance

Acid-base homeostasis is critical to maintenance of normal health. Renal ammonia excretion is the quantitatively predominant component of renal net acid excretion, both under basal conditions and in response to acid-base disturbances. Although titratable acid excretion also contributes to renal net acid excretion, the quantitative contribution of titratable acid excretion is less than that of ammonia under basal conditions and is only a minor component of the adaptive response to acid-base disturbances. In contrast to other urinary solutes, ammonia is produced in the kidney and then is selectively transported either into the urine or the renal vein. The proportion of ammonia that the kidney produces that is excreted in the urine varies dramatically in response to physiological stimuli, and only urinary ammonia excretion contributes to acid-base homeostasis. As a result, selective and regulated renal ammonia transport by renal epithelial cells is central to acid-base homeostasis. Both molecular forms of ammonia, NH₃ and NH₄⁺, are transported by specific proteins, and regulation of these transport processes determines the eventual fate of the ammonia produced. In this review, we discuss these issues, and then discuss in detail the specific proteins involved in renal epithelial cell ammonia transport.

Diffusive shunting of gases and other molecules in the renal vasculature: physiological and evolutionary significance

Countercurrent systems have evolved in a variety of biological systems that allow transfer of heat, gases, and solutes. For example, in the renal medulla, the countercurrent arrangement of vascular and tubular elements facilitates the trapping of urea and other solutes in the inner medulla, which in turn enables the formation of concentrated urine. Arteries and veins in the cortex are also arranged in a countercurrent fashion, as are descending and ascending vasa recta in the medulla. For countercurrent diffusion to occur, barriers to diffusion must be small. This appears to be characteristic of larger vessels in the renal cortex. There must also be gradients in the concentration of molecules between afferent and efferent vessels, with the transport of molecules possible in either direction. Such gradients exist for oxygen in both the cortex and medulla, but there is little evidence that large gradients exist for other molecules such as carbon dioxide, nitric oxide, superoxide, hydrogen sulfide, and ammonia. There is some experimental evidence for arterial-to-venous (AV) oxygen shunting. Mathematical models also provide evidence for oxygen shunting in both the cortex and medulla. However, the quantitative significance of AV oxygen shunting remains a matter of controversy. Thus, whereas the countercurrent arrangement of vasa recta in the medulla appears to have evolved as a consequence of the evolution of Henle’s loop, the evolutionary significance of the intimate countercurrent arrangement of blood vessels in the renal cortex remains an enigma.

Relative CO₂/NH₃ permeabilities of human RhAG, RhBG and RhCG

Mammalian glycosylated rhesus (Rh) proteins include the erythroid RhAG and the nonerythroid RhBG and RhCG. RhBG and RhCG are expressed in multiple tissues, including hepatocytes and the collecting duct (CD) of the kidney. Here, we expressed human RhAG, RhBG and RhCG in Xenopus oocytes (vs. H2O-injected control oocytes) and used microelectrodes to monitor the maximum transient change in surface pH (DpHS) caused by exposing the same oocyte to 5 % CO₂/33 mM HCO₃⁻ (an increase) or 0.5 mM NH₃/NH₄⁺ (a decrease). Subtracting the respective values for day-matched, H₂O-injected control oocytes yielded channel-specific values (*). (ΔpH*(S))(CO₂) and (-ΔpH*(S))(NH₃) were each significantly >0 for all channels, indicating that RhBG and RhCG--like RhAG--can carry CO₂ and NH₃. We also investigated the role of a conserved aspartate residue, which was reported to inhibit NH₃ transport. However, surface biotinylation experiments indicate the mutants RhBG(D178N) and RhCG(D177N) have at most a very low abundance in the oocyte plasma membrane. We demonstrate for the first time that RhBG and RhCG--like RhAG--have significant CO₂ permeability, and we confirm that RhAG, RhBG and RhCG all have significant NH₃ permeability. However, as evidenced by (ΔpH*(S))(CO₂)/ (-ΔpH*(S))(NH₃) values, we could not distinguish among the CO₂/ NH₃ permeability ratios for RhAG, RhBG and RhCG. Finally, we propose a mechanism whereby RhBG and RhCG contribute to acid secretion in the CD by enhancing the transport of not only NH₃ but also CO₂ across the membranes of CD cells.

Characteristics of mammalian Rh glycoproteins (SLC42 transporters) and their role in acid-base transport

The mammalian Rh glycoproteins belong to the solute transporter family SLC42 and include RhAG, present in red blood cells, and two non-erythroid members RhBG and RhCG that are expressed in various tissues, including kidney, liver, skin and the GI tract. The Rh proteins in the red blood cell form an "Rh complex" made up of one D-subunit, one CE-subunit and two RhAG subunits. The Rh complex has a well-known antigenic effect but also contributes to the stability of the red cell membrane. RhBG and RhCG are related to the NH4(+) transporters of the yeast and bacteria but their exact function is yet to be determined. This review describes the expression and molecular properties of these membrane proteins and their potential role as NH3/NH4(+) and CO2 transporters. The likelihood that these proteins transport gases such as CO2 or NH3 is novel and significant. The review also describes the physiological importance of these proteins and their relevance to human disease.

(Pro)renin receptor is required for prorenin-dependent and -independent regulation of vacuolar H+-ATPase activity in MDCK.C11 collecting duct cells

Prorenin binding to the prorenin receptor [(P)RR] results in nonproteolytic activation of prorenin but also directly (i.e., independent of angiotensin generation) activates signal transduction cascades that can lead to the upregulation of profibrotic factors. The (P)RR is an accessory protein of vacuolar-type H+-ATPase (V-ATPase) and is required for V-ATPase integrity. In addition, in collecting duct cells, prorenin-induced activation of Erk depends on V-ATPase activity. However, whether prorenin binding to the (P)RR directly regulates V-ATPase activity is as yet unknown. Here, we studied the effect of prorenin on plasma membrane V-ATPase activity in Madin-Darby canine kidney clone 11 (MDCK.C11) cells, which resemble intercalated cells of the collecting duct. Prorenin increased V-ATPase activity at low nanomolar concentrations, and the V-ATPase inhibitor bafilomycin A1, but not the angiotensin II type 1 and 2 receptor blockers irbesartan and PD-123319, prevented this. Increased, but not basal, V-ATPase activity was abolished by small interfering RNA depletion of the (P)RR. Unexpectedly, the putative peptidic (P)RR blocker handle region peptide also increasedV-ATPase activity in a (P)RR-dependent manner. Finally, [Arg8]-vasopressin-stimulated V-ATPase activity and cAMP production were also abolished by (P)RR depletion. Our results show that in MDCK.C11 cells, the (P)RR is required for prorenin-dependent and -independent regulation of V-ATPase activity.

Effect of NSAIDs on Na⁺/H⁺ exchanger activity in rat colonic crypts

Nonsteroidal anti-inflammatory drugs (NSAIDs; 1) are widely recommended for several acute and chronic conditions. For example, both indomethacin and aspirin are taken for pain relief. Aspirin is also used for prevention of myocardial infarction, and indomethacin can be administered orally or as a suppository for patients with rheumatoid disease and other chronic inflammatory states. However, use of NSAIDs can cause damage to the mucosal barrier surrounding the gastrointestinal (GI) tract, increasing the risk of ulcer formation. While microencapsulation of NSAIDs has been shown to reduce upper GI injury, sustained release in the lower GI tract and colon may cause epithelial erosion due to increased acidification. The use of suppositories has also been linked to rectal and lower GI bleeding. In this study, we investigated the role of NSAIDs aspirin and indomethacin on Na⁺/H⁺ exchanger (NHE) activity in rat colonic crypts. By comparing average rates of pH recovery between control and NSAID perfusion runs, we were able to determine that both aspirin and indomethacin increase hydrogen extrusion into the colonic lumen. Through treatment with 5-ethylisopropyl amiloride (EIPA), amiloride, and zoniporide dihydrochloride, we further demonstrated that indomethacin specifically enhances proton excretion through regulation of apical NHE-3 and NHE-2 and to a lesser extent on basolateral NHE-1 and NHE-4. Our results suggest that clinical exposure to NSAIDs may affect colonic tissue at the site of selected NHE isoforms, resulting in modulation of transport and barrier function.

Re-print of "Intestinal luminal nitrogen metabolism: role of the gut microbiota and consequences for the host"

Alimentary and endogenous proteins are mixed in the small intestinal lumen with the microbiota. Although experimental evidences suggest that the intestinal microbiota is able to incorporate and degrade some of the available amino acids, it appears that the microbiota is also able to synthesize amino acids raising the view that amino acid exchange between the microbiota and host can proceed in both directions. Although the net result of such exchanges remains to be determined, it is likely that a significant part of the amino acids recovered from the alimentary proteins are used by the microbiota. In the large intestine, where the density of bacteria is much higher than in the small intestine and the transit time much longer, the residual undigested luminal proteins and peptides can be degraded in amino acids by the microbiota. These amino acids cannot be absorbed to a significant extent by the colonic epithelium, but are precursors for the synthesis of numerous metabolic end products in reactions made by the microbiota. Among these products, some like short-chain fatty acids and organic acids are energy substrates for the colonic mucosa and several peripheral tissues while others like sulfide and ammonia can affect the energy metabolism of colonic epithelial cells. More work is needed to clarify the overall effects of the intestinal microbiota on nitrogenous compound metabolism and consequences on gut and more generally host health.

Renal ammonia metabolism and transport

Renal ammonia metabolism and transport mediates a central role in acid-base homeostasis. In contrast to most renal solutes, the majority of renal ammonia excretion derives from intrarenal production, not from glomerular filtration. Renal ammoniagenesis predominantly results from glutamine metabolism, which produces 2 NH4(+) and 2 HCO3(-) for each glutamine metabolized. The proximal tubule is the primary site for ammoniagenesis, but there is evidence for ammoniagenesis by most renal epithelial cells. Ammonia produced in the kidney is either excreted into the urine or returned to the systemic circulation through the renal veins. Ammonia excreted in the urine promotes acid excretion; ammonia returned to the systemic circulation is metabolized in the liver in a HCO3(-)-consuming process, resulting in no net benefit to acid-base homeostasis. Highly regulated ammonia transport by renal epithelial cells determines the proportion of ammonia excreted in the urine versus returned to the systemic circulation. The traditional paradigm of ammonia transport involving passive NH3 diffusion, protonation in the lumen and NH4(+) trapping due to an inability to cross plasma membranes is being replaced by the recognition of limited plasma membrane NH3 permeability in combination with the presence of specific NH3-transporting and NH4(+)-transporting proteins in specific renal epithelial cells. Ammonia production and transport are regulated by a variety of factors, including extracellular pH and K(+), and by several hormones, such as mineralocorticoids, glucocorticoids and angiotensin II. This coordinated process of regulated ammonia production and transport is critical for the effective maintenance of acid-base homeostasis.

Urea nitrogen salvage mechanisms and their relevance to ruminants, non-ruminants and man

Maintaining a correct balance of N is essential for life. In mammals, the major sources of N in the diet are amino acids and peptides derived from ingested proteins. The immediate endproduct of mammalian protein catabolism is ammonia, which is toxic to cells if allowed to accumulate. Therefore, amino acids are broken down in the liver as part of the ornithine-urea cycle, which results in the formation of urea - a highly soluble, biochemically benign molecule. Mammals cannot break down urea, which is traditionally viewed as a simple waste product passed out in the urine. However, urea from the bloodstream can pass into the gastrointestinal tract, where bacteria expressing urease cleave urea into ammonia and carbon dioxide. The bacteria utilise the ammonia as an N source, producing amino acids and peptides necessary for growth. Interestingly, these microbial products can be reabsorbed back into the host mammalian circulation and used for synthetic processes. This entire process is known as 'urea nitrogen salvaging' (UNS). In this review we present evidence supporting a role for this process in mammals - including ruminants, non-ruminants and man. We also explore the possible mechanisms involved in UNS, including the role of specialised urea transporters.

Mechanisms of transepithelial ammonia excretion and luminal alkalinization in the gut of an intestinal air-breathing fish, Misgurnus anguilliacaudatus

The weatherloach, Misgurnus angulliacaudatus, is an intestinal air-breathing, freshwater fish that has the unique ability to excrete ammonia through gut volatilization when branchial and cutaneous routes are compromised during high environmental ammonia or air exposure. We hypothesized that transepithelial gut NH4+ transport is facilitated by an apical Na+/H+ (NH4+) exchanger (NHE) and basolateral Na+/K+(NH4+)-ATPase, and that gut boundary layer alkalinization (NH4+ =&gt; NH3 + H+) is facilitated by apical HCO3- secretion through a Cl-/HCO3- anion exchanger. This was tested using a pharmacological approach with anterior (digestive) and posterior (respiratory) intestine preparations mounted in pH-stat equipped Ussing chambers. The anterior intestine had a markedly higher conductance, short circuit current and net base (Jbase) and ammonia excretions rates (Jamm) than posterior intestine. In anterior intestine, HCO3- accounted for 70% Jbase. In the presence of an imposed serosal-mucosal ammonia gradient, both NHE and Na+/K+-ATPase inhibitors EIPA (0.1mM) and ouabain (0.1mM) significantly inhibit Jamm in the anterior intestine, although only the former in the posterior intestine. In addition, the anion exchange inhibitor DIDS significantly reduced Jbase in anterior intestine although only at a high dose (1mM). Carbonic anhydrase does not appear to be associated with gut alkalization under these conditions since etoxzolamide was without effect on Jbase. Membrane fluidity of the posterior intestine was low suggesting low permeability, which was also reflected in a lower mucosal-serosal Jamm in the presence of an imposed gradient in contrast to the anterior intestine. To conclude although the posterior intestine is highly modified for gas exchange, it is the anterior intestine that is the likely site of ammonia excretion and alkalinization leading to ammonia volatilization in the gut.

Promotion of the toxic action of cyclophosphamide by digestive tract luminal ammonia in rats

To estimate the influence of the digestive tract luminal ammonia pool on acute toxic effects of cyclophosphamide, the dynamics of blood ammonia, glutamine and urea level, symptoms of toxic action and the survival time have been studied in rats, intraperitoneally treated with cyclophosphamide, at the background of the gavage with non-lethal dose of ammonium acetate (12 mmol/kg, i.e., 0.35 LD50). Ammonium acetate enhanced the hyperammonaemic action of cyclophosphamide while promoting its lethal action: the mean survival time decreased 1.5, 2.1, 2.8, or 6.1 times at the background of cyclophosphamide i/p doses 200, 600, 1000, or 1400 mg/kg, respectively. Animals exposed to the combination of toxicants, manifested symptoms which were characteristic of the effect of lethal doses of ammonia salts. These data provide the evidence of the detrimental role of gastrointestinal luminal ammonia in the acute high-dose cyclophosphamide toxicity.

Role of NH3 and NH4+ transporters in renal acid-base transport

Renal ammonia excretion is the predominant component of renal net acid excretion. The majority of ammonia excretion is produced in the kidney and then undergoes regulated transport in a number of renal epithelial segments. Recent findings have substantially altered our understanding of renal ammonia transport. In particular, the classic model of passive, diffusive NH3 movement coupled with NH4+ "trapping" is being replaced by a model in which specific proteins mediate regulated transport of NH3 and NH4+ across plasma membranes. In the proximal tubule, the apical Na+/H+ exchanger, NHE-3, is a major mechanism of preferential NH4+ secretion. In the thick ascending limb of Henle's loop, the apical Na+-K+-2Cl- cotransporter, NKCC2, is a major contributor to ammonia reabsorption and the basolateral Na+/H+ exchanger, NHE-4, appears to be important for basolateral NH4+ exit. The collecting duct is a major site for renal ammonia secretion, involving parallel H+ secretion and NH3 secretion. The Rhesus glycoproteins, Rh B Glycoprotein (Rhbg) and Rh C Glycoprotein (Rhcg), are recently recognized ammonia transporters in the distal tubule and collecting duct. Rhcg is present in both the apical and basolateral plasma membrane, is expressed in parallel with renal ammonia excretion, and mediates a critical role in renal ammonia excretion and collecting duct ammonia transport. Rhbg is expressed specifically in the basolateral plasma membrane, and its role in renal acid-base homeostasis is controversial. In the inner medullary collecting duct (IMCD), basolateral Na+-K+-ATPase enables active basolateral NH4+ uptake. In addition to these proteins, several other proteins also contribute to renal NH3/NH4+ transport. The role and mechanisms of these proteins are discussed in depth in this review.

Colon luminal content and epithelial cell morphology are markedly modified in rats fed with a high-protein diet

Hyperproteic diets are used in human nutrition to obtain body weight reduction. Although increased protein ingestion results in an increased transfer of proteins from the small to the large intestine, there is little information on the consequences of the use of such diets on the composition of large intestine content and on epithelial cell morphology and metabolism. Rats were fed for 15 days with either a normoproteic (NP, 14% protein) or a hyperproteic isocaloric diet (HP, 53% protein), and absorptive colonocytes were observed by electron microscopy or isolated for enzyme activity studies. The colonic luminal content was recovered for biochemical analysis. Absorbing colonocytes were characterized by a 1.7-fold reduction in the height of the brush-border membranes (P = 0.0001) after HP diet consumption when compared with NP. This coincided in the whole colon content of HP animals with a 1.8-fold higher mass content (P = 0.0020), a 2.2-fold higher water content (P = 0.0240), a 5.2-fold higher protease activity (P = 0.0104), a 5.5-fold higher ammonia content (P = 0.0008), and a more than twofold higher propionate, valerate, isobutyrate, and isovalerate content (P < 0.05). The basal oxygen consumption of colonocytes was similar in the NP and HP groups, but ammonia was found to provoke a dose-dependent decrease of oxygen consumption in the isolated absorbing colonocytes. The activity of glutamine synthetase (which condenses ammonia and glutamate) was found to be much higher in colonocytes than in small intestine enterocytes and was 1.6-fold higher (P = 0.0304) in colonocytes isolated from HP animals than NP. Glutaminase activity remained unchanged. Thus hyperproteic diet ingestion causes marked changes both in the luminal environment of colonocytes and in the characteristics of these cells, demonstrating that hyperproteic diet interferes with colonocyte metabolism and morphology. Possible causal relationships between energy metabolism, reduced height of colonocyte brush-border membranes, and reduced water absorption are discussed.

Cyclophosphamide-induced leakage of gastrointestinal ammonia into the common bloodstream in rats

The kinetics of ammonia of gastrointestinal origin has been studied in rats in hematopoietic or neurovascular forms of acute lethal cyclophosphamide intoxication. Portal and caval blood ammonia, glutamine and urea, and blood markers of cytolysis were determined, and transperitoneal ammonia and glutamine fluxes were estimated after the single high-dose cyclophosphamide intraperitoneal (i.p.) administration. Within 3 hours after the administration of cyclophosphamide (200, 600, or 1,000 mg/kg), the portal ammonia level increased 1.4, 1.8, and 2.5 times, respectively; the ammonia level in v. cava caud. caudally of vv. renales inflow increased 1.5, 2.1, and 3.3 times, and cranially of vv. hepaticae, 1.8, 2.7, and 4.2 times, respectively; glutamine:ammonia and urea:ammonia ratios decreased. The rate of ammonia and glutamine accumulation in saline solution injected i.p. exceeded that in control rats dose dependently. At 18 hours after the administration of cyclophosphamide, the increased blood ammonia, glutamine and urea, and glutamine:ammonia ratio persisted. Therefore, in the rat, the high-dose i.p. administration of cyclophosphamide induces the early hyperammonemia, resulting from the enhanced transperitoneal diffusion of gastrointestinal ammonia into the blood, combined with the restriction of glutamine and urea synthesis. These alterations may contribute to neurological complications of myelosuppressive therapeutic regimens of cyclophosphamide administration.

Sharpey-Schafer lecture: gas channels

The traditional dogma has been that all gases diffuse through all membranes simply by dissolving in the lipid phase of the membrane. Although this mechanism may explain how most gases move through most membranes, it is now clear that some membranes have no demonstrable gas permeability, and that at least two families of membrane proteins, the aquaporins (AQPs) and the Rhesus (Rh) proteins, can each serve as pathways for the diffusion of both CO₂ and NH₃. The knockout of RhCG in the renal collecting duct leads to the predicted consequences in acid–base physiology, providing a clear-cut role for at least one gas channel in the normal physiology of mammals. In our laboratory, we have found that surface-pH (pH_S) transients provide a sensitive approach for detecting CO₂ and NH₃ movement across the cell membranes of Xenopus oocytes. Using this approach, we have found that each tested AQP and Rh protein has its own characteristic CO₂/NH₃ permeability ratio, which provides the first demonstration of gas selectivity by a channel. Our preliminary AQP1 data suggest that all the NH₃ and less than half of the CO₂ move along with H₂O through the four monomeric aquapores. The majority of CO₂ takes an alternative route through AQP1, possibly the central pore at the four-fold axis of symmetry. Preliminary data with two Rh proteins, bacterial AmtB and human erythroid RhAG, suggest a similar story, with all the NH₃ moving through the three monomeric NH₃ pores and the CO₂ taking a separate route, perhaps the central pore at the three-fold axis of symmetry. The movement of different gases via different pathways is likely to underlie the gas selectivity that these channels exhibit.

Microdevice to capture colon crypts for in vitro studies

There is a need in biological research for tools designed to manipulate the environment surrounding microscopic regions of tissue. In the current work, a device for the oriented capture of an important and under-studied tissue, the colon crypt, has been designed and tested. The objective of this work is to create a BioMEMs device for biological assays of living colonic crypts. The end goal will be to subject the polarized tissue to user-controlled fluidic microenvironments in a manner that recapitulates the in vivo state. Crypt surrogates, polymeric structures of similar dimensions and shape to isolated colon crypts, were used in the initial design and testing of the device. Successful capture of crypt surrogates was accomplished on a simple device composed of an array of micron-scale capture sites that enabled individual structures to be captured with high efficiency (92+/-3%) in an ordered and properly oriented fashion. The device was then evaluated using colon crypts isolated from a murine animal model. The capture efficiency attained using the fixed biologic sample was 37+/-5% due to the increased variability of the colon crypts compared with the surrogate structures, yet 94+/-3% of the captured crypts were properly oriented. A simple approach to plug the remaining capture sites in the array was performed using inert glass beads. Blockage of unfilled capture sites is an important feature to establish a chemical gradient across the arrayed crypts. A chemical concentration gradient (Cluminal/Cbasal>10) was demonstrated across the arrayed crypts for over 8 h. Finally unfixed colon crypts were demonstrated to be effectively captured by the micromesh array and to remain viable on the capture sites at 5 h after mouse sacrifice. The present study demonstrates the feasibility and potential for rationally microengineered technologies to address the specific needs of the biologic researcher.

Expression of the gas-transporting proteins, Rh B glycoprotein and Rh C glycoprotein, in the murine lung

A family of gas-transporting proteins, the Mep/Amt/Rh glycoprotein family, has been identified recently. These are integral membrane proteins, are widely expressed in sites of gas transport, and are known to transport the gaseous molecule, NH(3), and recent evidence indicates they can transport CO(2). Because the mammalian lung is a critical site for gas transport, the current studies examine the expression of the nonerythroid members of this extended family, Rh B glycoprotein (Rhbg) and Rh C glycoprotein (Rhcg), in the normal mouse lung. Real-time RT-PCR and immunoblot analysis demonstrated both Rhbg and Rhcg mRNA and protein expression, respectively. Immunohistochemistry demonstrated both Rhbg and Rhcg were expressed in bronchial and bronchiolar epithelial cells. Rhbg was expressed by Clara cells, specifically, whereas all bronchial/bronchiolar epithelial cells, with the exception of goblet cells, expressed Rhcg. Rhbg expression was basolateral, whereas Rhcg exhibited apical and intracellular immunolabel, polarized expression similar to that observed in Rhbg- and Rhcg-expressing epithelial cells in other organs. There was no detectable expression of either Rhbg or Rhcg in alveolar endothelial or epithelial cells, in pneumocytes or in vascular tissue. In vitro studies using cultured bronchial epithelial cells confirm Rhbg and Rhcg expression, demonstrate that saturable, not diffusive, transport is the primary mechanism of ammonia/methylammonia transport, and show that the saturable transport mechanism has kinetics similar to those demonstrated previously for Rhbg and Rhcg. These findings suggest Rhbg and Rhcg may contribute to bronchial epithelial cell ammonia metabolism and suggest that they do not contribute to pulmonary CO(2) transport.

Concentration-dependent effects on intracellular and surface pH of exposing Xenopus oocytes to solutions containing NH3/NH4(+)

Others have shown that exposing oocytes to high levels of NH(3)/NH(4)(+) (10-20 mM) causes a paradoxical fall in intracellular pH (pH(i)), whereas low levels (e.g., 0.5 mM) cause little pH(i) change. Here we monitored pH(i) and extracellular surface pH (pH(S)) while exposing oocytes to 5 or 0.5 mM NH(3)/NH(4)(+). We confirm that 5 mM NH(3)/NH(4)(+) causes a paradoxical pH(i) fall (-DeltapH(i) approximately equal 0.2), but also observe an abrupt pH(S) fall (-DeltapH(S) approximately equal 0.2)-indicative of NH(3) influx-followed by a slow decay. Reducing [NH(3)/NH(4)(+)] to 0.5 mM minimizes pH(i) changes but maintains pH(S) changes at a reduced magnitude. Expressing AmtB (bacterial Rh homologue) exaggerates -DeltapH(S) at both NH(3)/NH(4)(+) levels. During removal of 0.5 or 5 mM NH(3)/NH(4)(+), failure of pH(S) to markedly overshoot bulk extracellular pH implies little NH(3) efflux and, thus, little free cytosolic NH(3)/NH(4)(+). A new analysis of the effects of NH(3) vs. NH(4)(+) fluxes on pH(S) and pH(i) indicates that (a) NH(3) rather than NH(4)(+) fluxes dominate pH(i) and pH(S) changes and (b) oocytes dispose of most incoming NH(3). NMR studies of oocytes exposed to (15)N-labeled NH(3)/NH(4)(+) show no significant formation of glutamine but substantial NH(3)/NH(4)(+) accumulation in what is likely an acid intracellular compartment. In conclusion, parallel measurements of pH(i) and pH(S) demonstrate that NH(3) flows across the plasma membrane and provide new insights into how a protein molecule in the plasma membrane-AmtB-enhances the flux of a gas across a biological membrane.

Arabinoxylan-oligosaccharides (AXOS) affect the protein/carbohydrate fermentation balance and microbial population dynamics of the Simulator of Human Intestinal Microbial Ecosystem

Arabinoxylan‐oligosaccharides (AXOS) are a recently newly discovered class of candidate prebiotics as – depending on their structure – they are fermented in different regions of gastrointestinal tract. This can have an impact on the protein/carbohydrate fermentation balance in the large intestine and, thus, affect the generation of potentially toxic metabolites in the colon originating from proteolytic activity. In this study, we screened different AXOS preparations for their impact on the in vitro intestinal fermentation activity and microbial community structure. Short‐term fermentation experiments with AXOS with an average degree of polymerization (avDP) of 29 allowed part of the oligosaccharides to reach the distal colon, and decreased the concentration of proteolytic markers, whereas AXOS with lower avDP were primarily fermented in the proximal colon. Additionally, prolonged supplementation of AXOS with avDP 29 to the Simulator of Human Intestinal Microbial Ecosystem (SHIME) reactor decreased levels of the toxic proteolytic markers phenol and p‐cresol in the two distal colon compartments and increased concentrations of beneficial short‐chain fatty acids (SCFA) in all colon vessels (25–48%). Denaturant gradient gel electrophoresis (DGGE) analysis indicated that AXOS supplementation only slightly modified the total microbial community, implying that the observed effects on fermentation markers are mainly caused by changes in fermentation activity. Finally, specific quantitative PCR (qPCR) analysis showed that AXOS supplementation significantly increased the amount of health‐promoting lactobacilli as well as of Bacteroides–Prevotella and Clostridium coccoides–Eubacterium rectale groups. These data allow concluding that AXOS are promising candidates to modulate the microbial metabolism in the distal colon.

PI3 Kinase Dependent Stimulation of Gastric Acid Secretion by Dexamethasone

Excessive gastric acid secretion plays an important role in the pathogenesis of peptic ulcers. Dexamethasone, a widely used drug, is known to stimulate gastric acid secretion and increase the incidence of peptic ulcers. However little is known about the mechanism of the dexamethasone's effect on parietal cells. The present study was performed to investigate the contribution of the phosphatidylinositol-3-kinase (PI3 kinase) to dexamethasone induced stimulation of gastric acid secretion. In vivo pretreatment with dexamethasone injections (150 microg/100g for 3 days) or in vitro exposure to (10 microM for > 20 minutes) significantly increased acid secretion in isolated gastric glands approximately 2-3 fold. The dexamethasone induced stimulation of gastric acid secretion was concentration dependent and significantly blunted by the H+/K2+ ATPase inhibitor omeprazole (200 microM), the PI3 kinase inhibitor Wortmannin (500 nM), the protein kinase inhibitor staurosporine (2.5 microM) and the Cl(-) channel blocker NPPB (100 microM); but not by the H(2) antagonist cimetidine (100 microM). In conclusion, it was observed that dexamethasone's effect on proton extrusion requires the activity of a PI3 kinase pathway, an apical Cl(-) channel and the H2+/K2+ ATPase.

Ammonium transport in the colonic crypt cell line, T84: role for Rhesus glycoproteins and NKCC1

Although colonic lumen NH(4)(+) levels are high, 15-44 mM normal range in humans, relatively few studies have addressed the transport mechanisms for NH(4)(+). More extensive studies have elucidated the transport of NH(4)(+) in the kidney collecting duct, which involves a number of transporter processes also present in the distal colon. Similar to NH(4)(+) secretion in the renal collecting duct, we show that the distal colon secretory model, T84 cell line, has the capacity to secrete NH(4)(+) and maintain an apical-to-basolateral NH(4)(+) gradient. NH(4)(+) transport in the secretory direction was supported by basolateral NH(4)(+) loading on NKCC1, Na(+)-K(+)-ATPase, and the NH(4)(+) transporter, RhBG. NH(4)(+) was transported on NKCC1 in T84 cells nearly as well as K(+) as determined by bumetanide-sensitive (86)Rb-uptake. (86)Rb-uptake and ouabain-sensitive current measurement indicated that NH(4)(+) is transported by Na(+)-K(+)-ATPase in these cells to an equal extent as K(+). T84 cells expressed mRNA for the basolateral NH(4)(+) transporter RhBG and the apical NH(4)(+) transporter RhCG. Net NH(4)(+) transport in the secretory direction determined by (14)C-methylammonium (MA) uptake and flux occurred in T84 cells suggesting functional RhG protein activity. The occurrence of NH(4)(+) transport in the secretory direction within a colonic crypt cell model likely serves to minimize net absorption of NH(4)(+) because of surface cell NH(4)(+) absorption. These findings suggest that we rethink the present limited understanding of NH(4)(+) handling by the distal colon as being due solely to passive absorption.

Role of endogenously secreted angiotensin II in the CO2-induced stimulation of HCO3 reabsorption by renal proximal tubules

Previous studies demonstrated that the proximal tubule (PT) responds to isolated increases in basolateral ([CO(2)](BL)) or "bath" CO(2) concentration by increasing the HCO(3)(-) reabsorption rate (J(HCO(3))). Blockade of the rabbit apical AT(1) receptor or knockout of the mouse AT(1A) receptor eliminates these effects, demonstrating a requirement for luminal ANG II that the PT itself synthesizes. In the present study, we examined the effects of the ACE inhibitor lisinopril on J(HCO(3)) in isolated perfused rabbit PTs (S2 segment), using out-of-equilibrium solutions to make isolated changes in [CO(2)](BL) at a fixed baseline HCO(3)(-) concentration of 22 mM and fixed baseline pH of 7.4. Adding 60 or 240 nM lisinopril (in vitro K(i): 0.5 or 1.2 nM) to the lumen had no effect. These results are not consistent with the hypothesis that the PT secretes either angiotensinogen or ANG I. However, adding 60 nM basolateral lisinopril significantly decreased J(HCO(3)) at a [CO(2)](BL) of 20%. Moreover, 240 nM basolateral lisinopril decreased baseline (i.e., at 5% CO(2)) J(HCO(3)) by one-half and completely eliminated the response to altering [CO(2)](BL) from 0 to 20%, but left intact the stimulatory effect of 10(-11) M basolateral ANG II. At extremely high concentrations (i.e., 100 microM), luminal lisinopril replicated the effects of 240 nM basolateral lisinopril. Our data are consistent with the hypothesis that lisinopril readily crosses the basolateral (but not apical) membrane to block ACE in a vesicular compartment. We conclude that the isolated PT predominantly secretes preformed ANG II, rather than angiotensinogen or ANG I.

RhAG protein of the Rhesus complex is a CO2channel in the human red cell membrane

We have determined CO2 permeabilities, P(CO2), of red cells of normal human blood and of blood deficient in various blood group proteins by a previously described mass spectrometric technique. While P(CO2) of normal red cells is approximately 0.15 cm/s, we find in red blood cells (RBCs) lacking the Rh protein complex (Rh(null)) a significantly reduced P(CO2) of 0.07 cm/s +/-0.02 cm/s (P<0.02). This value is similar to the value we have reported previously for RBCs lacking aquaporin-1 protein (AQP-1(null)), suggesting that each of the Rh and AQP-1 proteins is responsible for approximately 1/2 of the normal CO2 permeability of the RBC membrane. Four other blood group deficiencies tested lack diverse membrane proteins but exhibit normal CO2 permeability. The CO2 pathway constituted by Rh proteins was inhibitable at pH(e)= 7.4 by NH4Cl with an I50 of approximately 10 mM corresponding to an I50 for NH3 of approximately 0.3 mM. The pathway independent of Rh proteins, presumably that constituted by AQP-1, was not inhibitable by NH4Cl/NH3. However, both pathways were strongly inhibited by DIDS, which accounts for the marked inhibitory effect of DIDS on normal P(CO2), while in contrast another AE1 inhibitor, DiBAC, does not inhibit P(CO2), although it markedly reduces P(HCO3-). We conclude that Rh protein, presumably the Rh-associated glycoprotein RhAG, possesses a gas channel that allows passage of CO2 in addition to NH3.

SLC26A7 can function as a chloride-loading mechanism in parietal cells

To date three potential candidates for parietal cell basolateral Cl(-) entry have been described: the highly 4,4'-diisothiocyanatostilbene-2,2'-disulfonic acid (DIDS)-sensitive Cl(-)/HCO(3)(-) exchanger AE2, the HCO(3)(-) and lowly DIDS-sensitive SLC26A7 protein, and the Na(+)-2Cl(-)K(+) cotransporter (NKCC1). In this study we investigate the contribution of these pathways to secretagogue stimulated acid secretion. Individually hand-dissected rat gastric glands were microfluorimetrically monitored for Cl(-) influx and pH(i) changes. Transporter activity was determined by varying ion content and through the use of pharmacological inhibitors. Expression of SLC26A7 in rat parietal cells was shown by immunohistochemistry and Western blot. SLC26A7 was inhibited by 5-Nitro-2-(3-phenylpropyl-amino)benzoic acid (NPPB) (100 microM) in the Xenopus laevis oocyte expression system. Cl(-) influx in parietal cells was enhanced by histamine, depended partially on endogenous HCO(3)(-) synthesis and completely on extracellular Na(+). Removal and subsequent readdition of Cl(-) revealed a low and a high DIDS-sensitive HCO(3)(-) extrusion system contributing to Cl(-) uptake. At acidic pH(i), however, H(+) extrusion via the H(+),K(+)-ATPase depending on Cl(-) uptake was abolished only in the presence of 100 microM (NPPB) and at high (250 microM) DIDS concentration. There was no effect of the NKCC inhibitor bumetanide on stimulated H(+) extrusion. These results would be compatible with SLC26A7 as a Cl(-) uptake system under histamine stimulation.

ΔF508 Mutation Results in Impaired Gastric Acid Secretion

The cystic fibrosis transmembrane conductance regulator (CFTR) is recognized as a multifunctional protein that is involved in Cl(-) secretion, as well as acting as a regulatory protein. In order for acid secretion to take place a complex interaction of transport proteins and channels must occur at the apical pole of the parietal cell. Included in this process is at least one K(+) and Cl(-) channel, allowing for both recycling of K(+) for the H,K-ATPase, and Cl(-) secretion, necessary for the generation of concentrated HCl in the gastric gland lumen. We have previously shown that an ATP-sensitive potassium channel (K(ATP)) is expressed in parietal cells. In the present study we measured secretagogue-induced acid secretion from wild-type and DeltaF508-deficient mice in isolated gastric glands and whole stomach preparations. Secretagogue-induced acid secretion in wild-type mouse gastric glands could be significantly reduced with either glibenclamide or the specific inhibitor CFTR-inh172. In DeltaF508-deficient mice, however, histamine-induced acid secretion was significantly less than in wild-type mice. Furthermore, immunofluorescent localization of sulfonylurea 1 and 2 failed to show expression of a sulfonylurea receptor in the parietal cell, thus further implicating CFTR as the ATP-binding cassette transporter associated with the K(ATP) channels. These results demonstrate a regulatory role for the CFTR protein in normal gastric acid secretion.

Effects of amino acid-derived luminal metabolites on the colonic epithelium and physiopathological consequences

Depending on the amount of alimentary proteins, between 6 and 18 g nitrogenous material per day enter the large intestine lumen through the ileocaecal junction. This material is used as substrates by the flora resulting eventually in the presence of a complex mixture of metabolites including ammonia, hydrogen sulfide, short and branched-chain fatty acids, amines; phenolic, indolic and N-nitroso compounds. The beneficial versus deleterious effects of these compounds on the colonic epithelium depend on parameters such as their luminal concentrations, the duration of the colonic stasis, the detoxication capacity of epithelial cells in response to increase of metabolite concentrations, the cellular metabolic utilization of these metabolites as well as their effects on colonocyte intermediary and oxidative metabolism. Furthermore, the effects of metabolites on electrolyte movements through the colonic epithelium must as well be taken into consideration for such an evaluation. The situation is further complicated by the fact that other non-nitrogenous compounds are believed to interfere with these various phenomenons. Finally, the pathological consequences of the presence of excessive concentrations of these compounds are related to the short- and, most important, long-term effects of these compounds on the rapid colonic epithelium renewing and homeostasis.

Acid-base transport by the renal proximal tubule

One of the major tasks of the renal proximal tubule is to secrete acid into the tubule lumen, thereby reabsorbing approximately 80% of the filtered HCO3- as well as generating new HCO3- for regulating blood pH. This review summarizes the cellular and molecular events that underlie four major processes in HCO3- reabsorption. The first is CO2 entry across the apical membrane, which in large part occurs via a gas channel (aquaporin 1) and acidifies the cell. The second process is apical H+ secretion via Na-H exchange and H+ pumping, processes that can be studied using the NH4+ prepulse technique. The third process is the basolateral exit of HCO3- via the electrogenic Na/HCO3 co-transporter, which is the subject of at least 10 mutations that cause severe proximal renal tubule acidosis in humans. The final process is the regulation of overall HCO3- reabsorption by CO2 and HCO3- sensors at the basolateral membrane. Together, these processes ensure that the proximal tubule responds appropriately to acute acid-base disturbances and thereby contributes to the regulation of blood pH.

Somatostatin modulates PI3K-Akt, eNOS and NHE activity in the ciliary epithelium

Somatostatin (SST) is a biologically active peptide produced in neuroendocrine cells. In the present study, we provide evidence of pro-SST and SST receptor (SSTR1 and 2A) mRNA expression in ocular ciliary epithelium (CE). SST or SST-like immunoreactivity was detected by radioimmunoassay in tissue extract from ciliary processes and in aqueous humor. The distinct immunolabeling of CE with SST and proprotein convertases PC1 and PC2 antibodies suggested a tissue and cell-specific processing of pro-SST. SST (10(-8) to 10(-4)M) added exogenously to the CE, elicited the following effects: (i) a dose-dependent attenuation of Na+/H+-exchanger (NHE) activity; (ii) up to a two-fold increase phosphorylation of p-Akt-Ser473 and of p-eNOS-Ser617, and (iii) lack of response on intracellular cyclic GMP production. LY294002, a PI3K-inhibitor, blocked SST-induced p-Akt-Ser473 and partially p-eNOS-Ser617, however, it did not reverse SST-induced NHE attenuation. Collectively, these results suggested involvement of SST in multiple intracellular signaling pathways in the CE.

Calcium-sensing receptor abrogates secretagogue- induced increases in intestinal net fluid secretion by enhancing cyclic nucleotide destruction

The calcium-sensing receptor (CaSR) provides a fundamental mechanism for diverse cells to detect and respond to modulations in the ionic and nutrient compositions of their extracellular milieu. The roles for this receptor are largely unknown in the intestinal tract, where epithelial cells are normally exposed to large variations in extracellular solutes. Here, we show that colonic CaSR signaling stimulates the degradation of cyclic nucleotides by phosphodiesterases and describe the ability of receptor activation to reverse the fluid and electrolyte secretory actions of cAMP- and cGMP-generating secretagogues, including cholera toxin and heat stable Escherichia coli enterotoxin STa. Our results suggest a paradigm for regulation of intestinal fluid transport where fine tuning is accomplished by the counterbalancing effects of solute activation of the CaSR on neuronal and hormonal secretagogue actions. The reversal of cholera toxin- and STa endotoxin-induced fluid secretion by a small-molecule CaSR agonist suggests that these compounds may provide a unique therapy for secretory diarrheas.

Apical ammonium inhibition of cAMP-stimulated secretion in T84 cells is bicarbonate dependent

Normal human colonic luminal (NH(4)(+)) concentration ([NH(4)(+)]) ranges from approximately 10 to 100 mM. However, the nature of the effects of NH(4)(+) on transport, as well as NH(4)(+) transport itself, in colonic epithelium is poorly understood. We elucidate here the effects of apical NH(4)(+) on cAMP-stimulated Cl(-) secretion in colonic T84 cells. In HEPES-buffered solutions, 10 mM apical NH(4)(+) had no significant effect on cAMP-stimulated current. In contrast, 10 mM apical NH(4)(+) reduced current within 5 min to 61 +/- 4% in the presence of 25 mM HCO(3)(-). Current inhibition was not simply due to an increase in extracellular K(+)-like cations, in that the current magnitude was 95 +/- 5% with 10 mM apical K(+) and 46 +/- 3% with 10 mM apical NH(4)(+) relative to that with 5 mM apical K(+). We previously demonstrated that inhibition of Cl(-) secretion by basolateral NH(4)(+) occurs in HCO(3)(-)-free conditions and exhibits anomalous mole fraction behavior. In contrast, apical NH(4)(+) inhibition of current in HCO(3)(-) buffer did not show anomalous mole fraction behavior and followed the absolute [NH(4)(+)] in K(+)-NH(4)(+) mixtures, where K(+) concentration + [NH(4)(+)] = 10 mM. The apical NH(4)(+) inhibitory effect was not prevented by 100 microM methazolamide, suggesting no role for apical carbonic anhydrase. However, apical NH(4)(+) inhibition of current was prevented by 10 min of pretreatment of the apical surface with 500 microM DIDS, 100 microM 4,4'-dinitrostilbene-2,2'-disulfonic acid (DNDS), or 25 microM niflumic acid, suggesting a role for NH(4)(+) action through an apical anion exchanger. mRNA and protein for the apical anion exchangers SLC26A3 [downregulated in adenoma (DRA)] and SLC26A6 [putative anion transporter (PAT1)] were detected in T84 cells by RT-PCR and Northern and Western blots. DRA and PAT1 appear to associate with CFTR in the apical membrane. We conclude that the HCO(3)(-) dependence of apical NH(4)(+) inhibition of secretion is due to the action of NH(4)(+) on an apical anion exchanger.

L-type amino acids stimulate gastric acid secretion by activation of the calcium-sensing receptor in parietal cells

Parietal cells are the primary acid secretory cells of the stomach. We have previously shown that activation of the calcium-sensing receptor (CaSR) by divalent (Ca(2+)) or trivalent (Gd(3+)) ions stimulates acid production in the absence of secretagogues by increasing H(+),K(+)-ATPase activity. When overexpressed in HEK-293 cells, the CaSR can be allosterically activated by L-amino acids in the presence of physiological concentrations of extracellular Ca(2+) (Ca(o)(2+); 1.5-2.5 mM). To determine whether the endogenously expressed parietal cell CaSR is allosterically activated by L-amino acids, we examined the effect of the amino acids L-phenylalanine (L-Phe), L-tryptophan, and L-leucine on acid secretion. In ex vivo whole stomach preparations, exposure to L-Phe resulted in gastric luminal pH significantly lower than controls. Studies using D-Phe (inactive isomer) failed to elicit a response on gastric pH. H(+)-K(+)-ATPase activity was monitored by measuring the intracellular pH (pH(i)) of individual parietal cells in isolated rat gastric glands and calculating the rate of H(+) extrusion. We demonstrated that increasing Ca(o)(2+) in the absence of secretagogues caused a dose-dependent increase in H(+) extrusion. These effects were amplified by the addition of amino acids at various Ca(o)(2+) concentrations. Blocking the histamine-2 receptor with cimetidine or inhibiting system L-amino acid transport with 2-amino-2-norbornane-carboxylic acid did not affect the rate of H(+) extrusion in the presence of L-Phe. These data support the conclusion that amino acids, in conjunction with a physiological Ca(o)(2+) concentration, can induce acid secretion independent of hormonal stimulation via allosteric activation of the stomach CaSR.

Low carbon dioxide permeability of the apical epithelial membrane of guinea-pig colon

We have investigated the apical membrane permeability for CO2 of intact epithelia of proximal and distal colon of the guinea pig. The method used was the mass spectrometric 18O-exchange technique previously described. In a first step, we determined the intraepithelial carbonic anhydrase (CA) activity by studying vital isolated colonocytes before and after lysis with Triton X-100. Intraepithelial CA activity was found to be 41,000 and 900 for proximal and distal colon, respectively. Then 18O-exchange measurements were done with stripped intact epithelial layers, which on their apical side were exposed to the reaction solution containing 18O-labelled CO2 and HCO3-. The mass spectrometric signals in these measurements are determined by the intracellular epithelial CA activity, and by the apical membrane permeabilities for CO2 and HCO3-, P(CO2) and P(HCO3). From the signals, we calculated the two permeabilities while inserting the CA activities obtained from isolated colonocytes. From layers of intact colon epithelium, the apical P(CO2) was determined to be 1.5 x 10(-3) cm s(-1) for proximal and 0.77 x 10(-3) cm s(-1) for distal colon. These values are > or =200 times lower than the P(CO2) of the human red cell membrane as studied with the same technique (0.3 cm s(-1)). We conclude that the apical membrane offers a significant resistance towards CO2 diffusion, which implies that a major drop in CO2 partial pressure (pCO2) will occur across the apical membrane when luminal pCO2 is higher than basolateral or capillary pCO2. In view of the very high pCO2 that can occur in the colonic lumen, this property of the apical membrane constitutes a significant protection of the cell against the high acid load associated with high pCO2.

Ammonia excretion in aquatic and terrestrial crabs

The excretory transport of toxic ammonia across epithelia is not fully understood. This review presents data combined with models of ammonia excretion derived from studies on decapod crabs, with a view to providing new impetus to investigation of this essential issue. The majority of crabs preserve ammonotely regardless of their habitat, which varies from extreme hypersaline to freshwater aquatic environments, and ranges from transient air exposure to obligate air breathing. Important components in the excretory process are the Na+/K+(NH4+)-ATPase and other membrane-bound transport proteins identified in many species, an exocytotic ammonia excretion mechanism thought to function in gills of aquatic crabs such as Carcinus maenas, and gaseous ammonia release found in terrestrial crabs, such as Geograpsus grayi and Ocypode quadrata. In addition, this review presents evidence for a crustacean Rhesus-like protein that shows high homology to the human Rhesus-like ammonia transporter both in its amino acid sequence and in its predicted secondary structure.

Inhibition of NHE-1 Na+/H+exchanger by natriuretic peptides in ocular nonpigmented ciliary epithelium

The natriuretic peptides (NPs) atrial natriuretic peptide (ANP), brain natriuretic peptide (BNP), and C-type natriuretic peptide (CNP) display hypotensive effects in the mammalian eye by lowering the intraocular pressure (IOP), a function that is mediated by the bilayer ocular ciliary epithelium (CE), in conjunction with the trabecular meshwork. ANP regulates Na+/H+exchanger (NHE) activity, and inhibitors of NHE have been shown to lower IOP. We examined whether NPs influence the NHE activity of the CE, which is comprised of pigmented (PE) and nonpigmented (NPE) epithelial cells, by directly recording the rate of intracellular pH (pHi) recovery from its inner NPE cell layer. NPs inhibited, in a dose-dependent manner (1–100 nM), the rate of pHirecovery with the order of potency CNP > ANP > BNP, indicative that this inhibition is mediated by the presence of NPR type B receptors. 8-Bromo-cGMP (8-BrcGMP), a nonhydrolyzable analog of cGMP, mimicked NPs in inhibiting the rate of Na+-dependent pHirecovery. In contrast, ethylisopropyl amiloride (EIPA, 100 nM) or amiloride (10 μM) completely abolished the pHirecovery by NHE. 18α-Glycyrrhetinic acid (18α-GA), a gap junction blocker, attenuated the inhibitory effect of CNP on the rate of pHirecovery, suggesting that NHE activity in both cell layers of the CE is coregulated. This interpretation was supported, in part, by the coexpression of NHE-1 isoform mRNA in both NPE and PE cells. The mechanism by which the inhibitory effect of NPs on NHE-1 activity might influence the net solute movement or fluid transport by the bilayer CE remains to be determined.

Defences against ammonia toxicity in tropical air-breathing fishes exposed to high concentrations of environmental ammonia: a review

In the tropics, air-breathing fishes can be exposed to environmental ammonia when stranded in puddles of water during the dry season, during a stay inside a burrow, or after agricultural fertilization. At low concentrations of environmental ammonia, NH(3) excretion is impeded, as in aerial exposure, leading to the accumulation of endogenous ammonia. At high concentrations of environmental ammonia, which results in a reversed NH(3) partial pressure gradient (DeltaP(NH3)), there is retention of endogenous ammonia and uptake of exogenous ammonia. In this review, several tropical air-breathing fishes (giant mudskipper, African catfish, oriental weatherloach, swamp eel, four-eyed sleeper, abehaze and slender African lungfish), which can tolerate high environmental ammonia exposure, are used as examples to demonstrate how eight different adaptations can be involved in defence against ammonia toxicity. Four of these adaptations deal with ammonia toxicity at branchial and/or epithelial surfaces: (1) active excretion of NH(4)(+); (2) lowering of environmental pH; (3) low NH(3) permeability of epithelial surfaces; and (4) volatilization of NH(3), while another four adaptations ameliorate ammonia toxicity at the cellular and subcellular levels: (5) high tolerance of ammonia at the cellular and subcellular levels; (6) reduction in ammonia production; (7) glutamine synthesis; and (8) urea synthesis. The responses of tropical air-breathing fishes to high environmental ammonia are determined apparently by behavioural adaptations and the nature of their natural environments.