Myosin light chain kinase (MLCK) gene disruption in Dictyostelium: a role for MLCK-A in cytokinesis and evidence for multiple MLCKs

Ca2+ Signalling and Membrane Dynamics During Cytokinesis in Animal Cells

Interest in the role of Ca²⁺ signalling as a possible regulator of the combinatorial processes that result in the separation of the daughter cells during cytokinesis, extend back almost a 100 years. One of the key processes required for the successful completion of cytokinesis in animal cells (especially in the large holoblastically and meroblastically dividing embryonic cells of a number of amphibian and fish species), is the dynamic remodelling of the plasma membrane. Ca²⁺ signalling was subsequently demonstrated to regulate various different aspects of cytokinesis in animal cells, and so here we focus specifically on the role of Ca²⁺ signalling in the remodelling of the plasma membrane. We begin by providing a brief history of the animal models used and the research accomplished by the early twentieth century investigators, with regards to this aspect of animal cell cytokinesis. We then review the most recent progress made (i.e., in the last 10 years), which has significantly advanced our current understanding on the role of cytokinetic Ca²⁺ signalling in membrane remodelling. To this end, we initially summarize what is currently known about the Ca²⁺ transients generated during animal cell cytokinesis, and then we describe the latest findings regarding the source of Ca²⁺ generating these transients. Finally, we review the current evidence about the possible targets of the different cytokinetic Ca²⁺ transients with a particular emphasis on those that either directly or indirectly affect plasma membrane dynamics. With regards to the latter, we discuss the possible role of the early Ca²⁺ signalling events in the deformation of the plasma membrane at the start of cytokinesis (i.e., during furrow positioning), as well as the role of the subsequent Ca²⁺ signals in the trafficking and fusion of vesicles, which help to remodel the plasma membrane during the final stages of cell division. As it is becoming clear that each of the cytokinetic Ca²⁺ transients might have multiple, integrated targets, deciphering the precise role of each transient represents a significant (and ongoing) challenge.

α-catenin and IQGAP regulate myosin localization to control epithelial tube morphogenesis in Dictyostelium

Apical actomyosin activity in animal epithelial cells influences tissue morphology and drives morphogenetic movements during development. The molecular mechanisms leading to myosin II accumulation at the apical membrane and its exclusion from other membranes are poorly understood. We show that in the nonmetazoan Dictyostelium discoideum, myosin II localizes apically in tip epithelial cells that surround the stalk, and constriction of this epithelial tube is required for proper morphogenesis. IQGAP1 and its binding partner cortexillin I function downstream of α- and β-catenin to exclude myosin II from the basolateral cortex and promote apical accumulation of myosin II. Deletion of IQGAP1 or cortexillin compromises epithelial morphogenesis without affecting cell polarity. These results reveal that apical localization of myosin II is a conserved morphogenetic mechanism from nonmetazoans to vertebrates and identify a hierarchy of proteins that regulate the polarity and organization of an epithelial tube in a simple model organism.

Unique charge distribution in surface loops confers high velocity on the fast motor protein Chara myosin

Most myosins have a positively charged loop 2 with a cluster of lysine residues that bind to the negatively charged N-terminal segment of actin. However, the net charge of loop 2 of very fast Chara myosin is zero and there is no lysine cluster in it. In contrast, Chara myosin has a highly positively charged loop 3. To elucidate the role of these unique surface loops of Chara myosin in its high velocity and high actin-activated ATPase activity, we have undertaken mutational analysis using recombinant Chara myosin motor domain. It was found that net positive charge in loop 3 affected V(max) and K(app) of actin activated ATPase activity, while it affected the velocity only slightly. The net positive charge in loop 2 affected K(app) and the velocity, although it did not affect V(max). Our results suggested that Chara myosin has evolved to have highly positively charged loop 3 for its high ATPase activity and have less positively charged loop 2 for its high velocity. Since high positive charge in loop 3 and low positive charge in loop 2 seem to be one of the reasons for Chara myosin's high velocity, we manipulated charge contents in loops 2 and 3 of Dictyostelium myosin (class II). Removing positive charge from loop 2 and adding positive charge to loop 3 of Dictyostelium myosin made its velocity higher than that of the wild type, suggesting that the charge strategy in loops 2 and 3 is widely applicable.

Calmodulin-binding proteins in the model organism Dictyostelium: a complete & critical review

Calmodulin is an essential protein in the model organism Dictyostelium discoideum. As in other organisms, this small, calcium-regulated protein mediates a diversity of cellular events including chemotaxis, spore germination, and fertilization. Calmodulin works in a calcium-dependent or -independent manner by binding to and regulating the activity of target proteins called calmodulin-binding proteins. Profiling suggests that Dictyostelium has 60 or more calmodulin-binding proteins with specific subcellular localizations. In spite of the central importance of calmodulin, the study of these target proteins is still in its infancy. Here we critically review the history and state of the art of research into all of the identified and presumptive calmodulin-binding proteins of Dictyostelium detailing what is known about each one with suggestions for future research. Two individual calmodulin-binding proteins, the classic enzyme calcineurin A (CNA; protein phosphatase 2B) and the nuclear protein nucleomorphin (NumA), which is a regulator of nuclear number, have been particularly well studied. Research on the role of calmodulin in the function and regulation of the various myosins of Dictyostelium, especially during motility and chemotaxis, suggests that this is an area in which future active study would be particularly valuable. A general, hypothetical model for the role of calmodulin in myosin regulation is proposed.

Myosin light chain kinase A is activated by cGMP-dependent and cGMP-independent pathways

Stimulation of Dictyostelium cells with the chemoattractant cAMP results in transient phosphorylation of the myosin regulatory light chain (RLC). We show that myosin light chain kinase A (MLCK-A) is responsible for RLC phosphorylation during chemotaxis, and that MLCK-A itself is transiently phosphorylated on threonine-166, dramatically increasing its catalytic activity. MLCK-A activation during chemotaxis is highly responsive to cellular cGMP levels and the cGMP-binding protein GbpC. MLCK-A- cells have a partial cytokinesis defect, and do not phosphorylate RLC in response to concanavalin A (conA), but cells lacking cGMP or GbpC divide normally and phosphorylate in response to conA. Thus MLCK-A is activated by a cGMP/GbpC-independent mechanism activated during cytokinesis or by conA, and a cGMP/GbpC-dependent pathway during chemotaxis.

Signaling pathways regulating Dictyostelium myosin II

Dictyostelium myosin II is a conventional, two-headed myosin that consists of two copies each of a myosin heavy chain (MHC), an essential light chain (ELC) and a regulatory light chain (RLC). The MHC is comprised of an amino-terminal motor domain, a neck region that binds the RLC and ELC and a carboxyl-terminal alpha-helical coiled-coil tail. Electrostatic interactions between the tail domains mediate the self-assembly of myosin II into bipolar filaments that are capable of interacting with actin filaments to generate a contractile force. In this review we discuss the regulation of Dictyostelium myosin II by a myosin light chain kinase (MLCK-A) that phosphorylates the RLC and increases motor activity and by MHC kinases (MHCKs) that phosphorylate the tail and prevent filament assembly. Dictyostelium may express as many as four MHCKs (MHCK A-D) consisting of an atypical alpha-kinase catalytic domain and a carboxyl-terminal WD repeat domain that targets myosin II filaments. A previously reported MHCK, termed MHC-PKC, now seems more likely to be a diacylglycerol kinase (DgkA). The relationship of the MHCKs to the larger family of alpha-kinases is discussed and key features of the structure of the alpha-kinase catalytic domain are reviewed. Potential upstream regulators of myosin II are described, including DgkA, cGMP, cAMP and PAKa, a target for Rac GTPases. Recent results point to a complex network of signaling pathways responsible for controling the activity and localization of myosin II in the cell.

Regulatory mechanism of Dictyostelium myosin light chain kinase A

In this study, we examined the activation mechanism of Dictyostelium myosin light chain kinase A (MLCK-A) using constitutively active Ca2+/calmodulin-dependent protein kinase kinase as a surrogate MLCK-A kinase. MLCK-A was phosphorylated at Thr166 by constitutively active Ca2+/calmodulin-dependent protein kinase kinase, resulting in an approximately 140-fold increase in catalytic activity, using intact Dictyostelium myosin II. Recombinant Dictyostelium myosin II regulatory light chain and Kemptamide were also readily phosphorylated by activated MLCK-A. Mass spectrometry analysis revealed that MLCK-A expressed by Escherichia coli was autophosphorylated at Thr289 and that, subsequent to Thr166 phosphorylation, MLCK-A also underwent a slow rate of autophosphorylation at multiple Ser residues. Using site-directed mutagenesis, we show that autophosphorylation at Thr289 is required for efficient phosphorylation and activation by an upstream kinase. By performing enzyme kinetics analysis on a series of MLCK-A truncation mutants, we found that residues 283-288 function as an autoinhibitory domain and that autoinhibition is fully relieved by Thr166 phosphorylation. Simple removal of this region resulted in a significant increase in the kcat of MLCK-A; however, it did not generate maximum enzymatic activity. Together with the results of our kinetic analysis of the enzymes, these findings demonstrate that Thr166 phosphorylation of MLCK-A by an upstream kinase subsequent to autophosphorylation at Thr289 results in generation of maximum MLCK-A activity through both release of an autoinhibitory domain from its catalytic core and a further increase (15-19-fold) in the kcat of the enzyme.

Changes in the abundance and distribution of conserved centrosomal, cytoskeletal and ciliary proteins during spermiogenesis in Marsilea vestita

Spermiogenesis in the male gametophytes of the water fern Marsilea vestita is a precise and rapid process resulting in the production of ciliated gametes. Development begins from a single cell within the microspore wall that undergoes nine rapid cell division cycles in distinct planes to produce 32 spermatids that are surrounded by 7 sterile cells. Thereafter, the de novo formation of basal bodies occurs in a discrete cytoplasmic particle known as a blepharoplast, with the subsequent formation of a complex ciliary apparatus in elongating spermatids. The rate and extent of development appear to be controlled at a post-transcriptional level, where the sudden translation of specific stored mRNAs (e.g., centrin) results in the formation of particular structures in the cells (e.g., blepharoplasts). We show here that additional centrosomal and cytoskeletal antigens known as SF assemblin, p95 kDa protein, delta tubulin, gamma tubulin, Xgrip109, Aik, CTR453, RanBPM, BX63, RSP6, and alpha tubulin each exhibit specific localization patterns both on immunoblots of gametophyte protein isolates and in fixed cells. BAp90, PP4, and RLC exhibit specific localization patterns in fixed cells. We show that the antigens exhibit complex patterns of abundance during spermiogenesis. In an attempt to identify regulatory agents involved in spermiogenesis, we employed a RNAi-based screen of 41 randomly selected gametophyte cDNAs on developing populations of synchronously growing gametophytes. The gametophytes treated with each of the RNAi probes exhibited arrest at a specific stage of development. A consequence of anomalous development was the block to assembly of the ciliary apparatus, an effect highlighted by altered staining with anti-centrin, anti-beta-tubulin, and anti-RSP6 antibodies. Our results show that complex, integrated processes of translation and protein partitioning apparently underlie the assembly of the ciliary apparatus during spermiogenesis in male gametophytes of M. vestita.

ERK and RhoA differentially regulate pseudopodia growth and retraction during chemotaxis

Nonmotile cells extend and retract pseudopodia-like structures in a random manner, whereas motile cells establish a single dominant pseudopodium in the direction of movement. This is a critical step necessary for cell migration and occurs prior to cell body translocation, yet little is known about how this process is regulated. Here we show that myosin II light chain (MLC) phosphorylation at its regulatory serine 19 is elevated in growing and retracting pseudopodia. MLC phosphorylation in the extending pseudopodium was associated with strong and persistent amplification of extracellular-regulated signal kinase (ERK) and MLC kinase activity, which specifically localized to the leading pseudopodium. Interestingly, inhibition of ERK or MLC kinase activity prevented MLC phosphorylation and pseudopodia extension but not retraction. In contrast, inhibition of RhoA activity specifically decreased pseudopodia retraction but not extension. Importantly, inhibition of RhoA activity specifically blocked MLC phosphorylation associated with retracting pseudopodia. Inhibition of either ERK or RhoA signals prevents chemotaxis, indicating that both pathways contribute to the establishment of cell polarity and migration. Together, these findings demonstrate that ERK and RhoA are distinct pathways that control pseudopodia extension and retraction, respectively, through differential modulation of MLC phosphorylation and contractile processes.

Rho-binding kinase (LET-502) and myosin phosphatase (MEL-11) regulate cytokinesis in the earlyCaenorhabditis elegansembryo

Rho-binding kinase and myosin phosphatase regulate the contraction of actomyosin filaments in non-muscle and smooth muscle cells. Previously, we described the role of C. elegans genes encoding Rho-binding kinase(let-502) and myosin phosphatase targeting subunit (mel-11)in epidermal cell-shape changes that drive morphogenesis and in spermathecal contraction. Here we analyze their roles in a third contractile event,cytokinesis within early embryos. We demonstrate that these genes function together to regulate the rate of cleavage furrow contraction, with Rho-binding kinase/LET-502 mediating contraction, whereas myosin phosphatase/MEL-11 acts as a brake to contraction: early embryonic cleavage often fails or is slowed when let-502 is mutated, whereas mel-11 mutations result in ectopic furrowing and faster furrow ingression. These phenotypes correspond to changes in the levels of phosphorylated regulatory non-muscle myosin light chain (rMLC). The gene products of let-502 and mel-11colocalize at cleavage furrows, and their mutations alleviate one another's defects. rMLC is phosphorylated in let-502; mel-11 double mutants,indicating that a kinase is able to phosphorylate rMLC in the absence of both LET-502 and MEL-11. Genetic and molecular epistasis experiments place LET-502 and MEL-11 in a cytokinetic pathway. LET-502 and MEL-11 regulate the activity of non-muscle myosin after actin, non-muscle myosin heavy chain/NMY-2,regulatory non-muscle myosin light chain/MLC-4 and early formin/CYK-1 have formed a contractile ring. Proteins including Rho GTPase activating protein/CYK-4 and late CYK-1, which are required for late stages of cytokinesis, function downstream of LET-502 and MEL-11.

Regulation of Dictyostelium myosin I and II

Dictyostelium expresses 12 different myosins, including seven single-headed myosins I and one conventional two-headed myosin II. In this review we focus on the signaling pathways that regulate Dictyostelium myosin I and myosin II. Activation of myosin I is catalyzed by a Cdc42/Rac-stimulated myosin I heavy chain kinase that is a member of the p21-activated kinase (PAK) family. Evidence that myosin I is linked to the Arp2/3 complex suggests that pathways that regulate myosin I may also influence actin filament assembly. Myosin II activity is stimulated by a cGMP-activated myosin light chain kinase and inhibited by myosin heavy chain kinases (MHCKs) that block bipolar filament assembly. Known MHCKs include MHCK A and MHCK B, which have a novel type of kinase catalytic domain joined to a WD repeat domain, and MHC-protein kinase C (PKC), which contains both diacylglycerol kinase and PKC-related protein kinase catalytic domains. A Dictyostelium PAK (PAKa) acts indirectly to promote myosin II filament formation, suggesting that the MHCKs may be indirectly regulated by Rac GTPases.

Effects of the regulatory light chain phosphorylation of myosin II on mitosis and cytokinesis of mammalian cells

Myosin plays an important role in mitosis, especially during cytokinesis. Although it has been assumed that phosphorylation of regulatory light chain of myosin (RLC) controls motility of mammalian non-muscle cells, the functional significance of RLC phosphorylation remains uninvestigated. To address this problem, we have produced unphosphorylatable RLC (T18A/S19A RLC) and overexpressed it in COS-7 cells and normal rat kidney cells. Overexpression of T18A/S19A RLC but not wild type RLC almost completely abolished concanavalin A-induced receptor cap formation. The results indicate that myosin phosphorylation is critical for concanavalin A-induced gathering of surface receptors. T18A/S19A RLC overexpression resulted in the production of multinucleated cells, suggesting the failure of proper cell division in these cells. Video microscopic observation revealed that cells expressing T18A/S19A RLC showed abnormalities during mitosis in two respects. One is that the cells produced abnormal cleavage furrows, resulting in incomplete cytokinesis, which suggests that myosin phosphorylation is important for the normal recruitment of myosin molecules into the contractile ring structure. The other is that separation of chromosomes from the metaphase plate is disrupted in T18A/S19A RLC expressing cells, thus preventing proper transition from metaphase to anaphase. These results suggest that, in addition to cytokinesis, myosin and myosin phosphorylation play a role in the karyokinetic process.

Developmental changes in the spatial expression of genes involved in myosin function in Dictyostelium

We analyzed the spatial expression patterns of the genes involved in myosin function by in situ hybridization at the tipped aggregate and early culmination stages of Dictyostelium. Myosin heavy chain II mRNA was enriched in the anterior prestalk region of the tipped aggregates, whereas it disappeared from there and began to appear in both upper and lower cups of the early culminants. Similarly, mRNAs for essential light chain, regulatory light chain, myosin light chain kinase A, and myosin heavy chain kinase C were enriched in the prestalk region of the tipped aggregates. However, expression of these genes was distinctively regulated in the early culminants. These findings suggest the existence of mechanisms responsible for the expression of particular genes.

Towards a molecular understanding of cytokinesis

In this review, we focus on recent discoveries regarding the molecular basis of cleavage furrow positioning and contractile ring assembly and contraction during cytokinesis. However, some of these mechanisms might have different degrees of importance in different organisms. This synthesis attempts to uncover common themes and to reveal potential relationships that might contribute to the biochemical and mechanical aspects of cytokinesis. Because the information about cytokinesis is still fairly rudimentary, our goal is not to present a definitive model but to present testable hypotheses that might lead to a better mechanistic understanding of the process.

PAKa, a putative PAK family member, is required for cytokinesis and the regulation of the cytoskeleton in Dictyostelium discoideum cells during chemotaxis

We have identified a Dictyostelium discoideum gene encoding a serine/threonine kinase, PAKa, a putative member of the Ste20/PAK family of p21-activated kinases, with a kinase domain and a long NH(2)-terminal regulatory domain containing an acidic segment, a polyproline domain, and a CRIB domain. PAKa colocalizes with myosin II to the cleavage furrow of dividing cells and the posterior of polarized, chemotaxing cells via its NH(2)-terminal domain. paka null cells are defective in completing cytokinesis in suspension. PAKa is also required for maintaining the direction of cell movement, suppressing lateral pseudopod extension, and proper retraction of the posterior of chemotaxing cells. paka null cells are defective in myosin II assembly, as the myosin II cap in the posterior of chemotaxing cells and myosin II assembly into cytoskeleton upon cAMP stimulation are absent in these cells, while constitutively active PAKa leads to an upregulation of myosin II assembly. PAKa kinase activity against histone 2B is transiently stimulated and PAKa incorporates into the cytoskeleton with kinetics similar to those of myosin II assembly in response to chemoattractant signaling. However, PAKa does not phosphorylate myosin II. We suggest that PAKa is a major regulator of myosin II assembly, but does so by negatively regulating myosin II heavy chain kinase.

MLCK-A, an unconventional myosin light chain kinase from Dictyostelium, is activated by a cGMP-dependent pathway

Dictyostelium myosin II is activated by phosphorylation of its regulatory light chain by myosin light chain kinase A (MLCK-A), an unconventional MLCK that is not regulated by Ca2+/calmodulin. MLCK-A is activated by autophosphorylation of threonine-289 outside of the catalytic domain and by phosphorylation of threonine-166 in the activation loop by an unidentified kinase, but the signals controlling these phosphorylations are unknown. Treatment of cells with Con A results in quantitative phosphorylation of the regulatory light chain by MLCK-A, providing an opportunity to study MLCK-A's activation mechanism. MLCK-A does not alter its cellular location upon treatment of cells with Con A, nor does it localize to the myosin-rich caps that form after treatment. However, MLCK-A activity rapidly increases 2- to 13-fold when Dictyostelium cells are exposed to Con A. This activation can occur in the absence of MLCK-A autophosphorylation. cGMP is a promising candidate for an intracellular messenger mediating Con A-triggered MLCK-A activation, as addition of cGMP to fresh Dictyostelium lysates increases MLCK-A activity 3- to 12-fold. The specific activity of MLCK-A in cGMP-treated lysates is 210-fold higher than that of recombinant MLCK-A, which is fully autophosphorylated, but lacks threonine-166 phosphorylation. Purified MLCK-A is not directly activated by cGMP, indicating that additional cellular factors, perhaps a kinase that phosphorylates threonine-166, are involved.

On the role of myosin-II in cytokinesis: division of Dictyostelium cells under adhesive and nonadhesive conditions

We have investigated the role of myosin in cytokinesis in Dictyostelium cells by examining cells under both adhesive and nonadhesive conditions. On an adhesive surface, both wild-type and myosin-null cells undergo the normal processes of mitotic rounding, cell elongation, polar ruffling, furrow ingression, and separation of daughter cells. When cells are denied adhesion through culturing in suspension or on a hydrophobic surface, wild-type cells undergo these same processes. However, cells lacking myosin round up and polar ruffle, but fail to elongate, furrow, or divide. These differences show that cell division can be driven by two mechanisms that we term Cytokinesis A, which requires myosin, and Cytokinesis B, which is cell adhesion dependent. We have used these approaches to examine cells expressing a myosin whose two light chain-binding sites were deleted (DeltaBLCBS-myosin). Although this myosin is a slower motor than wild-type myosin and has constitutively high activity due to the abolition of regulation by light-chain phosphorylation, cells expressing DeltaBLCBS-myosin were previously shown to divide in suspension (Uyeda et al., 1996). However, we suspected their behavior during cytokinesis to be different from wild-type cells given the large alteration in their myosin. Surprisingly, DeltaBLCBS-myosin undergoes relatively normal spatial and temporal changes in localization during mitosis. Furthermore, the rate of furrow progression in cells expressing a DeltaBLCBS-myosin is similar to that in wild-type cells.

Regulation of cell motility by mitogen-activated protein kinase

Cell interaction with adhesive proteins or growth factors in the extracellular matrix initiates Ras/mitogen-activated protein (MAP) kinase signaling. Evidence is provided that MAP kinase (ERK1 and ERK2) influences the cells' motility machinery by phosphorylating and, thereby, enhancing myosin light chain kinase (MLCK) activity leading to phosphorylation of myosin light chains (MLC). Inhibition of MAP kinase activity causes decreased MLCK function, MLC phosphorylation, and cell migration on extracellular matrix proteins. In contrast, expression of mutationally active MAP kinase kinase causes activation of MAP kinase leading to phosphorylation of MLCK and MLC and enhanced cell migration. In vitro results support these findings since ERK-phosphorylated MLCK has an increased capacity to phosphorylate MLC and shows increased sensitivity to calmodulin. Thus, we define a signaling pathway directly downstream of MAP kinase, influencing cell migration on the extracellular matrix.