CCAAT/enhancer-binding proteins regulate expression of the human steroidogenic acute regulatory protein (StAR) gene

Mechanisms of MEHP Inhibitory Action and Analysis of Potential Replacement Plasticizers on Leydig Cell Steroidogenesis

Steroid production in Leydig cells is stimulated mainly by the pituitary luteinizing hormone, which leads to increased expression of genes involved in steroidogenesis, including the gene encoding the steroidogenic acute regulatory (STAR) protein. Mono(2-ethylhexyl)phthalate (MEHP), the active metabolite of the widely used plasticizer DEHP, is known to disrupt Leydig steroidogenesis but its mechanisms of action remain poorly understood. We found that MEHP caused a significant reduction in hormone-induced steroid hormone production in two Leydig cell lines, MA-10 and MLTC-1. Consistent with disrupted cholesterol transport, we found that MEHP represses cAMP-induced Star promoter activity. MEHP responsiveness was mapped to the proximal Star promoter, which contains multiple binding sites for several transcription factors. In addition to STAR, we found that MEHP also reduced the levels of ferredoxin reductase, a protein essential for electron transport during steroidogenesis. Finally, we tested new plasticizers as alternatives to phthalates. Two plasticizers, dioctyl succinate and 1,6-hexanediol dibenzoate, had no significant effect on hormone-induced steroidogenesis. Our current findings reveal that MEHP represses steroidogenesis by affecting cholesterol transport and its conversion into pregnenolone. We also found that two novel molecules with desirable plasticizer properties have no impact on Leydig cell steroidogenesis and could be suitable phthalate replacements.

The transcriptional regulator CBX2 and ovarian function: A whole genome and whole transcriptome approach

The chromobox homolog 2 (CBX2) was found to be important for human testis development, but its role in the human ovary remains elusive. We conducted a genome-wide analysis based on DNA adenine methyltransferase identification (DamID) and RNA sequencing strategies to investigate CBX2 in the human granulosa cells. Functional analysis revealed that CBX2 was upstream of genes contributing to ovarian function like folliculogenesis and steroidogenesis (i.e. ESR1, NRG1, AKR1C1, PTGER2, BMP15, BMP2, FSHR and NTRK1/2). We identified CBX2 regulated genes associated with polycystic ovary syndrome (PCOS) such as TGFβ, MAP3K15 and DKK1, as well as genes implicated in premature ovarian failure (POF) (i.e. POF1B, BMP15 and HOXA13) and the pituitary deficiency (i.e. LHX4 and KISS1). Our study provided an excellent opportunity to identify genes surrounding CBX2 in the ovary and might contribute to the understanding of ovarian physiopathology causing infertility in women.

C/EBPβ Promotes STAT3 Expression and Affects Cell Apoptosis and Proliferation in Porcine Ovarian Granulosa Cells

Previous studies suggest that signal transducer and activator of transcription 3 (STAT3) and CCAAT/enhancer binding protein beta (C/EBPβ) play an essential role in ovarian granulosa cells (GCs) for mammalian follicular development. Several C/EBPβ putative binding sites were previously predicted on the STAT3 promoter in mammals. However, the molecular regulation of C/EBPβ on STAT3 and their effects on cell proliferation and apoptosis remain virtually unexplored in GCs. Using porcine GCs as a model, the 5′-deletion, luciferase report assay, mutation, chromatin immunoprecipitation, Annexin-V/PI staining and EdU assays were applied to investigate the molecular mechanism for C/EBPβ regulating the expression of STAT3 and their effects on the cell proliferation and apoptosis ability. We found that over and interfering with the expression of C/EBPβ significantly increased and decreased the messenger RNA (mRNA) and protein levels of STAT3, respectively. The dual luciferase reporter assay showed that C/EBPβ directly bound at −1397/−1387 of STAT3 to positively regulate the mRNA and protein expressions of STAT3. Both C/EBPβ and STAT3 were observed to inhibit cell apoptosis and promote cell proliferation. Furthermore, C/EBPβ might enhance the antiapoptotic and pro-proliferative effects of STAT3. These results would be of great insight in further exploring the molecular mechanism of C/EBPβ and STAT3 on the function of GCs and the development of ovarian follicles in mammals.

IκB-Kinase-epsilon (IKKε) over-expression promotes the growth of prostate cancer through the C/EBP-β dependent activation of IL-6 gene expression

The inflammatory cytokine IL-6 has been shown to induce the nuclear translocation of androgen receptors in prostate cancer cells and to activate the androgen receptors in a ligand-independent manner, suggesting it may contribute to the development of a castrate-resistant phenotype. Elevated IL-6 serum levels have also been associated with metastasis-related morbidity in prostate cancer patients. We have previously established that over-expression of I-kappa-B-kinase-epsilon (IKKε also named IKKi or IκBKε) in hormone-sensitive prostate cancer cell lines induces IL-6 secretion. We have also reported that prostate cancer cell lines lacking androgen receptor expression exhibit high constitutive IKKε expression and IL-6 secretion. In the present study, we validated the impact of IKKε depletion on the in vitro proliferation of castrate-resistant prostate cancer cells, and characterized how IKKε depletion affects tumor growth and IL-6 tumor secretion in vivo through a mouse xenograft-based approach. We observed a significant growth delay in IKKε-silenced PC-3 cells injected in SCID mice fed with a doxycycline-supplemented diet in comparison with mice fed with a normal diet. We also found a decrease in IL-6 secretion levels that strongly correlated with tumor growth inhibition. Finally, using constructs with various IL-6-mutated promoters, we demonstrated that IKKε over-expression induces a NF-κB-independent stimulation of the IL-6 gene promoter through the activation and nuclear accumulation of the transcription factor C/EBP-β. Our study demonstrates the pro-proliferative role of the oncogene IKKε in castrate-resistant prostate cancer cell lines, involving the phosphorylation and nuclear translocation of C/EBP-β that initiates IL-6 gene expression.

Impact of ACTH Signaling on Transcriptional Regulation of Steroidogenic Genes

The trophic peptide hormone adrenocorticotropic (ACTH) stimulates steroid hormone biosynthesis evoking both a rapid, acute response and a long-term, chronic response, via the activation of cAMP/protein kinase A (PKA) signaling. The acute response is initiated by the mobilization of cholesterol from lipid stores and its delivery to the inner mitochondrial membrane, a process that is mediated by the steroidogenic acute regulatory protein. The chronic response results in the increased coordinated transcription of genes encoding steroidogenic enzymes. ACTH binding to its cognate receptor, melanocortin 2 receptor (MC2R), stimulates adenylyl cyclase, thus inducing cAMP production, PKA activation, and phosphorylation of specific nuclear factors, which bind to target promoters and facilitate coactivator protein recruitment to direct steroidogenic gene transcription. This review provides a general view of the transcriptional control exerted by the ACTH/cAMP system on the expression of genes encoding for steroidogenic enzymes in the adrenal cortex. Special emphasis will be given to the transcription factors required to mediate ACTH-dependent transcription of steroidogenic genes.

Induction of hormone-sensitive lipase/cholesteryl esterase gene expression by C/EBPα independently of the PKA pathway in the adrenocortical Y-1 cells

The effect of C/EBPα on the expression of LIPE gene encoding hormone-sensitive lipase/cholesteryl esterase (HSL) was investigated in Y-1 CCL79 cells. It was found that transfection of these cells with the vector overexpressing C/EBPα increased both the level of LIPE transcript, measured by RT-qPCR, and the luminesce emitted by luciferase reporter gene fused to the -2150 fragment of LIPE promoter. Activation of adenylyl cyclase by forskolin resulted in 2.5-fold increase in the intensity of luminescence and over 3-fold increase in luminescence was observed when the cells were cotransfected with the vector overexpressing C/EBP. The incubation of C/EBP-cotransfected cells with forskolin caused over 6-fold increase in the intensity of luminescence, suggesting that the effects of C/EBPα and forskolin are additive. The analysis of sequence of the proximal LIPE promoter showed multiple binding sites for various transcription factors including C/EBPα site, which is located between nucleotides -46 bp and -59 bp. When the Y-1 cells were transfected with the recombinant vector containing -60 bp fragment of LIPE promoter fused to the luciferase reporter gene and were cotransfected with the vector overexpressing C/EBPα, the luminescence increases about 9-fold indicating that C/EBPα stimulates the expression of LIPE by reacting with its response element. The results indicate that C/EBPα stimulates the expression of LIPE independently of the PKA pathway by binding to a response element situated within the -60 bp fragment of LIPE promoter. This suggests that C/EBPα might be involved in the regulation of LIPE expression and thus cholesterol supply for steroid hormone synthesis.

Effects of monobutyl phthalate on steroidogenesis through steroidogenic acute regulatory protein regulated by transcription factors in mouse Leydig tumor cells

OBJECTIVE

Dibutyl phthalate (DBP) is one of the most widely used phthalate esters, and it is ubiquitous in the environment. DBP and its major metabolite, monobutyl phthalate (MBP), change steroid biosynthesis and impair male reproductive function. However, the regulatory mechanism underlying the steroid biosynthesis disruption by MBP is still unclear.

METHODS

We analyzed the progesterone production, steroidogenic acute regulatory protein (StAR) mRNA, protein expression, and DNA-binding affinity of transcription factors (SF-1 and GATA-4).

RESULTS

Our results reveal that MBP inhibited progesterone production. At the same time, StAR mRNA and protein were decreased after MBP exposure. Furthermore, electrophoretic mobility shift assay showed that DNA-binding affinity of transcription factors (SF-1 and GATA-4) was decreased in a dose-dependent manner after MBP treatments. Western blot tests next confirmed that protein of SF-1 was decreased, but GATA-4 protein was unchanged. However, phosphorylated GATA-4 protein was decreased with 800 μM of MBP.

CONCLUSIONS

This study reveals an important and novel mechanism whereby SF-1 and GATA-4 may regulate StAR during MBP-induced steroidogenesis disruption.

Identification of novel steroidogenic factor 1 (SF-1)-target genes and components of the SF-1 nuclear complex

Steroidogenic factor 1 (SF-1) is a master regulator of adrenal and reproductive development and function. Although SF-1 was identified as a transcriptional regulator for steroid metabolic enzymes, it has been shown that SF-1 also regulates other genes that are involved in various cellular processes. Previously, we showed that introduction of SF-1 into mesenchymal stem cells resulted in the differentiation of these cells to the steroidogenic lineage. By using this method of differentiation, we performed comprehensive analyses to identify the novel SF-1-target genes and components of the SF-1 nuclear complex. Genome-wide analyses with promoter tiling array and DNA microarray identified 10 genes as novel SF-1-target genes including glutathione S-transferase A family, 5-aminolevulinic acid synthase 1 and ferredoxin reductase. Using SF-1 immuno-affinity chromatography of nuclear proteins followed by MS/MS analysis, we identified 24 proteins including CCAAT/enhancer-binding protein β as components of SF-1 nuclear complex. In this review, we will describe novel roles of the newly identified genes for steroidogenesis.

PRKACA: the catalytic subunit of protein kinase A and adrenocortical tumors

Cyclic-AMP (cAMP)-dependent protein kinase (PKA) is the main effector of cAMP signaling in all tissues. Inactivating mutations of the PRKAR1A gene, coding for the type 1A regulatory subunit of PKA, are responsible for Carney complex and primary pigmented nodular adrenocortical disease (PPNAD). PRKAR1A inactivation and PKA dysregulation have been implicated in various types of adrenocortical pathologies associated with ACTH-independent Cushing syndrome (AICS) from PPNAD to adrenocortical adenomas and cancer, and other forms of bilateral adrenocortical hyperplasias (BAH). More recently, mutations of PRKACA, the gene coding for the catalytic subunit C alpha (Cα), were also identified in the pathogenesis of adrenocortical tumors. PRKACA copy number gain was found in the germline of several patients with cortisol-producing BAH, whereas the somatic Leu206Arg (c.617A>C) recurrent PRKACA mutation was found in as many as half of all adrenocortical adenomas associated with AICS. In vitro analysis demonstrated that this mutation led to constitutive Cα activity, unregulated by its main partners, the PKA regulatory subunits. In this review, we summarize the current understanding of the involvement of PRKACA in adrenocortical tumorigenesis, and our understanding of PKA's role in adrenocortical lesions. We also discuss potential therapeutic advances that can be made through targeting of PRKACA and the PKA pathway.

CCAAT/Enhancer binding protein β controls androgen-deprivation-induced senescence in prostate cancer cells

The processes associated with transition to castration independent prostate cancer growth are not well understood. Cellular senescence is a stable cell cycle arrest that occurs in response to sublethal stress. It is often overcome in malignant transformation to confer a survival advantage. CCAAT/Enhancer Binding Protein (C/EBP) β function is frequently deregulated in human malignancies and interestingly, androgen dependent prostate cancer cells express primarily the LIP isoform. We found that C/EBPβ expression is negatively regulated by androgen receptor activity and that treatment of androgen dependent cell lines with anti-androgens increases C/EBPβ mRNA and protein levels. Accordingly, we also find that C/EBPβ levels are significantly elevated in primary prostate cancer samples from castration resistant compared with therapy naive patients. Chromatin immunoprecipitation demonstrated enhanced binding of the androgen receptor to the proximal promoter of the CEBPB gene in the presence of dihydroxytestosterone. Upon androgen deprivation, induction of C/EBPβ is facilitated by active transcription as evident by increased histone 3 acetylation at the C/EBPβ promoter. Also, the androgen agonist R1881 suppresses the activity of a CEBPB promoter reporter. Loss of C/EBPβ expression prevents growth arrest following androgen deprivation or anti-androgen challenge. Accordingly, suppression of C/EBPβ under low androgen conditions results in reduced expression of senescence-associated secretory genes, significantly decreased number of cells displaying heterochromatin foci, and increased numbers of Ki67 positive cells. Ectopic expression of C/EBPβ caused pronounced morphological changes, reduced PC cell growth, and increased the number of senescent LNCaP cells. Lastly, we found that senescence contributes to prostate cancer cell survival under androgen deprivation, and C/EBPβ deficient cells were significantly more susceptible to killing by cytotoxic chemotherapy following androgen deprivation. Our data demonstrate that up-regulation of C/EBPβ is critical for complete maintenance of androgen deprivation induced senescence and that targeting C/EBPβ expression may synergize with anti-androgen or chemotherapy in eradicating prostate cancer.

Transcriptional regulation of genes related to progesterone production

Steroid hormones are synthesized from cholesterol in various tissues, mainly in the adrenal glands and gonads. Because these lipid-soluble steroid hormones immediately diffuse through the cells in which they are produced, their secretion directly reflects the activity of the genes related to their production. Progesterone is important not only for luteinization and maintenance of pregnancy, but also as a substrate for most other steroids. Steroidogenic acute regulatory protein (STAR), cytochrome P450 cholesterol side-chain cleavage enzyme (P450scc), and 3β-hydroxysteroid dehydrogenase/Δ(5)-Δ(4) isomerase (3β-HSD) are well-known proteins essential for progesterone production. In addition to them, glutathione S-transferase A1-1 and A3-3 are shown to exert Δ(5)-Δ(4) isomerization activity to produce progesterone in a cooperative fashion with 3β-HSD. 5-Aminolevulinic acid synthase 1, ferredoxin 1, and ferredoxin reductase also play a role in steroidogenesis as accessory factors. Members of the nuclear receptor 5A (NR5A) family (steroidogenic factor 1 and liver receptor homolog 1) play a crucial role in the transcriptional regulation of these genes. The NR5A family activates these genes by binding to NR5A responsive elements present within their promoter regions, as well as to the elements far from their promoters. In addition, various NR5A-interacting proteins including peroxisome proliferator-activated receptor-γ coactivator-1α (PGC-1α), nuclear receptor subfamily 0, group B, member 1 (DAX-1), and CCAAT/enhancer-binding proteins (C/EBP) are involved in the transcription of NR5A target genes and regulate the transcription either positively or negatively under both basal and tropic hormone-stimulated conditions. In this review, we describe the transcriptional regulation of genes related to progesterone production.

The nuclear receptor NR2F2 activates star expression and steroidogenesis in mouse MA-10 and MLTC-1 Leydig cells

Testosterone production is dependent on cholesterol transport within the mitochondrial matrix, an essential step mediated by a protein complex containing the steroidogenic acute regulatory (STAR) protein. In steroidogenic Leydig cells, Star expression is hormonally regulated and involves several transcription factors. NR2F2 (COUP-TFII) is an orphan nuclear receptor that plays critical roles in cell differentiation and lineage determination. Conditional NR2F2 knockout prior to puberty leads to male infertility due to insufficient testosterone production, suggesting that NR2F2 could positively regulate steroidogenesis and Star expression. In this study we found that NR2F2 is expressed in the nucleus of some peritubular myoid cells and in interstitial cells, mainly in steroidogenically active adult Leydig cells. In MA-10 and MLTC-1 Leydig cells, small interfering RNA (siRNA)-mediated NR2F2 knockdown reduces basal steroid production without affecting hormone responsiveness. Consistent with this, we found that STAR mRNA and protein levels were reduced in NR2F2-depleted MA-10 and MLTC-1 cells. Transient transfections of Leydig cells revealed that a -986 bp mouse Star promoter construct was activated 3-fold by NR2F2. Using 5' progressive deletion constructs, we mapped the NR2F2-responsive element between -131 and -95 bp. This proximal promoter region contains a previously uncharacterized direct repeat 1 (DR1)-like element to which NR2F2 is recruited and directly binds. Mutations in the DR1-like element that prevent NR2F2 binding severely blunted NR2F2-mediated Star promoter activation. These data identify an essential role for the nuclear receptor NR2F2 as a direct activator of Star gene expression in Leydig cells, and thus in the control of steroid hormone biosynthesis.

C/EBPβ (CCAAT/enhancer-binding protein β) mediates progesterone production through transcriptional regulation in co-operation with SF-1 (steroidogenic factor-1)

CCAAT/enhancer-binding protein β (C/EBPβ) was identified as a component of the SF-1 nuclear complex. C/EBPβ regulates expression of progesterone production-related genes (STAR, CYP11A1 and HSD3B2) by co-operation with SF-1. Our findings reveal a novel molecular mechanism of progesterone production.

Transcriptional regulation of episodic glucocorticoid secretion

Circadian and ultradian variations of basal glucocorticoid secretion and transient elevations during stress are essential for homeostasis. Using intronic qRT-PCR to measure changes in primary transcript (hnRNA) we have shown that secretory events induced by stress or ACTH injection are followed by episodic increases in transcription of rate limiting steroidogenic proteins, such as steroidogenic acute regulatory protein (StAR), cytochrome P450 side chain cleavage and melanocortin receptor associated protein. These transcriptional episodes imply rapid turnover of steroidogenic proteins and the need of de novo synthesis following each secretory event. In addition to episodic ACTH secretion, it is likely that intracellular feedback mechanisms at the adrenal fasciculata level contribute to the generation of episodes of transcription. The time relationship between activation and translocation of the CREB co-activator, transducer of regulated CREB activity (TORC) to the nucleus preceding transcriptional episodes suggest the involvement of TORC in the transcriptional activation of StAR and other steroidogenic proteins.

Luteinizing hormone (LH) regulates production of androstenedione and progesterone via control of histone acetylation of StAR and CYP17 promoters in ovarian theca cells

Although luteinizing hormone (LH) affects androstenedione (A4) and progesterone (P4) production in theca cells, it is still unknown how LH influences molecular mechanism of A4 and P4 production. To examine the relationship between LH and transcription factors involved in A4 and P4 production, ovarian theca cells were cultured in the presence or absence of high concentrations of LH for 24 h (pre-treatment with high concentration of LH) and then cultured in the presence or absence of low concentration of LH for 48 h. Low LH enhanced production of A4 and P4, and expressions of CYP17 and StAR mRNA in theca cells without pre-treatment with high LH. In addition, low LH stimulated the expression of SF-1 protein in nuclear fractions from theca cells with or without pre-treatment with high LH. The binding of SF-1 to the CYP17 and StAR promoter regions increased in theca cells treated with low LH. Although GATA-4 and GATA-6 are both found in the nuclear fraction but not in the cytosol of theca cells, low LH enhanced the binding of GATA-6, but not of GATA-4, to the CYP17 promoter region without pre-treatment with high LH. Acetylation histone H3 in StAR and CYP17 promoter regions were changed by different LH-dosage. Overall, we showed that LH regulates the production of A4 and P4 by affecting the nuclear localization and switching of transcription factors in theca cells and that target transcription factors involved in steroid production in theca cells are changed by different LH concentration.

Angiotensin II-dependent transcriptional activation of human steroidogenic acute regulatory protein gene by a 25-kDa cAMP-responsive element modulator protein isoform and Yin Yang 1

Transcriptional activation of the steroidogenic acute regulatory protein (STAR) gene is a critical component in the angiotensin II (Ang II)-dependent increase in aldosterone biosynthesis in the adrenal gland. The purpose of this study was to define the molecular mechanisms that mediate the Ang II-dependent increase in STARD1 gene (STAR) expression in H295R human adrenocortical cells. Mutational analysis of the STAR proximal promoter revealed that a nonconsensus cAMP-responsive element located at -78 bp relative to the transcription start site (-78CRE) is required for the Ang II-stimulated STAR reporter gene activity. DNA immunoaffinity chromatography identified a 25-kDa cAMP-responsive element modulator isoform and Yin Yang 1 (YY1) as -78CRE DNA-binding proteins, and Ang II treatment of H295R cells increased expression of that 25-kDa CREM isoform. Small interfering RNA silencing of CREM and YY1 attenuated the Ang II-dependent increases in STAR reporter gene activity and STAR mRNA levels. Conversely, overexpression of CREM and YY1 in COS-1 cells resulted in transactivation of STAR reporter gene activity. Chromatin immunoprecipitation analysis demonstrated recruitment of CREM and YY1 to the STAR promoter along with increased association of the coactivator cAMP response element-binding protein-binding protein (CBP) and increased phosphorylated RNA polymerase II after Ang II treatment. Together our data reveal that the Ang II-stimulated increase in STAR expression in H295R cells requires 25 kDa CREM and YY1. The recruitment of these transcription factors to the STAR proximal promoter results in association of CBP and activation of RNA polymerase II leading to increased STAR transcription.

Localization and functional activity of cytochrome P450 side chain cleavage enzyme (CYP11A1) in the adult rat kidney

Cumulative evidence demonstrated effective downstream metabolism of pregnenolone in renal tissue. The aim of this study was to evaluate the expression and functional activity of cytochrome P450 side chain cleavage enzyme (CYP11A1), which converts cholesterol into pregnenolone, in adult rat kidney. Immunohistochemical labeling for CYP11A1 was observed in renal cortex and medulla, on structures identified as distal convoluted tubule and thick ascending limb of Henle's loop, respectively. Immunoblotting analysis corroborated the renal expression of the protein in inner mitochondrial membrane fractions. The incubation of isolated mitochondria with the membrane-permeant cholesterol analogue 22R-hydroxycholesterol resulted in efficient formation of pregnenolone, the immediate precursor for the synthesis of all the steroid hormones. The low progesterone production rate observed in these experiments suggested a poor activity of 3β-hydroxysteroid dehydrogenase enzyme in renal mitochondria. The steroidogenic acute regulatory protein (StAR), involved in the mitochondrial import of cholesterol, was detected in renal tissue at both mRNA and protein level. Immunostaining for StAR showed similar distribution to that observed for CYP11A1. The expression of StAR and CYP11A1 was found to be higher in medulla than in cortex. This enhanced expression of steroidogenesis-related proteins correlated with a greater pregnenolone synthesis rate and higher steroid hormones tissular content measured in medulla. In conclusion, we have established the expression and localization of StAR and CYP11A1 protein, the ability of synthesizing pregnenolone and a region-specific content of sex hormones in the adult rat kidney. These data clearly show that the kidney is a steroid hormones synthesizing organ. It is proposed that the existence in the kidney of complete steroidogenic machinery would respond to a physiological significance.

Identification of a novel distal control region upstream of the human steroidogenic acute regulatory protein (StAR) gene that participates in SF-1-dependent chromatin architecture

StAR (steroidogenic acute regulatory protein) mediates the transport of cholesterol from the outer to the inner mitochondrial membrane, the process of which is the rate-limiting step for steroidogenesis. Transcriptional regulation of the proximal promoter of the human StAR gene has been well characterized, whereas analysis of its distal control region has not. Recently, we found that SF-1 (steroidogenic factor 1) induced the differentiation of mesenchymal stem cells (MSCs) into steroidogenic cells with the concomitant strong induction of StAR expression. Here, we show, using differentiated MSCs, that StAR expression is regulated by a novel distal control region. Using electrophoretic mobility shift (EMSA) and chromatin immunoprecipitation (ChIP) assays, we identified novel SF-1 binding sites between 3,000 and 3,400 bp upstream of StAR. A luciferase reporter assay revealed that the region worked as a strong regulator to exert maximal transcription of StAR. ChIP analysis of histone H3 revealed that upon SF-1 expression, nucleosome eviction took place at the SF-1 binding sites, not only in the promoter but also in the distal SF-1 binding sites. Chromosome conformation capture analysis revealed that the region upstream of StAR formed a chromatin loop both in the differentiated MSCs and in KGN cells, a human granulosa cell tumor cell line, where SF-1 is endogenously expressed. Finally, SF-1 knockdown resulted in disrupted formation of this chromatin loop in KGN cells. These results indicate that the novel distal control region participate in StAR activation through SF-1 dependent alterations of chromatin structure, including histone eviction and chromatin loop formation.

Prostaglandin E2: the master of endometriosis?

Endometriosis is the primary cause of infertility in women, with a prevalence rate ranging from 5% to 10%. Women with endometriosis suffer from symptoms such as chronic pelvic pain, dysmenorrhea and dyspareunia, which significantly reduce the quality of life. Endometriosis is a polygenic disease with a complex, multifactorial etiology. The mechanism responsible for the initiation and development of this disease remains largely unknown. Prostaglandin E2 (PGE2), a versatile eicosanoid that exerts numerous physiological and pathological functions, has been implicated to play critical roles in the development of endometriosis. A growing body of evidence demonstrates that PGE2 regulates many pathophysiological processes including cell proliferation, antiapoptosis, immune suppression and angiogenesis during the development of endometriosis. This review focuses on recent advances in cellular and molecular mechanisms triggered by PGE2 that contribute to the pathological processes of endometriosis.

RUNX2 transcription factor regulates gene expression in luteinizing granulosa cells of rat ovaries

The LH surge promotes terminal differentiation of follicular cells to become luteal cells. RUNX2 has been shown to play an important role in cell differentiation, but the regulation of Runx2 expression and its function in the ovary remain to be determined. The present study examined 1) the expression profile of Runx2 and its partner CBFbeta during the periovulatory period, 2) regulatory mechanisms of Runx2 expression, and 3) its potential function in the ovary. Runx2 expression was induced in periovulatory granulosa cells of human and rodent ovaries. RUNX2 and core binding factor-beta (CBFbeta) proteins in nuclear extracts and RUNX2 binding to a consensus binding sequence increased after human chorionic gonadotropin (hCG) administration. This in vivo up-regulation of Runx2 expression was recapitulated in vitro in preovulatory granulosa cells by stimulation with hCG. The hCG-induced Runx2 expression was reduced by antiprogestin (RU486) and EGF-receptor tyrosine kinase inhibitor (AG1478), indicating the involvement of EGF-signaling and progesterone-mediated pathways. We also found that in the C/EBPbeta knockout mouse ovary, Runx2 expression was reduced, indicating C/EBPbeta-mediated expression. Next, the function of RUNX2 was investigated by suppressing Runx2 expression by small interfering RNA in vitro. Runx2 knockdown resulted in reduced levels of mRNA for Rgc32, Ptgds, Fabp6, Mmp13, and Abcb1a genes. Chromatin immunoprecipitation analysis demonstrated the binding of RUNX2 in the promoter region of these genes, suggesting that these genes are direct downstream targets of RUNX2. Collectively, the present data indicate that the LH surge-induced RUNX2 is involved in various aspects of luteal function by directly regulating the expression of diverse luteal genes.

Transcriptional regulation of steroidogenic genes: STARD1, CYP11A1 and HSD3B

Expression of the genes that mediate the first steps in steroidogenesis, the steroidogenic acute regulatory protein (STARD1), the cholesterol side-chain cleavage enzyme, cytochrome P450scc (CYP11A1) and 3beta-hydroxysteroid dehydrogenase/Delta5-Delta4 isomerase (HSD3B), is tightly controlled by a battery of transcription factors in the adrenal cortex, the gonads and the placenta. These genes generally respond to the same hormones that stimulate steroid production through common pathways such as cAMP signaling and common actions on their promoters by proteins such as NR5A and GATA family members. However, there are distinct temporal, tissue and species-specific differences in expression between the genes that are defined by combinatorial regulation and unique promoter elements. This review will provide an overview of the hormonal and transcriptional regulation of the STARD1, CYP11A1 and specific steroidogenic HSD3B genes in the adrenal, testis, ovary and placenta and discuss the current knowledge regarding the key transcriptional factors involved.

Role of basic leucine zipper proteins in transcriptional regulation of the steroidogenic acute regulatory protein gene

The regulation of steroidogenic acute regulatory protein (StAR) gene transcription by cAMP-dependent mechanisms occurs in the absence of a consensus cAMP response element (CRE, TGACGTGA). This regulation is coordinated by multiple transcription factors that bind to sequence-specific elements located approximately 150 bp upstream of the transcription start site. Among the proteins that bind within this region, the basic leucine zipper (bZIP) family of transcription factors, i.e. CRE binding protein (CREB)/CRE modulator (CREM)/activating transcription factor (ATF), activator protein 1 (AP-1; Fos/Jun), and CCAAT enhancer binding protein beta (C/EBPbeta), interact with an overlapping region (-81/-72 bp) in the StAR promoter, mediate stimulus-transcription coupling of cAMP signaling and play integral roles in regulating StAR gene expression. These bZIP proteins are structurally similar and bind to DNA sequences as dimers; however, they exhibit discrete transcriptional activities, interact with several transcription factors and other properties that contribute in their regulatory functions. The 5'-flanking -81/-72 bp region of the StAR gene appears to function as a key element within a complex cAMP response unit by binding to different bZIP members, and the StAR promoter displays variable states of cAMP responsivity contingent upon the occupancy of these cis-elements with these transcription factors. The expression and activities of CREB/CREM/ATF, Fos/Jun and C/EBPbeta have been demonstrated to be mediated by a plethora of extracellular signals, and the phosphorylation of these proteins at several Ser and Thr residues allows recruitment of the transcriptional coactivator CREB binding protein (CBP) or its functional homolog p300 to the StAR promoter. This review will focus on the current level of understanding of the roles of selective bZIP family proteins within the complex series of processes involved in regulating StAR gene transcription.

Regulation of the steroidogenic acute regulatory protein gene expression: present and future perspectives

Steroid hormones are synthesized in the adrenal gland, gonads, placenta and brain and are critical for normal reproductive function and bodily homeostasis. The steroidogenic acute regulatory (StAR) protein regulates the rate-limiting step in steroid biosynthesis, i.e. the delivery of cholesterol from the outer to the inner mitochondrial membrane. The expression of the StAR protein is predominantly regulated by cAMP-dependent mechanisms in the adrenal and gonads. Whereas StAR plays an indispensable role in the regulation of steroid biosynthesis, a complete understanding of the regulation of its expression and function in steroidogenesis is not available. It has become clear that the regulation of StAR gene expression is a complex process that involves the interaction of a diversity of hormones and multiple signaling pathways that coordinate the cooperation and interaction of transcriptional machinery, as well as a number of post-transcriptional mechanisms that govern mRNA and protein expression. However, information is lacking on how the StAR gene is regulated in vivo such that it is expressed at appropriate times during development and is confined to the steroidogenic cells. Thus, it is not surprising that the precise mechanism involved in the regulation of StAR gene has not yet been established, which is the key to understanding the regulation of steroidogenesis in the context of both male and female development and function.

Rapid effects of LH on gene expression in the mural granulosa cells of mouse periovulatory follicles

LH acts on periovulatory granulosa cells by activating the PKA pathway as well as other cell signaling cascades to increase the transcription of specific genes necessary for ovulation and luteinization. Collectively, these cell signaling responses occur rapidly (within minutes); however, presently no high throughput studies have reported changes before 4 h after the LH surge. To identify early response genes that are likely critical for initiation of ovulation and luteinization, mouse granulosa cells were collected before and 1 h after hCG. Fifty-seven gene transcripts were significantly (P<0.05) upregulated and three downregulated following hCG. Twenty-four of these transcripts were known to be expressed after the LH/hCG surge at later time points, while 36 were unknown to be expressed by periovulatory granulosa cells. Temporal expression of several transcripts, including the transcription factors Nr4a1, Nr4a2, Egr1, Egr2, Btg1, and Btg2, and the epidermal growth factor (EGF)-like ligands Areg and Ereg, were analyzed by quantitative RT-PCR, and their putative roles in granulosa cell function are discussed. Epigen (Epgn), another member of the family of EGF-like ligands was identified for the first time in granulosa cells as rapidly induced by LH/hCG. We demonstrate that Epgn initiates cumulus expansion, similar to the other EGF-receptor ligands Areg and Ereg. These studies illustrate that a number of changes in gene expression occur in vivo in response to LH, and that many of the differentially expressed genes are transcription factors that we would predict in turn modulate granulosa cell gene expression to ultimately impact the processes of ovulation and luteinization.

Cyclic adenosine 3',5'-monophosphate response element-binding protein and CCAAT/enhancer-binding protein mediate prostaglandin E2-induced steroidogenic acute regulatory protein expression in endometriotic stromal cells

Aberrant expression of the steroidogenic acute regulatory (StAR) protein in human endometriotic stromal cells plays an important role in the development of endometriosis. Prostaglandin E(2) (PGE(2)) is a potent inducer of StAR expression in these cells; however, the mechanisms responsible for the transcriptional regulation of StAR remain to be elucidated. Herein we report that PGE(2)-induced StAR expression is independent of the transcriptional suppressor DAX-1 but is regulated by the transcriptional activator cyclic adenosine 3',5'-monophosphate (cAMP) response element-binding protein (CREB). A promoter activity assay revealed that the cis-element needed for the binding of the CCAAT/enhancer-binding protein (C/EBP) was critical for PGE(2)-induced StAR expression. Electrophoretic mobility shift assay demonstrated that this region of the StAR promoter was bound by C/EBPalpha, C/EBPbeta, and CREB. Forced expression of either C/EBPalpha or C/EBPbeta alone was sufficient to up-regulate StAR promoter activity whereas PGE(2) was needed to induce StAR promoter activity in CREB-overexpressed cells. Results from a chromatin immunoprecipitation assay demonstrated that the binding of C/EBPbeta to the StAR promoter was increased whereas CREB binding was unchanged after PGE(2) treatment. Taken together, PGE(2)-induced StAR promoter activity appears to be regulated by CREB and C/EBPbeta in a cooperative manner in ectopic human endometriotic stromal cells, providing a molecular framework for the etiology of endometriosis.

The steroidogenic acute regulatory protein as a target of endocrine disruption in male reproduction

Development of the adult male reproductive tract requires proper spatial-temporal expression of the sex hormones testosterone and estrogen during fetal developmental stages and at puberty. Exogenous agents that disrupt the production and/or actions of the testosterone and estrogen and cause aberrant reproductive tract development can be thought of as endocrine disruptors (ED). This review will focus on the impact of ED on testosterone production by Leydig cells during fetal development and in the adult. In particular, the genes encoding the steroidogenic acute regulatory protein (StAR) and cytochrome P450 17 alpha hydroxylase/17,20 lyase (CYP17A1) within the steroid hormone biosynthetic pathway are highlighted as ED targets. We begin with an overview of steroidogenesis and regulation of StAR then summarize the published literature on the effects of diethylstibesterol, phthalate esters, and arsenite on male reproduction with a focus on the expression and function of StAR.

Molecular mechanisms of ovulation: co-ordination through the cumulus complex

Successful ovulation requires that developmentally competent oocytes are released with appropriate timing from the ovarian follicle. Somatic cells of the follicle sense the ovulatory stimulus and guide resumption of meiosis and release of the oocyte, as well as structural remodelling and luteinization of the follicle. Complex intercellular communication co-ordinates critical stages of oocyte maturation and links this process with release from the follicle. To achieve these outcomes, ovulation is controlled through multiple inputs, including endocrine hormones, immune and metabolic signals, as well as intrafollicular paracrine factors from the theca, mural and cumulus granulosa cells and the oocyte itself. This review focuses on the recent advances in understanding of molecular mechanisms that commence after the gonadotrophin surge and culminate with release of the oocyte. These mechanisms include intracellular signalling, gene regulation and remodelling of tissue structure in each of the distinct ovarian compartments. Most critical ovulatory mediators exert effects through the cumulus cell complex that surrounds and connects with the oocyte. The convergence of ovulatory signals through the cumulus complex co-ordinates the key mechanistic processes that mediate and control oocyte maturation and ovulation.

Cyclic AMP stimulates SF-1-dependent CYP11A1 expression through homeodomain-interacting protein kinase 3-mediated Jun N-terminal kinase and c-Jun phosphorylation

Steroids are synthesized in adrenal glands and gonads under the control of pituitary peptides. These peptides bind to cell surface receptors to activate the cyclic AMP (cAMP) signaling pathway leading to an increase of steroidogenic gene expression. Exactly how cAMP activates steroidogenic gene expression is not clear, except for the knowledge that transcription factor SF-1 plays a key role. Investigating the factors participating in SF-1 action, we found that c-Jun and homeodomain-interacting protein kinase 3 (HIPK3) were required for basal and cAMP-stimulated expression of one major steroidogenic gene, CYP11A1. HIPK3 enhanced SF-1 activity, and c-Jun was required for the functional interaction of HIPK3 with SF-1. Furthermore, after cAMP stimulation, both c-Jun and Jun N-terminal kinase (JNK) were phosphorylated through HIPK3. These phosphorylations were important for SF-1 activity and CYP11A1 expression. Thus, we have defined HIPK3-mediated JNK activity and c-Jun phosphorylation as important events that increase SF-1 activity for CYP11A1 transcription in response to cAMP. This finding has linked three common factors, HIPK3, JNK, and c-Jun, to the cAMP signaling pathway leading to increased steroidogenic gene expression.

The imitation switch protein SNF2L regulates steroidogenic acute regulatory protein expression during terminal differentiation of ovarian granulosa cells

Luteinization is a complex process, stimulated by gonadotropins, that promotes ovulation and development of the corpus luteum through terminal differentiation of granulosa cells. The pronounced expression of the mammalian imitation switch (ISWI) genes, SNF2H and SNF2L, in adult ovaries prompted us to investigate the role of these chromatin remodeling proteins during follicular development and luteinization. SNF2H expression is highest during growth of preovulatory follicles and becomes less prevalent during luteinization. In contrast, both SNF2L transcript and SNF2L protein levels are rapidly increased in granulosa cells of the mouse ovary 8 h after human chorionic gonadotropin treatment, and continue to be expressed 36 h later within the functional corpus luteum. We demonstrate a physical interaction between SNF2L and the progesterone receptor A isoform, which regulates progesterone receptor-responsive genes required for ovulation. Moreover, chromatin immunoprecipitation demonstrated that, after gonadotropin stimulation, SNF2L is associated with the proximal promoter of the steroidogenic acute regulatory protein (StAR) gene, a classic marker of luteinization in granulosa cells. Interaction of SNF2L with the StAR promoter is required for StAR expression, because small interfering RNA knockdown of SNF2L prevents the activation of the StAR gene. Our results provide the first indication that ISWI chromatin remodeling proteins are responsive to the LH surge and that this response is required for the activation of the StAR gene and the overall development of a functional luteal cell.

A novel response element confers p63- and p73-specific activation of the WNT4 promoter

The p53 tumor suppressor gene family consists of three genes, p53, p63, and p73. p53 family proteins share high homology in their DNA-binding domains but exhibit diverse biological functions. In this study, we demonstrated differential target gene activation by specific p53, p63, and p73 induction in Saos2 cells by oligonucleotide microarray expression analysis. We further analyzed the WNT4 promoter, which was induced by p63 and p73 but not p53, in order to clarify the mechanism of differential target gene activation between the three family members. Luciferase analysis showed that the WNT4 promoter harbors two p63/p73 response elements, designated RE1 and RE2. RE1 resembles the canonical p53 response element (tandem repeats of RRRCWWGYYY), located between -141 and -121, while RE2 consists of a GC-rich sequence further downstream. Neither response element alone was able to confer transcriptional activity. It is thus likely that both RE1 and RE2 are necessary in rendering p63/p73-specific activation of the WNT4 promoter.

Association of the mSin3A-histone deacetylase 1/2 corepressor complex with the mouse steroidogenic acute regulatory protein gene

Several factors have been identified in the transcriptional repression of the steroidogenic acute regulatory protein (StAR) gene promoter; yet, no associating corepressor complexes have been characterized for the mouse promoter in MA-10 mouse Leydig tumor cells. We now report that Sp3, CAGA element binding proteins, and a corepressor complex consisting of mSin3A, histone deacetylase (HDAC)1, and HDAC2 associates with a transcriptional repressor region within the mouse StAR promoter. 5'-Promoter deletion analysis localized the negative regulatory region between -180 and -150 bp upstream of the transcription start site, and mutations in both the CAGA and Sp binding elements were required to relieve the repression of basal StAR promoter activity. Protein-DNA binding analysis revealed Sp3 and specific CAGA element-binding protein(s) associated with the repressor region. Coimmunoprecipitation analysis identified the presence of the mSin3A, HDAC1, and HDAC2 corepressor complex in MA-10 cells. Furthermore, chromatin immunoprecipitation assays revealed Sp3, mSin3A, and HDAC1/2 association with the proximal region of the StAR promoter in situ. In addition, HDAC inhibition resulted in a dose-dependent activation of a mouse StAR reporter construct, whereas mutations within the repressor region diminished this effect by 44%. In sum, these data support a novel regulatory mechanism for transcriptional repression of the mouse StAR promoter by DNA binding of Sp3 and CAGA element-binding proteins, and association of the Sin3 corepressor complex exhibiting HDAC activity.

Rodent StAR mRNA is substantially regulated by control of mRNA stability through sites in the 3'-untranslated region and through coupling to ongoing transcription

The steroidogenic acute regulator (StAR) gene is transcribed to 1.6 kb and 3.5 kb mRNAs that differ only through the length of the 3'-untranslated region (3'-UTR). These forms result from alternative polyadenylation sites in exon 7. These sites are utilized similarly in unstimulated adrenal cells whereas Br-cAMP selectively stimulates 3.5 kb mRNA. After removal of Br-cAMP, 3.5 kb mRNA declines rapidly (t(1/2) = 2 h) while 1.6 kb mRNA responds more slowly. This selective degradation is more evident in testis MA10 cells and is seen even in the presence of Br-cAMP. Transfection of Y-1 cells with CMV promoted StAR vectors confirmed that the 3.5 kb form is less stable and that Br-cAMP slowly increases this instability. Basal instability resides solely in the extended 3'-UTR which contains AU-rich elements. Br-cAMP enhances this degradation of 3.5 kb mRNA but additionally requires translated and 5'-UTR sequences. Degradation of both forms is arrested by inhibitors of transcription or translation, indicating that mRNA stability is coupled to these processes independent of the extended 3'-UTR. Br-cAMP stimulates substantial selective synthesis of 3.5 kb StAR mRNA despite this instability. The preferential generation of the unstable form may facilitate rapid increases and decreases of StAR activity in response to external changes.

Expression, hormonal regulation, and subcellular localization of CCAAT/enhancer-binding protein-beta in rat and human thyrocytes

The expression pattern of CCAAT/enhancer binding protein-beta (C/EBP-beta) was investigated in thyroid cells and tissues. Translation of C/EBP-beta mRNA results in the production of two isoforms, liver-enriched transcriptional activating protein (LAP) and liver-enriched transcriptional inhibitory protein (LIP), the latter lacking the transactivation domain. We found that LAP and LIP are expressed in the rat thyroid gland and in the FRTL-5 and PCCL3 rat thyroid cell lines. Thyrotropin (TSH), insulin, and serum withdrawal from cultures of thyroid cells induced downregulation of LAP and LIP expression. Subsequent activation of the cyclic adenosine monophosphate (cAMP) and insulin signaling pathways reinduced both isoforms. Vectors expressing rat LAP and LIP were constructed to study the effect of C/EBP-beta isoforms on the activity of the sodium iodide symporter (NIS) promoter in PCCL3 cells. The cAMP-stimulated activity of the NIS promoter was decreased by overexpression of LAP, whereas LIP had no significant effect. Expression of C/EBP-beta was studied by immunohistochemistry in normal human thyroid and papillary cancer tissues. C/EBP-beta immunostaining was always restricted to the nuclei of the normal thyrocytes. In contrast, C/EBP-beta was expressed mainly in the cytoplasm of thyroid papillary carcinoma cells. These data suggest that this factor may play important roles in the regulation of thyroidspecific genes and processes, and that its functions are altered in human thyroid carcinoma.

Cyclic adenosine 3',5'-monophosphate (cAMP) enhances cAMP-responsive element binding (CREB) protein phosphorylation and phospho-CREB interaction with the mouse steroidogenic acute regulatory protein gene promoter

Steroidogenic acute regulatory protein (StAR) transcription is regulated through cAMP-protein kinase A-dependent mechanisms that involve multiple transcription factors including the cAMP-responsive element binding protein (CREB) family members. Classically, binding of phosphorylated CREB to cis-acting cAMP-responsive elements (5'-TGACGTCA-3') within target gene promoters leads to recruitment of the coactivator CREB binding protein (CBP). Herein we examined the extent of CREB family member phosphorylation on protein-DNA interactions and CBP recruitment with the StAR promoter. Immunoblot analysis revealed that CREB, cAMP-responsive element modulator (CREM), and activating transcription factor (ATF)-1 are expressed in MA-10 mouse Leydig tumor cells, yet only CREB and ATF-1 are phosphorylated. (Bu)2cAMP treatment of MA-10 cells increased CREB phosphorylation approximately 2.3-fold within 30 min but did not change total nuclear CREB expression levels. Using DNA-affinity chromatography, we now show that CREB and ATF-1, but not CREM, interact with the StAR promoter, and this interaction is dependent on the activator protein-1 (AP-1) cis-acting element within the cAMP-responsive region. In addition, (Bu)2cAMP-treatment increased phosphorylated CREB (P-CREB) association with the StAR promoter but did not influence total CREB interaction. In vivo chromatin immunoprecipitation assays demonstrated CREB binding to the StAR proximal promoter is independent of (Bu)2cAMP-treatment, confirming our in vitro analysis. However, (Bu)2cAMP-treatment increased P-CREB and CBP interaction with the StAR promoter, demonstrating for the first time the physical role of P-CREB:DNA interactions in CBP recruitment to the StAR proximal promoter.

Expression of CCAAT/enhancer binding proteins alpha and beta in the porcine ovary and regulation in primary cultures of granulosa cells

CCAAT/enhancer binding proteins alpha and beta (CEBPA/ CEBPB) were evaluated in the porcine ovary during the estrous cycle. CEBPB mRNA was present in antral follicles and was significantly increased in healthy corpora lutea (CL), whereas CEBPA mRNA was constitutively expressed in these structures. Both isoforms of CEBPA (42 and 30 kDa) exhibited greater expression in preovulatory follicles, and the 42-kDa isoform increased in CL, whereas the 30-kDa isoform decreased. All major isoforms of CEBPB (38, 34, and 20 kDa) were expressed, with the 34- and 20-kDa isoforms being more abundant in preovulatory follicles and further increased in CL. The effects of FSH and cAMP analogue on the distribution of CEBP isoforms were evaluated in primary cultures of porcine granulosa cells. FSH and 8-Br-cAMP had little stimulatory effect on isoform distribution, but cAMP treatment for 24 h tended to decrease the 30-kDa form of CEBPA and the 34-kDa form of CEBPB. The 34-kDa form of CEBPB was decreased by the protein kinase A inhibitor H89 at 4 h (with FSH treatment), and by both protein kinase A and phosphatidylinositol 3-kinase inhibitors at 24 h of treatment. In transfected granulosa cells, FSH and cAMP analogue stimulated a CEBP consensus sequence-reporter construct that was blocked by H89. These data implicate protein kinase A as the major regulator of CEBPB isoform distribution and CEBP-mediated transactivation in granulosa cells. The differential expression of specific CEBPA/B isoforms observed in maturing follicles and CL may contribute to changes in follicular cell differentiation and increasing steroidogenic capacity.

Corpus Luteum Development: Lessons from Genetic Models in Mice

The corpus luteum is a transient endocrine gland that produces essentially progesterone, a required product for the establishment and maintenance of early pregnancy. In the absence of pregnancy, the corpus luteum will cease to produce progesterone, and the structure itself will regress in size over time. The life span and function of the corpus luteum is regulated by complex interactions between stimulatory (luteotrophic) and inhibitory (luteolytic) mediators. Although the process of luteal formation and regression has been studied for several decades, many of the regulatory mechanisms involved in loss of function and involution of the structure are incompletely understood. In rodents, prolactin is the major luteotrophic hormone by maintaining the structural and functional integrity of the corpus luteum for several days after mating. Other factors involved in steroidogenesis, control of cell cycle, apoptosis, and tissue remodeling have been shown to play a role in corpus luteum development and maintenance. Especially, PGF2alpha seems to be the most potent luteolytic hormone. One of the most important advances in the study of mammalian genes has been the development of techniques to obtain defined mutations in mice. These tools enable us to target specific genes and to analyze the impact of their loss on cell fate and function. With these approaches, several receptors, transcription factors, enzymes, and other factors have been linked to corpus luteum development and maintenance. These models are helping to define mechanisms of reproductive function and to identify potential new contraceptive targets and genes involved in the pathophysiology of reproductive disorders.

Epidermal growth factor-mediated inhibition of follicle-stimulating hormone-stimulated StAR gene expression in porcine granulosa cells is associated with reduced histone H3 acetylation

Steroidogenic acute regulatory protein (StAR) mediates cholesterol transport into the mitochondria and is essential for ovarian steroidogenesis. Epidermal growth factor (EGF) has been reported to inhibit FSH-stimulated differentiation in porcine granulosa cells. Previous studies have demonstrated FSH stimulates StAR mRNA accumulation and gene promoter activation in granulosa cells. Treatment of granulosa cells with FSH (5 ng/ml, 6 h) increased StAR mRNA, whereas coaddition of EGF (10 ng/ ml) significantly reduced (P < 0.05) FSH-stimulated mRNA accumulation by 62.7% +/- 13.9%. Under these same conditions, FSH-stimulated cAMP accumulation in cultures was unaltered by coincubation with EGF. RNA stability studies showed that cotreatment with FSH and EGF did not alter the StAR mRNA half-life compared with FSH alone, t(1/2) = 1.9-3.8 and 2.7-4.1 h, respectively. EGF significantly inhibited (P < 0.05) FSH-stimulated StAR heterogeneous nuclear RNA levels by 47.6% +/- 6.8 %, implicating a repressive effect on transcription. Surprisingly, EGF (1-50 ng/ml) did not affect FSH stimulation of a 1423-base pair StAR gene promoter-luciferase construct in transient transfection assays in porcine granulosa cells. To evaluate FSH and EGF effects on the endogenous StAR gene, chromatin immunoprecipitation assays were performed in combination with real-time polymerase chain reaction. FSH increased histone H3 acetylation (lysines 9, 14) within the proximal region of the StAR gene promoter and coincubation with EGF blocked this effect. Dimethylation (lysine 9) of histone H3 was not influenced by treatments. In conclusion, EGF repression of FSH-stimulated StAR transcription in porcine granulosa cells is accompanied by reductions in histone H3 acetylation associated with the StAR gene promoter.

The potential function of steroid sulphatase activity in steroid production and steroidogenic acute regulatory protein expression

The first step in the biosynthesis of steroid hormones is conversion of cholesterol into pregnenolone. StAR (steroidogenic acute regulatory) protein plays a crucial role in the intra-mitochondrial movement of cholesterol. STS (steroid sulphatase), which is present ubiquitously in mammalian tissues, including the placenta, adrenal gland, testis and ovary, desulphates a number of 3beta-hydroxysteroid sulphates, including cholesterol sulphate. The present study was designed to examine the effect of STS on StAR protein synthesis and steroidogenesis in cells. Steroidogenic activities of COS-1 cells that had been co-transfected with a vector for the cholesterol P450scc (cytochrome P450 side-chain-cleavage enzyme) system, named F2, a StAR expression vector (pStAR), and an STS expression vector (pSTS) were assayed. Whole-cell extracts were subjected to SDS/PAGE and then to Western blot analysis. pSTS co-expressed in COS-1 cells with F2 and pStAR increased pregnenolone synthesis 2-fold compared with that of co-expression with F2 and pStAR. Western blot analysis using COS-1 cells that had been co-transfected with pSTS, F2 and pStAR revealed that StAR protein levels increased, whereas STS and P450scc protein levels did not change. The amount of StAR protein translation products increased when pSTS was added to an in vitro transcription-translation reaction mixture. Pulse-chase experiments demonstrated that the 37 kDa StAR pre-protein disappeared significantly ( P <0.01) more slowly in COS-1 cells that had been transfected with pSTS than in COS-1 cells that had not been transfected with pSTS. The increase in StAR protein level is not a result of an increase in StAR gene expression, but is a result of both an increase in translation and a longer half-life of the 37 kDa pre-StAR protein. In conclusion, STS increases StAR protein expression level and stimulates steroid production.

Forkhead l2 is expressed in the ovary and represses the promoter activity of the steroidogenic acute regulatory gene

Premature ovarian failure in a subgroup of women with blepharophimosis-ptosis-epicanthus inversus type 1 syndrome has been associated with nonsense mutations in the gene encoding a Forkhead transcription factor, Forkhead L2 (FOXL2). However, the exact function of FOXL2 in the ovary is unclear. We investigated the expression of FOXL2 in the mouse ovary during follicular development and maturation by RT-PCR and in situ hybridization. The FOXL2 mRNA is expressed in ovaries throughout development and adulthood and is localized to the undifferentiated granulosa cells in small and medium follicles as well as cumulus cells of preovulatory follicles. FOXL2 belongs to a group of transcription factors capable of interacting with specific DNA sequences in diverse gene promoters. With the presence of multiple putative forkhead DNA consensus sites, the promoter of the human steroidogenic acute regulatory (StAR) gene was used to test for regulation by FOXL2. Cotransfection studies revealed that wild-type FOXL2 represses the activity of the StAR promoter, and the first 95 bp upstream of the transcriptional start site of the StAR gene is sufficient for FOXL2 repression. EMSAs confirmed that FOXL2 interacts directly with this region. Analyses using FOXL2 mutants also demonstrated the importance of the entire alanine/proline-rich carboxyl terminus of FOXL2 for transcriptional repression. Furthermore, these mutations produce a protein with a dominant-negative effect that disables the transcriptional repressor activity of wild-type FOXL2. Dominant-negative mutations of FOXL2 could increase expression of StAR and other follicle differentiation genes in small and medium follicles to accelerate follicle development, resulting in increased initial recruitment of dormant follicles and thus the premature ovarian failure phenotype.

Regulation of transcription of the steroidogenic acute regulatory protein (StAR) gene: temporal and spatial changes in transcription factor binding and histone modification

We examined the binding of transcription factors and histone modifications associated with induction of expression of the steroidogenic acute regulatory protein (StAR) gene in MA-10 cells using a quantitative chromatin immunoprecipitation (ChIP) assay. GATA-4, SF-1/Ad4BP, and cyclic AMP response element binding protein binding protein (CBP) bind rapidly to the StAR proximal promoter, but in different patterns following 8-Br-cAMP stimulation. Concomitantly, histone modifications occur in a spatial and temporal sequence including increased association of acetylated histone H3 with the proximal promoter region, increased association of dimethylated lysine 4 histone H3 with exonic sequences, a modification that marks actively transcribed regions, and reduced association of a marker linked to gene silencing (lysine 9 dimethylated histone H3). Our findings demonstrate that transcription factors and coactivators are rapidly associated with the StAR proximal promoter, that the patterns of binding differ which has implications for postulated direct interactions among these factors, and that multiple histone modifications are demonstrable in a spatially- and temporally-specific pattern along the StAR gene. These observations suggest that a combinatorial code of transcription factors including reciprocal changes in histone modifications associated with active transcription and gene silencing control StAR gene expression.

Characterization of binding between SF-1 and Sp1: predominant interaction of SF-1 with the N-terminal region of Sp1

The transcription factor specificity protein 1 (Sp1) binds to GC boxes and interacts with many transcription factors to regulate gene expression. Steroidogenic factor-1 (SF-1) is an orphan nuclear receptor and plays a major role in regulation of the human steroidogenic acute regulatory (StAR) gene. We demonstrated that there is interaction between SF-1 and Sp1 on the human StAR promoter. In the present study, we examined the mechanism of the interaction between Sp1 and SF-1 on the human StAR gene promoter. Results of glutathione S-transferase (GST) pull-down assays and a mammalian two-hybrid assay showed that SF-1 interacted with Sp1 through the N-terminal domains of Sp1. Results of electrophoretic mobility shift assays using nuclear extracts showed that Sp1 is associated with SF-1-DNA complex formation. The density of SF-1-DNA complex was much greater when recombinant Sp1 was added to the incubation mixture. These results suggest that Sp1 interacts with SF-1 and that Sp1 enhances SF-1-DNA complex formation to regulate human StAR transcription.

Assessment of the role of activator protein-1 on transcription of the mouse steroidogenic acute regulatory protein gene

cAMP-dependent mechanisms regulate the steroidogenic acute regulatory (StAR) protein even though its promoter lacks a consensus cAMP response-element (CRE, TGACGTCA). Transcriptional regulation of the StAR gene has been demonstrated to involve combinations of DNA sequences that provide recognition motifs for sequence-specific transcription factors. We recently identified and characterized three canonical 5'-CRE half-sites within the cAMP-responsive region (-151/-1 bp) of the mouse StAR gene. Among these CRE elements, the CRE2 half-site is analogous (TGACTGA) to an activator protein-1 (AP-1) sequence [TGA(C/G)TCA]; therefore, the role of the AP-1 transcription factor was explored in StAR gene transcription. Mutation in the AP-1 element demonstrated an approximately 50% decrease in StAR reporter activity. Using EMSA, oligonucleotide probes containing an AP-1 binding site were found to specifically bind to nuclear proteins obtained from mouse MA-10 Leydig and Y-1 adrenocortical tumor cells. The integrity of the sequence-specific AP-1 element in StAR gene transcription was assessed using the AP-1 family members, Fos (c-Fos, Fra-1, Fra-2, and Fos B) and Jun (c-Jun, Jun B, and Jun D), which demonstrated the involvement of Fos and Jun in StAR gene transcription to varying degrees. Disruption of the AP-1 binding site reversed the transcriptional responses seen with Fos and Jun. EMSA studies utilizing antibodies specific to Fos and Jun demonstrated the involvement of several AP-1 family proteins. Functional assessment of Fos and Jun was further demonstrated by transfecting antisense c-Fos, Fra-1, and dominant negative forms of Fos (A-Fos) and c-Jun (TAM-67) into MA-10 cells, which significantly (P < 0.01) repressed transcription of the StAR gene. Mutation of the AP-1 site in combination with mutations in other cis-elements resulted in a further decrease of StAR promoter activity, demonstrating a functional cooperation between these factors. Mammalian two-hybrid assays revealed high-affinity protein-protein interactions between c-Fos and c-Jun with steroidogenic factor 1, GATA-4, and CCAAT/enhancer binding protein-beta. These findings demonstrate that Fos and Jun can bind to the TGACTGA element in the StAR promoter and provide novel insights into the mechanisms regulating StAR gene transcription.

Involvement of multiple transcription factors in the regulation of steroidogenic acute regulatory protein gene expression

The rate-limiting, committed, and regulatable step in steroid hormone biosynthesis is the transport of cholesterol from the outer to the inner mitochondrial membrane, a process that is mediated by the steroidogenic acute regulatory (StAR) protein. In steroidogenic cells, the StAR protein is regulated by cAMP-dependent mechanisms. However, the StAR promoter lacks a consensus cAMP response-element (CRE), suggesting the involvement of alternate regulatory factor(s) in cAMP responsiveness. These regulatory elements are found to be located in a transcription factor-binding site-rich region (consisting of approximately 150 nucleotides upstream of the transcription start site) of the StAR promoter, and appears to be the most important region in regulating transcription of the StAR gene. The StAR promoter sequences in mouse, rat and human are highly homologous, and in the absence of a canonical CRE, multiple cis-elements have been shown to be instrumental in the regulation of StAR gene expression. Nevertheless, it has become apparent that functional cooperation, interaction, and alteration of different transcription factors are involved in the fine-tuning of the regulatory events associated with StAR gene transcription.

Cholesterol transport and steroidogenesis by the corpus luteum

The synthesis of progesterone by the corpus luteum is essential for the establishment and maintenance of early pregnancy. Regulation of luteal steroidogenesis can be broken down into three major events; luteinization (i.e., conversion of an ovulatory follicle), luteal regression, and pregnancy induced luteal maintenance/rescue. While the factors that control these events and dictate the final steroid end products are widely varied among different species, the composition of the corpus luteum (luteinized thecal and granulosa cells) and the enzymes and proteins involved in the steroidogenic pathway are relatively similar among all species. The key factors involved in luteal steroidogenesis and several new exciting observations regarding regulation of luteal steroidogenic function are discussed in this review.

Steroidogenic acute regulatory protein-binding protein cloned by a yeast two-hybrid system

Steroidogenic acute regulatory (StAR) protein plays a key role in the transport of cholesterol from the outer mitochondrial membrane to the inner membrane. A StAR mutant protein lacking the first 62 amino acids (N-62 StAR protein) has been reported to be as effective as wild-type StAR protein. In the present study, we examined the mechanism by which StAR protein stimulates steroidogenesis. A Gal4-based yeast two-hybrid system was used to identify proteins interacting with N-62 StAR protein. Nine positive clones were obtained from screening 1 x 106 clones. The results of pull-down assays and mammalian two-hybrid assays confirmed interaction between N-62 StAR protein and the clone 4 translated product. The clone 4 translated product was named StAR-binding protein (SBP). We prepared an expression plasmid (pSBP) by inserting SBP cDNA into the pTarget vector. After cotransfection with the human cytochrome P450scc system, StAR expression vector, and pSBP, the amount of pregnenolone produced by COS-1 cells was increased. The amount of steroid hormones produced by steroidogenic cells subjected to small interfering RNA treatment was less than that produced by control cells. In conclusion, SBP binds StAR protein in cells and enhances the ability of StAR protein to promote syntheses of steroid hormones.

cGMP-dependent protein kinase type II regulates basal level of aldosterone production by zona glomerulosa cells without increasing expression of the steroidogenic acute regulatory protein gene

The renin-angiotensin-aldosterone system plays a pivotal role in the regulation of salt and water homeostasis. Here, we demonstrate the expression and functional role of cGMP-dependent protein kinases (PKGs) in rat adrenal cortex. Expression of PKG II is restricted to adrenal zona glomerulosa (ZG) cells, whereas PKG I is localized to the adrenal capsule and blood vessels. Activation of the aldosterone system by a low sodium diet up-regulated the expression of PKG II, however, it did not change PKG I expression in adrenal cortex. Both, activation of PKG II in isolated ZG cell and adenoviral gene transfer of wild type PKG II into ZG cells enhanced aldosterone production. In contrast, inhibition of PKG II as well as infection with a PKG II catalytically inactive mutant had an inhibitory effect on aldosterone production. Steroidogenic acute regulatory (StAR) protein that regulates the rate-limiting step in steroidogenesis is a new substrate for PKG II and can be phosphorylated by PKG II in vitro at serine 55/56 and serine 99. Stimulation of aldosterone production by PKG II in contrast to stimulation by PKA did not activate StAR gene expression in ZG cells. The results presented indicate that PKG II activity in ZG cells is important for maintaining basal aldosterone production.

The molecular phenotype of polycystic ovary syndrome (PCOS) theca cells and new candidate PCOS genes defined by microarray analysis

Polycystic ovary syndrome (PCOS) affects 5% of reproductive aged women and is the leading cause of anovulatory infertility. A hallmark of PCOS is excessive theca cell androgen secretion, which is directly linked to the symptoms of PCOS. Our previous studies demonstrated that theca cells from PCOS ovaries maintained in long term culture persistently secrete significantly greater amounts of androgens than normal theca cells, suggesting an intrinsic abnormality. Furthermore, previous studies suggested that ovarian hyperandrogenemia is inherited as an autosomal dominant trait. However, the genes responsible for ovarian hyperandrogenemia of PCOS have not been identified. In this present study, we carried out microarray analysis to define the gene networks involved in excess androgen synthesis by the PCOS theca cells in order to identify candidate PCOS genes. Our analysis revealed that PCOS theca cells have a gene expression profile that is distinct from normal theca cells. Included in the cohort of genes with increased mRNA abundance in PCOS theca cells were aldehyde dehydrogenase 6 and retinol dehydrogenase 2, which play a role in all-trans-retinoic acid biosynthesis and the transcription factor GATA6. We demonstrated that retinoic acid and GATA6 increased the expression of 17alpha-hydroxylase, providing a functional link between altered gene expression and intrinsic abnormalities in PCOS theca cells. Thus, our analyses have 1) defined a stable molecular phenotype of PCOS theca cells, 2) suggested new mechanisms for excess androgen synthesis by PCOS theca cells, and 3) identified new candidate genes that may be involved in the genetic etiology of PCOS.

Transcription factor GATA-4 is activated by phosphorylation of serine 261 via the cAMP/protein kinase a signaling pathway in gonadal cells

Gonadal gene expression is regulated by pituitary hormones acting through the cAMP/protein kinase A (PKA) signal transduction pathway. The downstream molecular effectors of these signals, however, have yet to be fully understood. We have recently shown that cAMP stimulation of gonadal cells leads to phosphorylation of the transcription factor GATA-4, a key regulator of gonadal gene expression, thus suggesting that this factor might be a novel target for the cAMP/PKA signaling pathway. We now show that the rapid phosphorylation of GATA-4 induced by cAMP in vivo can be blocked by a PKA-specific inhibitor but not by mitogen-activated protein kinase inhibitors, indicating that GATA-4 is predominantly phosphorylated by PKA in response to cAMP in gonadal cells. In addition, using in vitro kinase assays, we show that PKA phosphorylation of GATA-4 occurs predominantly on an evolutionarily conserved serine residue located at position 261. Phosphorylation of GATA-4 Ser261 by PKA enhances its transcriptional activity on different gonadal promoters, an effect that was markedly reduced with a S261A mutant. Moreover, the S261A mutant blunted cAMP-induced promoter activity in gonadal cells. Finally, PKA-dependent phosphorylation of GATA-4 also led to enhanced recruitment of the CREB-binding protein coactivator. This recruitment and transcriptional cooperation were dramatically impaired with the S261A mutant. Thus, our results identify GATA-4 as a novel downstream effector of cAMP/PKA signaling in gonadal cells, where phosphorylation of Ser261 and recruitment of CREB-binding protein likely represent a key mechanism for conveying the cAMP responsiveness of gonadal genes that lack classical cAMP regulatory elements.

The life cycle of the steroidogenic acute regulatory (StAR) protein: from transcription through proteolysis

The Steroidogenic Acute Regulatory (StAR) protein is a mitochondrial protein required for the transport of cholesterol substrate to the P450scc enzyme located in the inner mitochondrial membranes of steroid producing cells. This study suggests that the acute regulation of the rodent StAR gene in the ovary is mediated by two factors, C/EBPbeta and GATA-4. Once translated, the StAR precursor protein is either imported into the mitochondria, or it is rapidly degraded in the cytosol. We predicted that in order to perpetuate StAR activity cycles, imported StAR should turn over rapidly to avoid a potentially harmful accumulation of the protein in sub-mitochondrial compartments. Pulse-chase experiments in metabolically labeled cells showed that: (a) the turnover rate of mature mitochondrial StAR protein (30 kDa) is much faster (t(1/2) = 4-5 h) than that of other mitochondrial proteins; (b) dissipation of the inner membrane potential (-delta psi) by carbonyl cyanide m-chlorophenylhydrazone (mCCCP) accelerates the mitochondrial degradation of StAR; (c) unexpectedly, the mitochondrial degradation of StAR is inhibited by MG132 and lactacystin, but not by epoxomicin. Furthermore, StAR degradation becomes inhibitor-resistant two hours after import. Therefore, these studies suggest a bi-phasic route of StAR turnover in the mitochondria. Shortly after import, StAR is degraded by inhibitor-sensitive protease(s) (phase I), whereas at later times, StAR turnover proceeds to completion through an MG132-resistant proteolytic activity (phase II). Collectively, this study defines StAR as a unique protein that can authentically be used to probe multiple proteolytic activities in mammalian mitochondria.