A p53-independent pathway for activation of WAF1/CIP1 expression following oxidative stress

Mechanism of non-thermal atmospheric plasma in anti-tumor: influencing intracellular RONS and regulating signaling pathways

Non-thermal atmospheric plasma (NTAP) has been proven to be an effective anti-tumor tool, with various biological effects such as inhibiting tumor proliferation, metastasis, and promoting tumor cell apoptosis. At present, the main conclusion is that ROS and RNS are the main effector components of NTAP, but the mechanisms of which still lack systematic summary. Therefore, in this review, we first summarized the mechanism by which NTAP directly or indirectly causes an increase in intracellular RONS concentration, and the multiple pathways dysregulation (i.e. NRF2, PI3K, MAPK, NF-κB) induced by intracellular RONS. Then, we generalized the relationship between NTAP induced pathways dysregulation and the various biological effects it brought. The summary of the anti-tumor mechanism of NTAP is helpful for its further research and clinical transformation.

The chemotherapeutic agent doxorubicin induces brain senescence, with modulation by APOE genotype

Many cancer patients experience serious cognitive problems related to their treatment, which can greatly affect their quality of life. The molecular mechanisms of this cancer chemotherapy-induced cognitive impairment (CICI) are unknown, thus slowing the development of preventative approaches. We hypothesized that cancer chemotherapies could induce cellular senescence in the brain, creating a pro-inflammatory environment and damaging normal brain communication. We tested this hypothesis using the common chemotherapeutic agent doxorubicin in two independent mouse models. In the first model, we used mice that express tdTomato under the pdkn2a (p16) promoter; p16 is a regulator of cellular senescence, and its upregulation is denoted by the presence of fluorescently tagged cells. Two weeks after exposure to three doses of 5 mg/kg doxorubicin, the number of tdTomato positive cells were increased nearly three-fold in both the cerebral cortex and the hippocampus. tdTomato staining co-localized with neurons, microglia, oligodendrocyte precursor cells, and endothelial cells, but not astrocytes. In the second model, we used APOE knock-in mice, since the APOE4 allele is a risk factor for CICI in humans and mouse models. We isolated RNA from the cerebral cortex of APOE3 and APOE4 mice from one to 21 days after a single dose of 10 mg/kg doxorubicin. Using NanoString analysis of over 700 genes related to neuroinflammation and RT-qPCR analysis of cerebral cortex transcripts, we found two-fold induction of four senescence-related genes at three weeks in the APOE4 mice compared to the APOE3 control mice: p21(cdkn1a), p16, Gadd45a, and Egr1. We conclude that doxorubicin promotes cellular senescence pathways in the brain, supporting the hypothesis that drugs to eliminate senescent cells could be useful in preventing CICI.

Genotoxic effects and molecular docking of 1,4-dioxane: combined protective effects of trans-resveratrol

In this study, the protective effects of trans-resveratrol (t-resv) against 1,4-dioxane-induced toxicity in meristematic cells were investigated. For this purpose, Allium test was used and the alterations in all experimental groups were examined by using physiological, cytogenetic, biochemical, and anatomical parameters. In order to elucidate the toxicity mechanism, interactions of 1,4-dioxane and intracellular antioxidant molecules were investigated by molecular docking. As a result of the analysis, it was determined that 1,4-dioxane causes serious abnormalities in Allium cepa meristematic cells. In 1,4-dioxane-treated group, germination percentage was regressed 1.6 times, root length was reduced 12.7 times, and weight gain was decreased 7.7 times compared to control group. T-resv administration with 1,4-dioxane resulted in an improvement in physiological parameters and reduced the relative injury rate from 0.4 to 0.16. Mitotic index (MI), micronucleus (MN), and chromosomal abnormality (CAs) frequencies were investigated as cytogenetic parameters. 1,4-Dioxane decreased MI index, and increased CAs and MN frequency. In addition, it was determined by the comet test that 1,4-dioxane caused deterioration in DNA integrity. T-resv treatment was found to cause a dose-dependent improvement in genotoxic effects. Changes in the antioxidant system in all experimental groups were determined by measuring malondialdehyde (MDA) and glutathione (GSH) levels, superoxide dismutase (SOD), and catalase (CAT) enzyme activities. 1,4-Dioxane caused alterations in all tested parameters, causing deterioration in the oxidant/antioxidant balance in the cell. A 200-mg/L t-resv+1,4-dioxane treatment caused a 1.9-fold decrease in MDA level which is indicator of lipid peroxidation compared to only 1,4-dioxane-treated group. The mechanism of the disruption in antioxidant/oxidant dynamics and genetic integrity was elucidated by molecular docking analysis of 1,4-dioxane with antioxidant molecules and DNA. In 1,4-dioxane treatment group, anatomical changes such as cell deformation, flattened cell nucleus, and thickening of cortex cell wall were observed. The frequency of these changes decreased with t-resv administration. As a result, it was determined that 1,4-dioxane caused a versatile toxicity in A. cepa meristematic cells, while t-resv was found to have a dose-dependent protective feature against 1,4-dioxane-induced toxicity.

Identification of novel COX-2 / CYP19A1 axis involved in the mesothelioma pathogenesis opens new therapeutic opportunities

BACKGROUND

Based on previous studies highlighting that the induction of cyclooxygenase-2 (COX-2) and high prostaglandin E2 (PGE2) levels contribute to the pathogenesis of malignant pleural mesothelioma (MPM), and that aromatase (CYP19A1), an enzyme that plays a key role in estrogen biosynthesis, along with estradiol (E2) were expressed in MPM, this study aimed to investigate the possible interplay between COX-2 and CYP19A1 in the pathogenesis of mesothelioma, as well as the underlying mechanism.

METHODS

The interaction between COX-2 and CYP19A1 was first investigated on different MPM lines upon PGE2, and COX-2 inhibitor (rofecoxib) treatment by western blot, RT-PCR. The key regulatory pathways involved in the COX-2 and CYP19A1 axis were further studied in MPM cells, after rofecoxib and exemestane (CYP19A1 inhibitor) treatment in monotherapy and in combination, by cell cycle distribution, western blot, and combination index analysis. To explore the role of COX-2/CYP19A1 axis in 3D preclinical models of MPM cells, we analyzed the effect of combination of COX-2 and CYP19A1 inhibitors in mesosphere formation. Immunohistochemical analysis of MPM mesosphere and specimens was utilized to evaluate the involvement of COX-2 on the CYP19A1 activity and the relationship between E2 and COX-2.

RESULTS

PGE2 or rofecoxib treatment caused in MPM cells an increased or decreased, respectively, CYP19A1 expression at mRNA and protein levels. The effect of rofecoxib and exemestane combination in MPM cell proliferation was synergistic. Activation of caspase-3 and cleavage of PARP confirmed an apoptotic death for MPM cell lines. Increased expression levels of p53, p21, and p27, downregulation of cyclin D1 and inhibition of Akt activation (pAKT) were also found. The antagonistic effect of rofecoxib and exemestane combination found only in one cell line, was reverted by pretreatment with MK2206, a pAKT inhibitor, indicating pAKT as an actionable mediator in the COX-2-CYP19A1 axis. Reduction of size and sphere-forming efficiency in MPM spheres after treatment with both inhibitor and a decrease in COX-2 and E2 staining was found. Moreover, immunohistochemical analysis of 46 MPM samples showed a significant positive correlation between COX-2 and E2.

CONCLUSIONS

Collectively, the results highlighted a novel COX-2/CYP19A1 axis in the pathogenesis of MPM that can be pharmacologically targeted, consequently opening up new therapeutic options.

Galenia africana plant extract exhibits cytotoxicity in breast cancer cells by inducing multiple programmed cell death pathways

Globally, breast cancer is the most common malignancy in women and the second most common cause of cancer-related death among women. There is therefore a need to identify more efficacious therapies for this neoplasm. Galenia africana (Kraalbos) is a perennial shrub found in Southern Africa and is used by the indigenous people to treat various ailments. There has therefore been much interest to establish the scientific basis for the medicinal properties of Kraalbos. This study aimed to investigate and characterise the anti-cancer activity of an ethanolic extract of Kraalbos leaves, KB2, against oestrogen receptor positive (MCF-7) and triple negative (MDA-MB-231) breast cancer cells. LC-MS/MS analyses identified the phytochemicals 7′-hydroxyflavanone, 5′,7'-dihydroxyflavanone, 2′,4′-dihydroxydihydrochalcone and 2′,4′-dihydroxychalcone in KB2. KB2 exhibited an IC₅₀ of 114 µg/ml and 130.5 µg/ml in MCF-7 and MDA-MB-231 cells respectively, selectively inhibited their long-term survival and reduced their migration which correlated with a decrease in EMT markers. It induced oxidative stress (ROS), DNA damage (increased levels of γ-H2AX), and triggered cell cycle arrests in MCF-7 and MDA-MB-231 cells. Importantly, KB2 activated intrinsic (cleaved caspase 9) and extrinsic (cleaved caspase 8) apoptosis, necroptosis (p-RIP3 and the downstream target of the necrosome, pMLKL) and autophagy (LC3II). Co-treatment of the breast cancer cells with KB2 and the autophagy inhibitor bafilomycin A1 resulted in a significant increase in cell viability which suggests that KB2 induced autophagy is a cell death mechanism.

The role of oxidative stress in activity of anticancer thiosemicarbazones

Thiosemicarbazones are chelators of transition metals such as iron or copper whose anticancer potency is intensively investigated. Although two compounds from this class have entered clinical trials, their precise mechanism of action is still unknown. Recent studies have suggested the mobilization of the iron ions from a cell, as well as the inhibition of ribonucleotide reductase, and the formation of reactive oxygen species. The complexity and vague nature of this mechanism not only impedes a more rational design of novel compounds, but also the further development of those that are highly active that are already in the preclinical phase. In the current work, a series of highly active thiosemicarbazones was studied for their antiproliferative activity in vitro. Our experiments indicate that these complexes have ionophoric properties and redox activity. They appeared to be very effective generating reactive oxygen species and deregulating the antioxidative potential of a cell. Moreover, the genes that are responsible for antioxidant capacity were considerably deregulated, which led to the induction of apoptosis and cell cycle arrest. On the other hand, good intercalating properties of the studied compounds may explain their ability to cleave DNA strands and to also poison related enzymes through the formation of reactive oxygen species. These findings may help to explain the particularly high selectivity that they have over normal cells, which generally have a stronger redox equilibrium.

Redox Changes During the Cell Cycle in the Embryonic Root Meristem of Arabidopsis thaliana

AIMS

The aim of this study was to characterize redox changes in the nuclei and cytosol occurring during the mitotic cell cycle in the embryonic roots of germinating Arabidopsis seedlings, and to determine how redox cycling was modified in mutants with a decreased capacity for ascorbate synthesis.

RESULTS

Using an in vivo reduction-oxidation (redox) reporter (roGFP2), we show that transient oxidation of the cytosol and the nuclei occurred at G1 in the synchronized dividing cells of the Arabidopsis root apical meristem, with reduction at G2 and mitosis. This redox cycle was absent from low ascorbate mutants in which nuclei were significantly more oxidized than controls. The cell cycle-dependent increase in nuclear size was impaired in the ascorbate-deficient mutants, which had fewer cells per unit area in the root proliferation zone. The transcript profile of the dry seeds and size of the imbibed seeds was strongly influenced by low ascorbate but germination, dormancy release and seed aging characteristics were unaffected.

INNOVATION

These data demonstrate the presence of a redox cycle within the plant cell cycle and that the redox state of the nuclei is an important factor in cell cycle progression.

CONCLUSIONS

Controlled oxidation is a key feature of the early stages of the plant cell cycle. However, sustained mild oxidation restricts nuclear functions and impairs progression through the cell cycle leading to fewer cells in the root apical meristem. Antioxid. Redox Signal. 27, 1505-1519.

A new semisynthetic cardenolide analog 3β-[2-(1-amantadine)- 1-on-ethylamine]-digitoxigenin (AMANTADIG) affects G2/M cell cycle arrest and miRNA expression profiles and enhances proapoptotic survivin-2B expression in renal cell carcinoma cell lines

Cardiac glycosides are well known in the treatment of cardiovascular diseases; however, their application as treatment option for cancer patients is under discussion. We showed that the cardiac glycoside digitoxin and its analog AMANTADIG can inhibit the growth of renal cell carcinoma (RCC) cell lines and increase G2/M cell cycle arrest. To identify the signaling pathways and molecular basis of this G2/M arrest, microRNAs were profiled using microRNA arrays. Cardiac glycoside treatment significantly deregulated two microRNAs, miR-2278 and miR-670-5p. Pathway enrichment analysis showed that all cardiac glycoside treatments affected the MAPK and the axon guidance pathway. Within these pathways, three genes, MAPK1, NRAS and RAC2, were identified as in silico targets of the deregulated miRNAs. MAPK1 and NRAS are known regulators of G2/M cell cycle arrest. AMANTADIG treatment enhanced the expression of phosphorylated MAPK1 in 786-O cells. Secondly, we studied the expression of survivin known to be affected by cardiac glycosides and to regulate the G2/M cell phase. AMANTADIG treatment upregulated the expression of the pro-apoptotic survivin-2B variant in Caki-1 and 786-O cells. Moreover, treatment with AMANTADIG resulted in significantly lower survivin protein expression compared to 786-O control cells. Summarizing, treatment with all cardiac glycosides induced G2/M cell cycle arrest and downregulated the miR-2278 and miR-670-5p in microarray analysis. All cardiac glycosides affected the MAPK-pathway and survivin expression, both associated with the G2/M phase. Because cells in the G2/M phase are radio- and chemotherapy sensitive, cardiac glycosides like AMANTADIG could potentially improve the efficacy of radio- and/or chemotherapy in RCCs.

Gene expression profiling and functional analysis reveals that p53 pathway-related gene expression is highly activated in cancer cells treated by cold atmospheric plasma-activated medium

Background

Cold atmospheric-pressure plasma (CAP) has been considered a promising strategy for anti-cancer treatment. Traditionally, CAP was employed to kill cancer cells or tumor tissues by direct irradiation. However, CAP has some disadvantages such as infiltration capacity and storage convenience. Recently, plasma-activated medium (PAM) was used as an alternative strategy to treat cancer cells or tumors. The novel PAM approach has potential as an anti-cancer therapy.

Objective

To reveal the global activation of signaling pathways in oral cancer cells induced by PAM.

Methods

Oral squamous cell line SCC15 were treated by PAM and gene expression profiles were evaluated by using RNA-seq. Functional analyses were employed to reveal the global responses of SCC15 cells with PAM stimulation. QRT-PCR and Western blot were carried out to validate the expression levels of selected genes.

Results

More than 6G clean data per sample were obtained in PAM-treated SCC15 cells. A total of 934 differentially expressed genes (DEGs) were identified and GO analysis implicated the deep involvement of biological process. KEGG mapping further clustered 40 pathways, revealing that “p53 pathway” was significantly enriched. SCC15 cells were commonly used as a p53-null cell line. Therefore, the enriched p53 pathway-related genes in our analysis might be activated by other stimulators, in a p53-independent manner. Gene set enrichment analysis (GSEA) was also performed to evaluate changes at the gene-sets level. The results demonstrated not only the high engagement of “p53 pathway” but also the involvement of novel pathways such as hypoxia pathway.

Conclusions

The present study elucidates the transcriptomic changes of PAM treated SCC15 cells, containing highly enriched DEGs involved in “p53 pathway”. Our analysis in this work not only provides genomic resources for future studies but also gives novel insights to uncover the molecular mechanism of PAM stimulation.

Variable Cell Growth Yields Reproducible OrganDevelopment through Spatiotemporal Averaging

Organ sizes and shapes are strikingly reproducible, despite the variable growth and division of individual cells within them. To reveal which mechanisms enable this precision, we designed a screen for disrupted sepal size and shape uniformity in Arabidopsis and identified mutations in the mitochondrial i-AAA protease FtsH4. Counterintuitively, through live imaging we observed that variability of neighboring cell growth was reduced in ftsh4 sepals. We found that regular organ shape results from spatiotemporal averaging of the cellular variability in wild-type sepals, which is disrupted in the less-variable cells of ftsh4 mutants. We also found that abnormal, increased accumulation of reactive oxygen species (ROS) in ftsh4 mutants disrupts organ size consistency. In wild-type sepals, ROS accumulate in maturing cells and limit organ growth, suggesting that ROS are endogenous signals promoting termination of growth. Our results demonstrate that spatiotemporal averaging of cellular variability is required for precision in organ size.

Involvement of glutathione in β-cyclodextrin-hemin complex-induced lateral root formation in tomato seedlings

β-cyclodextrin-hemin complex (β-CDH) was shown to induce lateral root (LR) formation in tomato. However, the molecular mechanism is still elusive. In this report, the role of reduced glutathione (GSH) in the induction of lateral root triggered by β-CDH was investigated. Similar to the responses of β-CDH, exogenously applied with 0.1 mΜ GSH not only increased endogenous GSH content determined by spectrophotography and the monochlorobimane (MCB)-dependent fluorescent analysis, but also induced, thereafter, LR formation. Meanwhile, both β-CDH- and GSH-induced lateral root primordia (LRP) exhibited a similar accelerated anatomic structure. Above inducible responses were blocked significantly when the _L-buthionine-(S,R)-sulfoximine (BSO), a potent and specific inhibitor of the enzyme catalyzing the first step of GSH biosynthesis, was separately applied. Upon β-CDH treatment, the changes of endogenous GSH content determined by spectrophotography and fluorescent analysis were consistent with the transcripts of two GSH synthetic genes, GSH1 and GSH2 encoding γ-glutamyl cysteine synthetase and glutathione synthetase, respectively. Exogenously applied with β-CDH could rescue N-1-naphthylphthalamic acid (NPA; IAA depletion)-triggered inhibition of LR formation. Further molecular evidence revealed that both β-CDH and GSH modulated gene expression of cell cycle regulatory genes (CYCA2;1, CYCA3;1, CYCD3;1, and CDKA1) and auxin signaling genes (ARF7 and RSI-1), six marker genes responsible for LR formation. By contrast, above changes were sensitive to the co-treatment with BSO. All together, these results suggest a role for GSH in the regulation of tomato LR development triggered by β-CDH.

Lipid mediators involved in the oxidative stress and antioxidant defence of human lung cancer cells

Background

The oxidative modifications of bioactive macromolecules have important roles in carcinogenesis. Of particular interest are lipid peroxidation products, which are involved in the activation of Nrf2 and endocannabinoids that affect cancer progression.

Methods

In lung cancer tissues (squamous cell lung carcinoma - SCC and adenocarcinoma - AC), the glutathione peroxidase and catalase activity and glutathione level, together with the expression of Nrf2 and its activators/inhibitors were estimated. The oxidative modifications of DNA (8-hydroxy-2′-deoxyguanosine and N7-methylguanine), endocannabinoids (anandamide and 2- arachidonylglyceriol), their receptors (CB1/2, TRV1, GPR55), phospholipid fatty acids (arachidonic, linoleic and docosahexaenoic), and reactive aldehydes (4-hydroxynonenal, 4-oxononenal and malondialdehyde) were determined.

Results

Tumour tissues showed lower antioxidant capacity than healthy tissues, which was accompanied by lower levels of fatty acids and higher levels of reactive aldehydes. Disturbances in antioxidant capacity and enhanced DNA oxidative modifications were observed in 88% of AC patients and 81% of SCC patients. The 4-hydroxynonenal-Histidine adducts were detected in the necrotic and stromal cells in all tumours. These findings were associated with the enhanced Nrf2 activity, especially in AC. The strong difference between the cancer subtypes was evident in the levels of endocannabinoids, with an increase in 89% of SCC and a decrease in 85% of AC patients being observed. Additionally, the increase in the expression of CB1/2 receptors was observed only in 82% of AC, while the expression of VR1 and GPR55 was enhanced in 79% of SCC and 82% of AC patients.

Conclusions

This study shows significant differences in the redox status, Nrf2 pathway and endocannabinoid system between SCC and AC tissues. Understanding the relation between the various lipid mediators and antioxidants in different lung cancer subtypes may be beginning for further research on the effective anticancer therapy.

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AC tissues show lower antioxidant capacity than SCC.

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Nrf2/ARE pathway is activated stronger in AC than in SCC.

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AC exhibits more lipid oxidative modifications than SCC.

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HNE-protein adducts are detected in the necrotic and stromal cells in SCC and AC.

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SCC exhibits increase in endocannabinoids level while in AC reverse effect is observed.

Cristacarpin promotes ER stress-mediated ROS generation leading to premature senescence by activation of p21(waf-1)

Stress-induced premature senescence (SIPS) is quite similar to replicative senescence that is committed by cells exposed to various stress conditions viz. ultraviolet radiation (DNA damage), hydrogen peroxide (oxidative stress), chemotherapeutic agents (cytotoxic threat), etc. Here, we report that cristacarpin, a natural product obtained from the stem bark of Erythrina suberosa, promotes endoplasmic reticulum (ER) stress, leading to sub-lethal reactive oxygen species (ROS) generation and which eventually terminates by triggering senescence in pancreatic and breast cancer cells through blocking the cell cycle in the G1 phase. The majority of cristacarpin-treated cells responded to conventional SA-β-gal stains; showed characteristic p21(waf1) upregulation along with enlarged and flattened morphology; and increased volume, granularity, and formation of heterochromatin foci-all of these features are the hallmarks of senescence. Inhibition of ROS generation by N-acetyl-L-cysteine (NAC) significantly reduced the expression of p21(waf1), confirming that the modulation in p21(waf1) by anti-proliferative cristacarpin was ROS dependent. Further, the elevation in p21(waf1) expression in PANC-1 and MCF-7 cells was consistent with the decrease in the expression of Cdk-2 and cyclinD1. Here, we provide evidence that cristacarpin promotes senescence in a p53-independent manner. Moreover, cristacarpin treatment induced p38MAPK, indicating the ROS-dependent activation of the MAP kinase pathway, and thus abrogates the tumor growth in mouse allograft tumor model.

Designing greener plasticizers: Effects of alkyl chain length and branching on the biodegradation of maleate based plasticizers

The ubiquitous presence of the plasticizer di (2-ethylhexyl) phthalate (DEHP) in the environment is of concern due to negative biological effects associated with it and its metabolites. In particular, the metabolite mono (2-ethylhexyl) phthalate (MEHP) is a potential endocrine disruptor. Earlier work had identified the diester di (2-ethylhexyl) maleate (DEHM) as a potential greener candidate plasticizer to replace DEHP, yet its biodegradation rate was reported to be slow. In this study, we modified the side chains of maleate diesters to be linear (i.e., unbranched) alkyl chains that varied in length from ethyl to n-octyl. The plasticization efficiency of these compounds blended into PVC at 29 wt.% increased with the overall length of the molecule, but all compounds performed as well as or better than comparable samples with DEHP. Tests conducted with the equally long DEHM and dihexyl maleate (DHM) showed that branching has no effect on glass transition temperature (Tg) reduction efficiency. Biodegradation experiments with the common soil bacterium Rhodococcus rhodocrous in the presence of the plasticizer showed acceptable hydrolysis rates of maleates with unbranched side chains, while the branched DEHM showed almost no degradation. The addition of hexadecane as auxiliary carbon source improved hydrolysis rates. Temporary buildup of the respective monoester of the compounds were observed, but only in the case of the longest molecule, dioctyl maleate (DOM), did this buildup lead to growth inhibition of the bacteria. Maleates with linear side chains, if designed and tested properly, show promise as potential candidate plasticizers as replacements for DEHP.

Induction of apoptosis by genipin inhibits cell proliferation in AGS human gastric cancer cells via Egr1/p21 signaling pathway

Natural compounds are becoming important candidates in cancer therapy due to their cytotoxic effects on cancer cells by inducing various types of programmed cell deaths. In this study, we investigated whether genipin induces programmed cell deaths and mediates in Egr1/p21 signaling pathways in gastric cancer cells. Effects of genipin in AGS cancer cell lines were observed via evaluation of cell viability, ROS generation, cell cycle arrest, and protein and RNA levels of p21, Egr1, as well as apoptotic marker genes. The cell viability of AGS cells reduced by genipin treatment via induction of the caspase 3-dependent apoptosis. Cell cycle arrest was observed at the G2/M phase along with induction of p21 and p21-dependent cyclins. As an upstream mediator of p21, the transcription factor early growth response-1 (Egr1) upregulated p21 through nuclear translocation and binding to the p21 promoter site. Silencing Egr1 expression inhibited the expression of p21 and downstream molecules involved in apoptosis. We demonstrated that genipin treatment in AGS human gastric cancer cell line induces apoptosis via p53-independent Egr1/p21 signaling pathway in a dose-dependent manner.

Class I HDACs Affect DNA Replication, Repair, and Chromatin Structure: Implications for Cancer Therapy

SIGNIFICANCE

The contribution of epigenetic alterations to cancer development and progression is becoming increasingly clear, prompting the development of epigenetic therapies. Histone deacetylase inhibitors (HDIs) represent one of the first classes of such therapy. Two HDIs, Vorinostat and Romidepsin, are broad-spectrum inhibitors that target multiple histone deacetylases (HDACs) and are FDA approved for the treatment of cutaneous T-cell lymphoma. However, the mechanism of action and the basis for the cancer-selective effects of these inhibitors are still unclear.

RECENT ADVANCES

While the anti-tumor effects of HDIs have traditionally been attributed to their ability to modify gene expression after the accumulation of histone acetylation, recent studies have identified the effects of HDACs on DNA replication, DNA repair, and genome stability. In addition, the HDIs available in the clinic target multiple HDACs, making it difficult to assign either their anti-tumor effects or their associated toxicities to the inhibition of a single protein. However, recent studies in mouse models provide insights into the tissue-specific functions of individual HDACs and their involvement in mediating the effects of HDI therapy.

CRITICAL ISSUES

Here, we describe how altered replication contributes to the efficacy of HDAC-targeted therapies as well as discuss what knowledge mouse models have provided to our understanding of the specific functions of class I HDACs, their potential involvement in tumorigenesis, and how their disruption may contribute to toxicities associated with HDI treatment.

FUTURE DIRECTIONS

Impairment of DNA replication by HDIs has important therapeutic implications. Future studies should assess how best to exploit these findings for therapeutic gain.

Regulation of signal transduction by reactive oxygen species in the cardiovascular system

Oxidative stress has long been implicated in cardiovascular disease, but more recently, the role of reactive oxygen species (ROS) in normal physiological signaling has been elucidated. Signaling pathways modulated by ROS are complex and compartmentalized, and we are only beginning to identify the molecular modifications of specific targets. Here, we review the current literature on ROS signaling in the cardiovascular system, focusing on the role of ROS in normal physiology and how dysregulation of signaling circuits contributes to cardiovascular diseases, including atherosclerosis, ischemia-reperfusion injury, cardiomyopathy, and heart failure. In particular, we consider how ROS modulate signaling pathways related to phenotypic modulation, migration and adhesion, contractility, proliferation and hypertrophy, angiogenesis, endoplasmic reticulum stress, apoptosis, and senescence. Understanding the specific targets of ROS may guide the development of the next generation of ROS-modifying therapies to reduce morbidity and mortality associated with oxidative stress.

Metal toxicity and the p53 protein: an intimate relationship

The relationship between p53, ROS and transition metals.

Reactive oxygen species regulate the quiescence of CD34-positive cells derived from human embryonic stem cells

AIMS

Reactive oxygen species (ROS) are involved in a wide range of cellular processes. However, few studies have examined the generation and function of ROS in human embryonic vascular development. In this study, the sources of ROS and their roles in the vascular differentiation of human embryonic stem cells (hESCs) were investigated.

METHODS AND RESULTS

During vascular differentiation of hESCs, CD34(+) cells had quiescence-related gene expression profiles and a large fraction of these cells were in G0 phase. In addition, levels of ROS, which were primarily generated through NOX4, were substantially higher in hESC-derived CD34(+) cells than in hESC-derived CD34(-) cells. To determine whether excess levels of ROS induce quiescence of hESC-derived CD34(+) cells, ROS levels were moderately reduced using selenium to enhance antioxidant activities of thioredoxin reductase and glutathione peroxidase. In comparison to untreated CD34(+) cells, selenium-treated CD34(+) cells exhibited changes in gene expression that favoured cell cycle progression, and had a greater proliferation and a smaller fraction of cells in G0 phase. Thus, selenium treatment increased the number of hESC-derived CD34(+) cells, thereby enhancing the efficiency with which hESCs differentiated into vascular endothelial and smooth muscle cells.

CONCLUSION

This study reveals that NOX4 produces ROS in CD34(+) cells during vascular differentiation of hESCs, and shows that modulation of ROS levels using antioxidants such as selenium may be a novel approach to increase the vascular differentiation efficiency of hESCs.

A new lncRNA, APTR, associates with and represses the CDKN1A/p21 promoter by recruiting polycomb proteins

Long noncoding RNAs (lncRNAs) have emerged as a major regulator of cell physiology, but many of which have no known function. CDKN1A/p21 is an important inhibitor of the cell-cycle, regulator of the DNA damage response and effector of the tumor suppressor p53, playing a crucial role in tumor development and prevention. In order to identify a regulator for tumor progression, we performed an siRNA screen of human lncRNAs required for cell proliferation, and identified a novel lncRNA, APTR, that acts in trans to repress the CDKN1A/p21 promoter independent of p53 to promote cell proliferation. APTR associates with the promoter of CDKN1A/p21 and this association requires a complementary-Alu sequence encoded in APTR. A different module of APTR associates with and recruits the Polycomb repressive complex 2 (PRC2) to epigenetically repress the p21 promoter. A decrease in APTR is necessary for the induction of p21 after heat stress and DNA damage by doxorubicin, and the levels of APTR and p21 are anti-correlated in human glioblastomas. Our data identify a new regulator of the cell-cycle inhibitor CDKN1A/p21 that acts as a proliferative factor in cancer cell lines and in glioblastomas and demonstrate that Alu elements present in lncRNAs can contribute to targeting regulatory lncRNAs to promoters.

Metarhizin A suppresses cell proliferation by inhibiting cytochrome c oxidase activity

AIMS

Metarhizin A was originally isolated from Metarhizium flavoviride as a potent inhibitor of the growth of insect and mammalian cells. In this study, we aimed to understand the molecular targets of metarhizin A involved in its anti-proliferative activity against human cells.

MAIN METHODS

Cell cycle regulators and signaling molecules were examined by immunoblotting using specific antibodies. A mitochondria-enriched fraction was prepared from mouse liver, and mitochondrial activity was monitored using an oxygen electrode. Enzyme activity was measured using purified cytochrome c oxidase and permeabilized cells.

KEY FINDINGS

Metarhizin A inhibits the growth of MCF-7 cells with an IC50 value of ~0.2 μM and other cells in a similar manner; a cell cycle-dependent kinase inhibitor, p21, is selectively induced. Significant amounts of reactive oxygen species (ROS) are generated and ERK1/2 is activated in cells treated with metarhizin A. Metarhizin A completely suppresses oxygen consumption by mitochondria, and potently inhibits the activity of cytochrome c oxidase. It induces cell death when MCF-7 cells are cultured under limiting conditions.

SIGNIFICANCE

Metarhizin A is a potent inhibitor of cytochrome c oxidase and activates the MAPK pathway through the generation of ROS, which induces growth arrest of cells, and, under some conditions, enhances cell death. The cytochrome c oxidase system is a possible molecular target of metarhizin A.

Antitumor activity of di-n-butyl-(2,6-difluorobenzohydroxamato)tin(IV) against human gastric carcinoma SGC-7901 cells via G2/M cell cycle arrest and cell apoptosis

Di-n-butyl-(2,6-difluorobenzohydroxamato)Tin(IV) (DBDFT), a potential antitumor agent against malignancies, exhibited high activities both in vitro and in vivo. Flow cytometric analysis showed that treatment with DBDFT against Human Gastric Carcinoma (SGC-7901) cells induced a concentration and time-dependent cell accumulation in the G2/M phase of the cell cycle with a parallel depletion of the percentage of cells in G0/G1, the cell apoptosis was observed by characteristic morphological changes and AnnexinV/PI dual-immunofluorescence staining. Fluorescence quantitative FQ- PCR and western blot results showed that G2/M-phase arrest was correlated with up-regulation of cyclin dependent kinase inhibitor p21, Chk2 and CyclinB1, whereas the expressions of other G2/M regulatory check-point protein, Cdc2, and feedback loop protein Cdc25C were obviously down-regulated in a p53-independent manner after the SGC-7901 cells were treated with DBDFT (2.5, 5.0, 7.5 µmol·L(-1)) compared with the control. Furthermore, the up-regulation of Bax and down-regulation of Bcl-2 as well as the activation of caspase-3 were observed, which indicated that DBDFT treatment triggered the mitochondrial apoptotic pathway with an increase of Bax/Bcl-2 ratios, resulting in mitochondrial membrane potential loss and caspase-9 activation in DBDFT treated SGC-7901 cells. In summary, the results illustrated the involvement of multiple signaling pathways targeted by DBDFT in mediating G2/M cell cycle arrest and apoptosis in SGC-7901 cells, which suggested that DBDFT might have therapeutic potential against gastric carcinoma as an effective compound.

Alcohol induced hepatic degeneration in a hepatitis C virus core protein transgenic mouse model

Hepatitis C virus (HCV) has become a major public health issue. It is prevalent in most countries. HCV infection frequently begins without clinical symptoms, before progressing to persistent viremia, chronic hepatitis, cirrhosis and hepatocellular carcinoma (HCC) in the majority of patients (70% to 80%). Alcohol is an independent cofactor that accelerates the development of HCC in chronic hepatitis C patients. The purpose of the current study was to evaluate ethanol-induced hepatic changes in HCV core-Tg mice and mutant core Tg mice. Wild type (NTG), core wild-Tg mice (TG-K), mutant core 116-Tg mice (TG-116) and mutant core 99-Tg mice (TG-99) were used in this investigation. All groups were given drinking water with 10% ethanol and 5% sucrose for 13 weeks. To observe liver morphological changes, we performed histopathological and immunohistochemical examinations. Histopathologically, NTG, TG-K and TG-116 mice showed moderate centrilobular necrosis, while severe centrilobular necrosis and hepatocyte dissociation were observed in TG-99 mice with increasing lymphocyte infiltration and piecemeal necrosis. In all groups, a small amount of collagen fiber was found, principally in portal areas. None of the mice were found to have myofibroblasts based on immunohistochemical staining specific for α-SMA. CYP2E1-positive cells were clearly detected in the centrilobular area in all groups. In the TG-99 mice, we also observed cells positive for CK8/18, TGF-β1 and phosphorylated (p)-Smad2/3 and p21 around the necrotic hepatocytes in the centrilobular area (p < 0.01). Based on our data, alcohol intake induced piecemeal necrosis and hepatocyte dissociation in the TG-99 mice. These phenomena involved activation of the TGF-β1/p-Smad2/3/p21 signaling pathway in hepatocytes. Data from this study will be useful for elucidating the association between alcohol intake and HCV infection.

NAD(+)-linked alcohol dehydrogenase 1 regulates methylglyoxal concentration in Candida albicans

We purified a fraction that showed NAD(+)-linked methylglyoxal dehydrogenase activity, directly catalyzing methylglyoxal oxidation to pyruvate, which was significantly increased in glutathione-depleted Candida albicans. It also showed NADH-linked methylglyoxal-reducing activity. The fraction was identified as a NAD(+)-linked alcohol dehydrogenase (ADH1) through mass spectrometric analyses. In ADH1-disruptants of both the wild type and glutathione-depleted cells, the intracellular methylglyoxal concentration increased significantly; defects in growth, differentiation, and virulence were observed; and G2-phase arrest was induced.

Chloropicrin-induced toxic responses in human lung epithelial cells

Chloropicrin is a slowly evaporating toxic irritant that is known to cause damage in the respiratory system. Here we used a lung epithelial cell line (A549) to study the molecular responses underlying chloropicrin toxicity. Glutathione (GSH), synthetic peptide and 2'-deoxyguanosine were used as in vitro trapping agents to identify early markers of chloropicrin toxicity. Microscopy of the cells revealed massive vacuolization by chloropicrin exposure (80-100μM). The number of apoptotic cells increased with the chloropicrin concentration as assessed by flow cytometry. Immunoblotting analysis revealed increases in the amount of four proteins (p53, p21, p27 and phospho-Erk1/2) that are involved in DNA-damage, cell cycle regulation and apoptosis. Chloropicrin evoked a dose-dependent increase in levels of reactive oxygen species within one hour of exposure. The treatment triggered also the formation of disulphide bonds between the model thiol-containing peptides as analysed by LC/MS. Chloropicrin did not form stable adducts with the model peptides or 2'-deoxyguanosine. N-acetyl-cysteine (1mM NAC) fully prevented the vacuoles and chloropicrin-induced cytotoxicity. The results suggest that an oxidative insult, particularly modification of free sulfhydryl groups in proteins is involved in the acute toxicity evoked by chloropicrin in airway epithelial cells. The protective effect of NAC as a potential antidote in chloropicrin intoxication will require further investigation.

Redox molecular machines involved in tumor progression

SIGNIFICANCE

We herein review recent advances on the role exerted by protein redox machines engaged in tumor progression, focusing on cell adhesion and migration, regulation of transcriptional response, and tumor metabolic reprogramming, all features belonging to the new hallmarks of cancer.

RECENT ADVANCES

Several recent insights have reported that oxidative stress, either due to intracellular sources of oxidants, which are frequently deregulated in cancers or to microenvironment factors as hypoxia or stromal cell contact, plays a key role in tumor malignancy, as well as in metabolic pathways control. Indeed, many proteins behave as sensors of intracellular oxidative stress, including protein tyrosine kinases and phosphatases, transcription factors as p53, forkhead box class-Os, nuclear respiratory factor-2, nuclear factor-kB, hypoxia inducible factor, enzymes involved in glycolysis or penthose phosphate pathway as pyruvate kinase-M2 and adenylate monophosphate kinase, or DNA repair enzymes as Ataxia Teleangectasia Mutated. All these proteins have been reported to play essential roles during cancer progression and their sensitivity to oxidative stress has added new levels of complexity to the cancer field.

CRITICAL ISSUES

Main significant issues that need to be addressed in redox cancer biology are (i) sensitivity to a different level of oxidative stress of sensors, that is, they can respond to different oxidative insults/signals, and (ii) the real susceptibility of cancer cells to redox-based therapies due to the acknowledged plasticity of cancer cells to develop adoptive strategies.

FUTURE DIRECTIONS

Definitely, redox machines have the potentiality to develop into novel biomarkers and related target therapies should attain the goal of personalized medicine in the fight against cancer.

Effect of atmospheric gas plasmas on cancer cell signaling

Cancer is one of the most life-threatening diseases with many forms still regarded as incurable. The conventional cancer treatments have unwanted side effects such as the death of normal cells. A therapy that can accurately target and effectively kill tumor cells could address the inadequacies of the available therapies. Atmospheric gas plasmas (AGP) that are able to specifically kill cancerous cells offer a promising alternative approach compared to conventional therapies. AGP have been shown to exploit tumor-specific genetic defects and a recent trial in mice has confirmed its antitumor effects. The mechanism by which the AGP act on tumor cells but not normal cells is not fully understood. A review of the current literature suggests that reactive oxygen species (ROS) generated by AGP induce death of cancer cells by impairing the function of intracellular regulatory factors. The majority of cancer cells are defective in tumor suppressors that interfere normal cell growth pathways. It appears that pro-oncogene or tumor suppressor-dependent regulation of antioxidant/or ROS signaling pathways may be involved in AGP-induced cancer cell death. The toxic effects of ROS are mitigated by normal cells by adjustment of their metabolic pathways. On the other hand, tumor cells are mostly defective in several regulatory signaling pathways which lead to the loss of metabolic balance within the cells and consequently, the regulation of cell growth. This review article evaluates the impact of AGP on the activation of cellular signaling and its importance for exploring mechanisms for safe and efficient anticancer therapies.

Plumbagin inhibits tumorigenesis and angiogenesis of ovarian cancer cells in vivo

Angiogenesis is a hallmark of tumor development and metastatic progression, and anti-angiogenic drugs targeting the VEGF pathway have shown to decrease the disease progression in cancer patients. In this study, we have analyzed the anti-proliferative and anti-angiogenic property of plumbagin in cisplatin sensitive, BRCA2 deficient, PEO-1 and cisplatin resistant, BRCA2 proficient PEO-4 ovarian cancer cells. Both PEO-1 and PEO-4 ovarian cancer cells are sensitive to plumbagin irrespective of BRCA2 status in both normoxia and hypoxia. Importantly, plumbagin treatment effectively inhibits VEGF-A and Glut-1 in PEO-1 and PEO-4 ovarian cancer cells. We have also analyzed the p53 mutant, cisplatin resistant, and BRCA2 proficient OVCAR-5 cells. Plumbagin challenge also restricts the VEGF induced pro-angiogenic signaling in HUVECs and subsequently endothelial cell proliferation. In addition, we observe a significant effect on tumor regression among OVCAR-5 tumor-bearing mice treated with plumbagin, which is associated with significant inhibition of Ki67 and vWF expressions. Plumbagin also significantly reduces CD31 expression in an ear angiogenesis assay. Collectively, our studies indicate that plumbagin, as an anti-cancer agent disrupts growth of ovarian cancer cells through the inhibition of proliferation as well as angiogenesis.

DNA methyltransferase inhibitor zebularine inhibits human hepatic carcinoma cells proliferation and induces apoptosis

Hepatocellular carcinoma is one of the most common cancers worldwide. During tumorigenesis, tumor suppressor and cancer-related genes are commonly silenced by aberrant DNA methylation in their promoter regions. Zebularine (1-(β-(D)-ribofuranosyl)-1,2-dihydropyrimidin-2-one) acts as an inhibitor of DNA methylation and exhibits chemical stability and minimal cytotoxicity both in vitro and in vivo. In this study, we explore the effect and possible mechanism of action of zebularine on hepatocellular carcinoma cell line HepG2. We demonstrate that zebularine exhibits antitumor activity on HepG2 cells by inhibiting cell proliferation and inducing apoptosis, however, it has little effect on DNA methylation in HepG2 cells. On the other hand, zebularine treatment downregulated CDK2 and the phosphorylation of retinoblastoma protein (Rb), and upregulated p21(WAF/CIP1) and p53. We also found that zebularine treatment upregulated the phosphorylation of p44/42 mitogen-activated protein kinase (MAPK). These results suggest that the p44/42 MAPK pathway plays a role in zebularine-induced cell-cycle arrest by regulating the activity of p21(WAF/CIP1) and Rb. Furthermore, although the proapoptotic protein Bax levels were not affected, the antiapoptotic protein Bcl-2 level was downregulated with zebularine treatment. In addition, the data in the present study indicate that inhibition of the double-stranded RNA-dependent protein kinase (PKR) is involved in inducing apoptosis with zebularine. These results suggest a novel mechanism of zebularine-induced cell growth arrest and apoptosis via a DNA methylation-independent pathway in hepatocellular carcinoma.

Ferritin stimulates oligodendrocyte genesis in the adult spinal cord and can be transferred from macrophages to NG2 cells in vivo

Injured CNS tissue often contains elevated iron and its storage protein ferritin, which may exacerbate tissue damage through pro-oxidative mechanisms. Therefore, therapeutic studies often target iron reduction as a neuroprotective strategy. However, iron may be crucial for oligodendrocyte replacement and remyelination. For instance, we previously showed that intraspinal toll-like receptor 4 macrophage activation induced the generation of new ferritin-positive oligodendrocytes, and that iron chelation significantly reduced this oligodendrogenic response. Since macrophages can secrete ferritin, we hypothesize that ferritin is a macrophage-derived signal that promotes oligodendrogenesis. To test this, we microinjected ferritin into intact adult rat spinal cords. Within 6 h, NG2+ progenitor cells proliferated and accumulated ferritin. By 3 d, many of these cells had differentiated into new oligodendrocytes. However, acute neuron and oligodendrocyte toxicity occurred in gray matter. Interestingly, ferritin-positive NG2 cells and macrophages accumulated in the area of cell loss, revealing that NG2 cells thrive in an environment that is toxic to other CNS cells. To test whether ferritin can be transferred from macrophages to NG2 cells in vivo, we loaded macrophages with fluorescent ferritin then transplanted them into intact spinal white matter. Within 3-6 d, proliferating NG2 cells migrated into the macrophage transplants and accumulated fluorescently labeled ferritin. These results show that activated macrophages can be an in vivo source of ferritin for NG2 cells, which induces their proliferation and differentiation into new oligodendrocytes. This work has relevance for conditions in which iron-mediated injury and/or repair likely occur, such as hemorrhage, stroke, spinal cord injury, aging, Parkinson's disease, and Alzheimer's disease.

Redox regulation of p53, redox effectors regulated by p53: a subtle balance

SIGNIFICANCE

Reactive oxygen species (ROS), generated by cells as side products of biological reactions, function as secondary messengers by impacting a host of cellular networks involved in maintaining normal homeostatic growth as well as pathological disease states. Redox-sensitive proteins, such as the tumor suppressor protein p53, are susceptible to ROS-dependent modifications, which could impact their activities and/or biological functions.

RECENT ADVANCES

p53 is a transcription factor that controls a wide variety of target genes and regulates numerous cellular functions in response to stresses that lead to genomic instability. Thus, redox modifications of p53 could impact cell fate signaling and could have profound effects on pathways fundamental to maintaining cell and tissue integrity.

CRITICAL ISSUES

Recent studies present evidence that ROS function upstream of p53 in some model systems, while in others ROS production could be a downstream effect of p53 activation.

FUTURE DIRECTIONS

In this review, we describe how ROS production regulates p53 activity and how p53 can, in turn, influence cellular ROS production.

Neisseria gonorrhoeae infection causes DNA damage and affects the expression of p21, p27, and p53 in non-tumor epithelial cells

The constant shedding and renewal of epithelial cells maintain the protection of epithelial barriers. Interference with the processes of host cell-cycle regulation and barrier integrity permits the bacterial pathogen Neisseria gonorrhoeae to effectively colonize and invade epithelial cells. Here, we show that a gonococcal infection causes DNA damage in human non-tumor vaginal VK2/E6E7 cells with an increase of 700 DNA strand breaks per cell per hour as detected by an alkaline DNA unwinding assay. Infected cells exhibited elevated levels of DNA double-strand breaks, as indicated by a more than 50% increase in cells expressing DNA damage-response protein 53BP1-positive foci that co-localized with phosphorylated histone H2AX (γH2AX). Furthermore, infected cells abolished their expression of the tumor protein p53 and induced an increase in the expression of cyclin-dependent kinase inhibitors p21 and p27 to 2.6-fold and 4.2-fold of controls, respectively. As shown by live-cell microscopy, flow cytometry assays, and BrdU incorporation assays, gonococcal infection slowed the host cell-cycle progression mainly by impairing progression through the G2 phase. Our findings show new cellular players that are involved in the control of the human cell cycle during gonococcal infection and the potential of bacteria to cause cellular abnormalities.

Intersection of FOXO- and RUNX1-mediated gene expression programs in single breast epithelial cells during morphogenesis and tumor progression

Gene expression networks are complicated by the assortment of regulatory factors that bind DNA and modulate transcription combinatorially. Single-cell measurements can reveal biological mechanisms hidden by population averages, but their value has not been fully explored in the context of mRNA regulation. Here, we adapted a single-cell expression profiling technique to examine the gene expression program downstream of Forkhead box O (FOXO) transcription factors during 3D breast epithelial acinar morphogenesis. By analyzing patterns of mRNA fluctuations among individual matrix-attached epithelial cells, we found that a subset of FOXO target genes was jointly regulated by the transcription factor Runt-related transcription factor 1 (RUNX1). Knockdown of RUNX1 causes hyperproliferation and abnormal morphogenesis, both of which require normal FOXO function. Down-regulating RUNX1 and FOXOs simultaneously causes widespread oxidative stress, which arrests proliferation and restores normal acinar morphology. In hormone-negative breast cancers lacking human epidermal growth factor receptor 2 (HER2) amplification, we find that RUNX1 down-regulation is strongly associated with up-regulation of FOXO1, which may be required to support growth of RUNX1-negative tumors. The coordinate function of these two tumor suppressors may provide a failsafe mechanism that inhibits cancer progression.

Redox modulation of p53: mechanisms and functional significance

The tumor suppressor protein p53 functions as a stress-responsive transcription factor. In response to oxidative, nitrosative, and electrophilic insults, p53 undergoes post-translational modifications, such as oxidation and covalent modification of cysteines, nitration of tyrosines, acetylation of lysines, phosphorylation of serine/threonine residues, etc. Because p53 plays a vital role in the transcriptional regulation of genes encoding proteins involved in a wide spectrum of biochemical processes including DNA repair, cell-cycle regulation, and programmed cell death, the redox-modification of p53 appears to be an important determinant of cell fate. This review highlights the redox regulation of p53 and its consequences on cellular function.

Expression and signaling of formyl-peptide receptors in the brain

The human formyl-peptide receptor (FPR) and its variants FPRL1 and FPRL2 belong to the G-protein coupled seven transmembrane receptor (GPCR) family sensitive to pertussis toxin. FPR and FPRL1 were first detected in phagocytic leukocytes, and FPRL2 was found in monocytes and in dendritic cells. The three receptors were subsequently identified in other cell types or tissues, including neuronal cells and brain, where FPR and FPRL1 play a key role in angiogenesis, cell proliferation, protection against and cell death, as well as in neuroendocrine functions. Binding of different agonists to FPRs triggers several signaling pathways, activates NFkB and STAT3 transcriptional factors and induces the accumulation of the CDK inhibitors p21(waf1/cip1), p16(INK4) and p27(kip1). Signaling molecules, such as ERKs, JNK, PKC, p38MAPK, PLC and PLD are involved in these intracellular cascades. In this article we briefly review FPRs expression and signaling in neuronal cells.

Induction of G(2)/M phase arrest and apoptosis by oridonin in human laryngeal carcinoma cells

Oridonin (1), an active component isolated from the plant Rabdosia rubescens, has been reported to exhibit antitumor effects. In this study, the mechanism involved in 1-induced growth inhibition, including apoptosis and G(2)/M phase arrest, in human laryngeal carcinoma HEp-2 cells deficient in functional p53, was investigated for the first time. Compound 1 triggered the mitochondrial apoptotic pathway, as indicated by increased Bax/Bcl-2 ratios, reduction of mitochondrial membrane potential (DeltaPsi(m)), and substantial increase in apoptosis-inducing factor (AIF) and cytochrome c. Inhibition of caspase-9 in HEp-2 cells did not protect the cells from 1-induced apoptosis, and cleaved caspase-9 was not detected, indicating that apoptosis occurred via a caspase-9-independent pathway. The results also suggested that G(2)/M phase arrest and apoptosis mediated by 1 occurred via a p53-independent but in a p21/WAF1-dependent manner in HEp-2 cells. In addition, the generation of reactive oxygen species (ROS) was found to be a critical mediator in growth inhibition induced by 1. Taken together, the results indicate that oridonin (1) is a potentially effective agent for the treatment of laryngeal squamous cell carcinoma.

Adaptation to oxidative stress, chemoresistance, and cell survival

The discovery of some additional properties and functions of reactive oxygen species (ROS), beyond their toxic effects, provides a novel scenario for the molecular basis and cell regulation of several pathophysiologic processes. ROS are generated by redox-sensitive, prosurvival signaling pathways and function as second messengers in the transduction of several extracellular signals. A complex intracellular redox buffering network has developed to adapt and protect cells against the dangerous effects of oxidative stress. However, pathways involved in ROS-adaptive response may also play a critical role in protecting cells against cytotoxic effects of anticancer agents, thus supporting the hypothesis of a correlation between adaptation/resistance to oxidative stress and resistance to anticancer drugs. This review summarizes the main systems involved in the adaptive responses: an overview on the pathophysiologic relevance of mitochondria on redox-sensitive transcription factors and genes and main antioxidant networks in tumor cells is provided. One of the major aims is to highlight the adaptive mechanisms and their interplay in the intricate connection between oncogenic signaling, oxidative stress, and chemoresistance. Clarification of these mechanisms has tremendous application potential, in terms of developing novel molecular-targeted anticancer therapies and innovative strategies for rational combination of these agents with chemotherapeutic or tumor-specific biologic drugs.

Small interfering RNA-directed knockdown of uracil DNA glycosylase induces apoptosis and sensitizes human prostate cancer cells to genotoxic stress

Uracil DNA glycosylase (UNG) is the primary enzyme responsible for removing uracil residues from DNA. Although a substantial body of evidence suggests that DNA damage plays a role in cancer cell apoptosis, the underlying mechanisms are poorly understood. In particular, very little is known about the role of base excision repair of misincorporated uracil in cell survival. To test the hypothesis that the repair of DNA damage associated with uracil misincorporation is critical for cancer cell survival, we used small interfering RNA (siRNA) to target the human UNG gene. In a dose-dependent and time-dependent manner, siRNA specifically inhibited UNG expression and modified the expression of several genes at both mRNA and protein levels. In LNCaP cells, p53, p21, and Bax protein levels increased, whereas Bcl2 levels decreased. In DU145 cells, p21 levels were elevated, although mutant p53 and Bax levels remained unchanged. In PC3 cells, UNG inhibition resulted in elevated p21 and Bax levels. In all three cell lines, UNG inhibition reduced cell proliferation, induced apoptosis, and increased cellular sensitivity to genotoxic stress. Furthermore, an in vitro cleavage experiment using uracil-containing double-stranded DNA as a template has shown that siRNA-mediated knockdown of UNG expression significantly reduced the uracil-excising activity of UNG in human prostate cancer cells, which was associated with DNA damage analyzed by comet assay. Taken together, these findings indicate that RNA interference-directed targeting of UNG is a convenient, novel tool for studying the biological role of UNG and raises the potential of its application for prostate cancer therapy.

Elesclomol, counteracted by Akt survival signaling, enhances the apoptotic effect of chemotherapy drugs in breast cancer cells

Elesclomol is a small-molecule investigational agent that selectively induces apoptosis in cancer cells by increasing oxidative stress. Elesclomol plus paclitaxel was shown to prolong progression-free survival compared with paclitaxel alone in a phase II clinical trial in patients with metastatic melanoma. However, the therapeutic potential of elesclomol in human breast cancer is unknown, and the signaling mechanism underlying the elesclomol effect is unclear. Here, we show that elesclomol alone modestly inhibited the growth of human breast cancer cells but not normal breast epithelial cells. Elesclomol potentiated doxorubicin- or paclitaxel-induced apoptosis and suppression of breast cancer cell growth. While both c-Jun N-terminal kinase (JNK) and p38 mitogen-activated protein kinase were activated by elesclomol, elesclomol-induced apoptosis was only in part mediated by JNK1. The additive effect of elesclomol on chemotherapy drug-induced apoptosis was associated with increases in cleaved caspase-3, p21(Cip1), and p27(Kip1) and decreases in the Inhibitor of Apoptosis Protein levels and NF-kappaB activity. We also found that Akt/Hsp70 survival signaling was induced by elesclomol, which may reflect a cellular feedback mechanism. Blockade of Akt activation using a small-molecule inhibitor enhanced elesclomol-elicited apoptosis, while expression of a hyperactive Akt abolished the elesclomol effect. These data suggest that elesclomol's interaction with conventional chemotherapeutic and Akt-targeting agents may be exploited to induce apoptosis in breast cancer cells, and clinical trials of combined treatment of elesclomol and chemotherapy drugs or Akt-targeting agents in breast cancer patients, especially the estrogen receptor negative subgroup, may be warranted.

Nrf2 enhances cell proliferation and resistance to anticancer drugs in human lung cancer

PURPOSE

NF-E2-related factor 2 (Nrf2), a key transcription regulator for antioxidant and detoxification enzymes, is abundantly expressed in cancer cells. In this study, therefore, the role of Nrf2 in cancer cell proliferation and resistance to anticancer drugs was investigated.

EXPERIMENTAL DESIGN

We used three human lung cancer cell lines with different degrees of Nrf2 activation: Nrf2 was highly activated in A549 cells, slightly activated in NCI-H292 cells, and not activated in LC-AI cells under unstimulated conditions.

RESULT

A549 cells showed higher resistance to cisplatin compared with NCI-H292 and LC-AI cells. The resistance to cisplatin was significantly inhibited in A549 but not in NCI-H292 or LC-AI cells by knockdown of Nrf2 with its specific small interfering RNA (Nrf2-siRNA). The cell proliferation was also most prominently inhibited in A549 cells by treatment with Nrf2-siRNA. In A549 cells, the expression of self-defense genes, such as antioxidant enzymes, phase II detoxifying enzymes, and drug efflux pumps, was significantly reduced by Nrf2-siRNA concomitant with a reduction of the cellular glutathione level. The degree of DNA crosslink and apoptosis after treatment with cisplatin was significantly elevated in A549 cells by Nrf2-siRNA. Knockdown of Nrf2 arrested the cell cycle at G(1) phase with a reduction of the phosphorylated form of retinoblastoma protein in A549 and NCI-H292 cells but not in LC-AI cells.

CONCLUSION

These results indicate that the Nrf2 system is essential for both cancer cell proliferation and resistance to anticancer drugs. Thus, Nrf2 might be a potential target to enhance the effect of anticancer drugs.

The glutathione biosynthetic pathway of Plasmodium is essential for mosquito transmission

Infection of red blood cells (RBC) subjects the malaria parasite to oxidative stress. Therefore, efficient antioxidant and redox systems are required to prevent damage by reactive oxygen species. Plasmodium spp. have thioredoxin and glutathione (GSH) systems that are thought to play a major role as antioxidants during blood stage infection. In this report, we analyzed a critical component of the GSH biosynthesis pathway using reverse genetics. Plasmodium berghei parasites lacking expression of gamma-glutamylcysteine synthetase (γ-GCS), the rate limiting enzyme in de novo synthesis of GSH, were generated through targeted gene disruption thus demonstrating, quite unexpectedly, that γ-GCS is not essential for blood stage development. Despite a significant reduction in GSH levels, blood stage forms of pbggcs⁻ parasites showed only a defect in growth as compared to wild type. In contrast, a dramatic effect on development of the parasites in the mosquito was observed. Infection of mosquitoes with pbggcs⁻ parasites resulted in reduced numbers of stunted oocysts that did not produce sporozoites. These results have important implications for the design of drugs aiming at interfering with the GSH redox-system in blood stages and demonstrate that de novo synthesis of GSH is pivotal for development of Plasmodium in the mosquito.

The antioxidant systems of malaria parasites (Plasmodium spp.) are potential targets for the development of antimalarials. The glutathione (GSH) redox system constitutes one of the Plasmodium primary lines of defense against damage caused by reactive oxygen species and other forms of chemical stress. GSH is synthesized de novo by the sequential action of gamma-glutamylcysteine synthase (γ-GCS) and GSH synthase (GS). Biochemical studies have suggested that parasite survival depends on functional de novo GSH synthesis. Using reverse genetics we interrupted the GSH biosynthetic pathway in the rodent malaria Plasmodium berghei by disrupting the pbggcs gene. The mutation caused minor changes in parasite growth in the mammalian host but development in the mosquito was completely arrested at the oocyst stage. These results suggest that the GSH biosynthetic pathway, while essential for mosquito stage development, is not an appropriate target for antimalarials against blood stages of the parasite.

Critical pathways in cellular senescence and immortalization revealed by gene expression profiling

Bypassing cellular senescence and becoming immortal is a prerequisite step in the tumorigenic transformation of a cell. It has long been known that loss of a key tumor suppressor gene, such as p53, is necessary, but not sufficient, for spontaneous cellular immortalization. Therefore, there must be additional mutations and/or epigenetic alterations required for immortalization to occur. Early work on these processes included somatic cell genetic studies to estimate the number of senescence genes, and microcell-mediated transfer of chromosomes into immortalized cells to identify putative senescence-inducing genetic loci. These principal studies laid the foundation for the field of senescence/immortalization, but were labor intensive and the results were somewhat limited. The advent of gene expression profiling and bioinformatics analysis greatly facilitated the identification of genes and pathways that regulate cellular senescence/immortalization. In this review, we present the findings of several gene expression profiling studies and supporting functional data, where available. We identified universal genes regulating senescence/immortalization and found that the key regulator genes represented six pathways: the cell cycle pRB/p53, cytoskeletal, interferon-related, insulin growth factor-related, MAP kinase and oxidative stress pathway. The identification of the genes and pathways regulating senescence/immortalization could provide novel molecular targets for the treatment and/or prevention of cancer.

Altered expression of cell cycle and apoptotic proteins in chronic hepatitis C virus infection

Background

A disrupted cell cycle progression of hepatocytes was reported in chronic hepatitis C virus (HCV) infection, which can contribute significantly in the associated pathogenesis. The present study aimed to further elaborate these disruptions by evaluating the expression of key cell cycle and apoptotic proteins in chronic HCV infection with particular reference to genotype 3. Archival liver biopsy specimens of chronic HCV-infection (n = 46) and normal histology (n = 5) were analyzed by immunohistochemistry using antibodies against proliferation marker Mcm-2, G1 phase marker Cyclin D1, S phase marker Cyclin A, cell cycle regulators p21 (CDK inhibitor) and p53 (tumor suppressor protein), apoptotic protein Caspase-3 and anti-apoptotic protein Bcl-2.

Results

Elevated Mcm-2 expression was observed in hepatocytes in chronic HCV infection, indicating increased cell cycle entry. Cyclin D1 expression was higher than cyclin A, which suggests a slow progression through the G1 phase. Expression of cell cycle regulators p21 and p53 was elevated, with no concordance between their expressions. The Mcm-2 and p21 expressions were associated with the fibrosis stage (p = 0.0001 and 0.001 respectively) and that of p53 with the inflammation grade (p = 0.051). Apoptotic marker, Caspase-3, was mostly confined to sinusoidal lining cells with little expression in hepatocytes. Anti-apoptotic protein, Bcl-2, was negligible in hepatocytes and detected principally in infiltrating lymphocytes. Expression of all these proteins was unrelated to the HCV genotype and were detected only rarely in the hepatocytes of normal liver.

Conclusion

The results showed an arrested cell cycle state in the hepatocytes of chronic HCV infection, regardless of any association with genotype 3. Cell cycle arrest is characterized by an increased expression of p21, in relation to fibrosis, and of p53 in relation to inflammation. Furthermore, expression of p21 was independent of the p53 expression and coincided with the reduced expression of apoptotic protein Caspase-3 in hepatocytes. The altered expression of these cell cycle proteins in hepatocytes is suggestive of an impaired cell cycle progression that could limit the regenerative response of the liver to ongoing injury, leading to the progression of disease.