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Kohout VR, Wardzala CL, Kramer JR. Synthesis and biomedical applications of mucin mimic materials. Adv Drug Deliv Rev 2022; 191:114540. [PMID: 36228896 PMCID: PMC10066857 DOI: 10.1016/j.addr.2022.114540] [Citation(s) in RCA: 1] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 02/10/2022] [Revised: 08/17/2022] [Accepted: 09/13/2022] [Indexed: 02/09/2023]
Abstract
Mucin glycoproteins are the major component of mucus and coat epithelial cell surfaces forming the glycocalyx. The glycocalyx and mucus are involved in the transport of nutrients, drugs, gases, and pathogens toward the cell surface. Mucins are also involved in diverse diseases such as cystic fibrosis and cancer. Due to inherent heterogeneity in native mucin structure, many synthetic materials have been designed to probe mucin chemistry, biology, and physics. Such materials include various glycopolymers, low molecular weight glycopeptides, glycopolypeptides, polysaccharides, and polysaccharide-protein conjugates. This review highlights advances in the area of design and synthesis of mucin mimic materials, and their biomedical applications in glycan binding, epithelial models of infection, therapeutic delivery, vaccine formulation, and beyond.
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Affiliation(s)
- Victoria R Kohout
- Department of Biomedical Engineering, University of Utah, 36 S. Wasatch Dr., Salt Lake City, UT 84112, USA
| | - Casia L Wardzala
- Department of Biomedical Engineering, University of Utah, 36 S. Wasatch Dr., Salt Lake City, UT 84112, USA
| | - Jessica R Kramer
- Department of Biomedical Engineering, University of Utah, 36 S. Wasatch Dr., Salt Lake City, UT 84112, USA.
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2
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Griffin ME, Hsieh-Wilson LC. Tools for mammalian glycoscience research. Cell 2022; 185:2657-2677. [PMID: 35809571 PMCID: PMC9339253 DOI: 10.1016/j.cell.2022.06.016] [Citation(s) in RCA: 5] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 05/10/2022] [Revised: 06/08/2022] [Accepted: 06/08/2022] [Indexed: 10/17/2022]
Abstract
Cellular carbohydrates or glycans are critical mediators of biological function. Their remarkably diverse structures and varied activities present exciting opportunities for understanding many areas of biology. In this primer, we discuss key methods and recent breakthrough technologies for identifying, monitoring, and manipulating glycans in mammalian systems.
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Affiliation(s)
- Matthew E. Griffin
- Department of Chemistry, University of California Irvine, Irvine, CA 92697, USA
| | - Linda C. Hsieh-Wilson
- Division of Chemistry and Chemical Engineering, California Institute of Technology, Pasadena, CA 92115, USA,Correspondence: (L.C.H.W.)
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3
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Debsharma T, Behrendt FN, Laschewsky A, Schlaad H. Ring-Opening Metathesis Polymerization of Biomass-Derived Levoglucosenol. Angew Chem Int Ed Engl 2019; 58:6718-6721. [PMID: 30835937 DOI: 10.1002/anie.201814501] [Citation(s) in RCA: 28] [Impact Index Per Article: 5.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 12/21/2018] [Revised: 03/04/2019] [Indexed: 11/05/2022]
Abstract
The readily available cellulose-derived bicyclic compound levoglucosenol was polymerized through ring-opening metathesis polymerization (ROMP) to yield polylevoglucosenol as a novel type of biomass-derived thermoplastic polyacetal, which, unlike polysaccharides, contains cyclic as well as linear segments in its main chain. High-molar-mass polyacetals with apparent weight-average molar masses of up to 100 kg mol-1 and dispersities of approximately 2 were produced despite the non-living/controlled character of the polymerization due to irreversible deactivation or termination of the catalyst/active chain ends. The resulting highly functionalized polyacetals are glassy in bulk with a glass transition temperature of around 100 °C. In analogy to polysaccharides, polylevoglucosenol degrades slowly in an acidic environment.
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Affiliation(s)
- Tapas Debsharma
- Institute of Chemistry, University of Potsdam, Karl-Liebknecht-Straße 24-25, Potsdam, 14476, Germany
| | - Felix N Behrendt
- Institute of Chemistry, University of Potsdam, Karl-Liebknecht-Straße 24-25, Potsdam, 14476, Germany
| | - André Laschewsky
- Institute of Chemistry, University of Potsdam, Karl-Liebknecht-Straße 24-25, Potsdam, 14476, Germany.,Fraunhofer Institute of Applied Polymer Research IAP, Geiselbergstraße 69, 14476, Potsdam, Germany
| | - Helmut Schlaad
- Institute of Chemistry, University of Potsdam, Karl-Liebknecht-Straße 24-25, Potsdam, 14476, Germany
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4
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Debsharma T, Behrendt FN, Laschewsky A, Schlaad H. Ring‐Opening Metathesis Polymerization of Biomass‐Derived Levoglucosenol. Angew Chem Int Ed Engl 2019. [DOI: 10.1002/ange.201814501] [Citation(s) in RCA: 13] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/08/2022]
Affiliation(s)
- Tapas Debsharma
- Institute of ChemistryUniversity of Potsdam Karl-Liebknecht-Straße 24–25 Potsdam 14476 Germany
| | - Felix N. Behrendt
- Institute of ChemistryUniversity of Potsdam Karl-Liebknecht-Straße 24–25 Potsdam 14476 Germany
| | - André Laschewsky
- Institute of ChemistryUniversity of Potsdam Karl-Liebknecht-Straße 24–25 Potsdam 14476 Germany
- Fraunhofer Institute of Applied Polymer Research IAP Geiselbergstraße 69 14476 Potsdam Germany
| | - Helmut Schlaad
- Institute of ChemistryUniversity of Potsdam Karl-Liebknecht-Straße 24–25 Potsdam 14476 Germany
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5
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Oldenkamp HF, Vela Ramirez JE, Peppas NA. Re-evaluating the importance of carbohydrates as regenerative biomaterials. Regen Biomater 2019; 6:1-12. [PMID: 30740237 PMCID: PMC6362819 DOI: 10.1093/rb/rby023] [Citation(s) in RCA: 23] [Impact Index Per Article: 4.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Key Words] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 07/19/2018] [Revised: 09/20/2018] [Accepted: 10/03/2018] [Indexed: 02/06/2023] Open
Affiliation(s)
- Heidi F Oldenkamp
- Institute for Biomaterials, Drug Delivery, and Regenerative Medicine, The University of Texas at Austin, Austin, TX, USA
- McKetta Department of Chemical Engineering, The University of Texas at Austin, Austin, TX, USA
| | - Julia E Vela Ramirez
- Institute for Biomaterials, Drug Delivery, and Regenerative Medicine, The University of Texas at Austin, Austin, TX, USA
- McKetta Department of Chemical Engineering, The University of Texas at Austin, Austin, TX, USA
- Department of Biomedical Engineering, The University of Texas at Austin, Austin, TX, USA
| | - Nicholas A Peppas
- Institute for Biomaterials, Drug Delivery, and Regenerative Medicine, The University of Texas at Austin, Austin, TX, USA
- McKetta Department of Chemical Engineering, The University of Texas at Austin, Austin, TX, USA
- Department of Biomedical Engineering, The University of Texas at Austin, Austin, TX, USA
- Department of Pediatrics, Dell Medical School, The University of Texas at Austin, Austin, TX, USA
- Department of Surgery and Perioperative Care, Dell Medical School, The University of Texas at Austin, Austin, TX, USA
- Division of Molecular Pharmaceutics and Drug Delivery, College of Pharmacy, The University of Texas at Austin, Austin, TX, USA
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6
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7
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Sletten ET, Loka RS, Yu F, Nguyen HM. Glycosidase Inhibition by Multivalent Presentation of Heparan Sulfate Saccharides on Bottlebrush Polymers. Biomacromolecules 2017; 18:3387-3399. [PMID: 28846389 PMCID: PMC6044434 DOI: 10.1021/acs.biomac.7b01049] [Citation(s) in RCA: 19] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/19/2022]
Abstract
We report herein the first-time exploration of the attachment of well-defined saccharide units onto a synthetic polymer backbone for the inhibition of a glycosidase. More specifically, glycopolymers endowed with heparan sulfate (HS) disaccharides were established to inhibit the glycosidase, heparanase, with an IC50 value in the low nanomolar range (1.05 ± 0.02 nm), a thousand-fold amplification over its monovalent counterpart. The monomeric moieties of these glycopolymers were designed in silico to manipulate the well-established glycotope of heparanase into an inhitope. Studies concluded that (1) the glycopolymers are hydrolytic stable toward heparanase, (2) longer polymer length provides greater inhibition, and (3) increased local saccharide density (monoantennary vs diantennary) is negligible due to hindered active site of heparanase. Furthermore, HS oligosaccharide and polysaccharide controls illustrate the enhanced potency of a multivalent scaffold. Overall, the results on these studies of the multivalent presentation of saccharides on bottlebrush polymers serve as the platform for the design of potent glycosidase inhibitors and have potential to be applied to other HS-degrading proteins.
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Affiliation(s)
| | | | - Fei Yu
- Department of Chemistry, University of Iowa, Iowa City, Iowa 52242, United States
| | - Hien M. Nguyen
- Department of Chemistry, University of Iowa, Iowa City, Iowa 52242, United States
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8
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Paluck S, Nguyen TH, Maynard HD. Heparin-Mimicking Polymers: Synthesis and Biological Applications. Biomacromolecules 2016; 17:3417-3440. [PMID: 27739666 PMCID: PMC5111123 DOI: 10.1021/acs.biomac.6b01147] [Citation(s) in RCA: 124] [Impact Index Per Article: 15.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 07/27/2016] [Revised: 09/26/2016] [Indexed: 12/13/2022]
Abstract
Heparin is a naturally occurring, highly sulfated polysaccharide that plays a critical role in a range of different biological processes. Therapeutically, it is mostly commonly used as an injectable solution as an anticoagulant for a variety of indications, although it has also been employed in other forms such as coatings on various biomedical devices. Due to the diverse functions of this polysaccharide in the body, including anticoagulation, tissue regeneration, anti-inflammation, and protein stabilization, and drawbacks of its use, analogous heparin-mimicking materials are also widely studied for therapeutic applications. This review focuses on one type of these materials, namely, synthetic heparin-mimicking polymers. Utilization of these polymers provides significant benefits compared to heparin, including enhancing therapeutic efficacy and reducing side effects as a result of fine-tuning heparin-binding motifs and other molecular characteristics. The major types of the various polymers are summarized, as well as their applications. Because development of a broader range of heparin-mimicking materials would further expand the impact of these polymers in the treatment of various diseases, future directions are also discussed.
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Affiliation(s)
- Samantha
J. Paluck
- Department of Chemistry and
Biochemistry and the California NanoSystems Institute, University of California−Los Angeles, 607 Charles E. Young Dr East, Los Angeles, California 90095, United States
| | - Thi H. Nguyen
- Department of Chemistry and
Biochemistry and the California NanoSystems Institute, University of California−Los Angeles, 607 Charles E. Young Dr East, Los Angeles, California 90095, United States
| | - Heather D. Maynard
- Department of Chemistry and
Biochemistry and the California NanoSystems Institute, University of California−Los Angeles, 607 Charles E. Young Dr East, Los Angeles, California 90095, United States
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Huang ML, Fisher CJ, Godula K. Glycomaterials for probing host-pathogen interactions and the immune response. Exp Biol Med (Maywood) 2016; 241:1042-53. [PMID: 27190259 DOI: 10.1177/1535370216647811] [Citation(s) in RCA: 7] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.9] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 01/21/2023] Open
Abstract
The initial engagement of host cells by pathogens is often mediated by glycan structures presented on the cell surface. Various components of the glycocalyx can be targeted by pathogens for adhesion to facilitate infection. Glycans also play integral roles in the modulation of the host immune response to infection. Therefore, understanding the parameters that define glycan interactions with both pathogens and the various components of the host immune system can aid in the development of strategies to prevent, interrupt, or manage infection. Glycomaterials provide a unique and powerful tool with which to interrogate the compositional and functional complexity of the glycocalyx. The objective of this review is to highlight some key contributions from this area of research in deciphering the mechanisms of pathogenesis and the associated host response.
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Affiliation(s)
- Mia L Huang
- Department of Chemistry and Biochemistry, University of California-San Diego, La Jolla, CA 92093, USA
| | - Christopher J Fisher
- Department of Chemistry and Biochemistry, University of California-San Diego, La Jolla, CA 92093, USA
| | - Kamil Godula
- Department of Chemistry and Biochemistry, University of California-San Diego, La Jolla, CA 92093, USA
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10
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Belardi B, Bertozzi CR. Chemical Lectinology: Tools for Probing the Ligands and Dynamics of Mammalian Lectins In Vivo. ACTA ACUST UNITED AC 2015; 22:983-93. [PMID: 26256477 DOI: 10.1016/j.chembiol.2015.07.009] [Citation(s) in RCA: 21] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 03/31/2015] [Revised: 06/29/2015] [Accepted: 07/08/2015] [Indexed: 02/06/2023]
Abstract
The importance and complexity associated with the totality of glycan structures, i.e. the glycome, has garnered significant attention from chemists and biologists alike. However, what is lacking from this biochemical picture is how cells, tissues, and organisms interpret glycan patterns and translate this information into appropriate responses. Lectins, glycan-binding proteins, are thought to bridge this gap by decoding the glycome and dictating cell fate based on the underlying chemical identities and properties of the glycome. Yet, our understanding of the in vivo ligands and function for most lectins is still incomplete. This review focuses on recent advances in chemical tools to study the specificity and dynamics of mammalian lectins in live cells. A picture emerges of lectin function that is highly sensitive to its organization, which in turn drastically shapes immunity and cancer progression. We hope this review will inspire biologists to make use of these new techniques and stimulate chemists to continue developing innovative approaches to probe lectin biology in vivo.
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Affiliation(s)
- Brian Belardi
- Departments of Chemistry and Molecular and Cell Biology and Howard Hughes Medical Institute, University of California, Berkeley, CA 94720, USA
| | - Carolyn R Bertozzi
- Department of Chemistry and Howard Hughes Medical Institute, Stanford University, Stanford, CA 94305-4401, USA.
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11
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Chang EK, Eckert MA, Ali MM, Riazifar H, Pone EJ, Liu L, Zhao W. Facile supermolecular aptamer inhibitors of L-selectin. PLoS One 2015; 10:e0123034. [PMID: 25826688 PMCID: PMC4380364 DOI: 10.1371/journal.pone.0123034] [Citation(s) in RCA: 9] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 06/27/2014] [Accepted: 02/25/2015] [Indexed: 12/24/2022] Open
Abstract
Multivalent interactions occur frequently in nature, where they mediate high-affinity interactions between cells, proteins, or molecules. Here, we report on a method to generate multivalent aptamers (Multi-Aptamers) that target L-selectin function using rolling circle amplification (RCA). We find that the L-selectin Multi-Aptamers have increased affinity compared to the monovalent aptamer, are specific to L-selectin, and are capable of inhibiting interactions with endogenous ligands. In addition, the Multi-Aptamers efficiently inhibit L-selectin mediated dynamic adhesion in vitro and homing to secondary lymphoid tissues in vivo. Importantly, our method of generating multivalent materials using RCA avoids many of the challenges associated with current multivalent materials in that the Multi-Aptamers are high affinity, easily produced and modified, and biocompatible. We anticipate that the Multi-Aptamers can serve as a platform technology to modulate diverse cellular processes.
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Affiliation(s)
- Elizabeth K. Chang
- Sue and Bill Gross Stem Cell Research Center, Chao Family Comprehensive Cancer Center, Edwards Lifesciences Center for Advanced Cardiovascular Technology, Edwards Lifesciences Center for Advanced Cardiovascular Technology, Department of Biomedical Engineering, and Department of Pharmaceutical Sciences, University of California Irvine, Irvine, California, 92697, United States of America
| | - Mark A. Eckert
- Sue and Bill Gross Stem Cell Research Center, Chao Family Comprehensive Cancer Center, Edwards Lifesciences Center for Advanced Cardiovascular Technology, Edwards Lifesciences Center for Advanced Cardiovascular Technology, Department of Biomedical Engineering, and Department of Pharmaceutical Sciences, University of California Irvine, Irvine, California, 92697, United States of America
| | - M. Monsur Ali
- Sue and Bill Gross Stem Cell Research Center, Chao Family Comprehensive Cancer Center, Edwards Lifesciences Center for Advanced Cardiovascular Technology, Edwards Lifesciences Center for Advanced Cardiovascular Technology, Department of Biomedical Engineering, and Department of Pharmaceutical Sciences, University of California Irvine, Irvine, California, 92697, United States of America
| | - Hamidreza Riazifar
- Sue and Bill Gross Stem Cell Research Center, Chao Family Comprehensive Cancer Center, Edwards Lifesciences Center for Advanced Cardiovascular Technology, Edwards Lifesciences Center for Advanced Cardiovascular Technology, Department of Biomedical Engineering, and Department of Pharmaceutical Sciences, University of California Irvine, Irvine, California, 92697, United States of America
| | - Egest J. Pone
- Sue and Bill Gross Stem Cell Research Center, Chao Family Comprehensive Cancer Center, Edwards Lifesciences Center for Advanced Cardiovascular Technology, Edwards Lifesciences Center for Advanced Cardiovascular Technology, Department of Biomedical Engineering, and Department of Pharmaceutical Sciences, University of California Irvine, Irvine, California, 92697, United States of America
| | - Linan Liu
- Sue and Bill Gross Stem Cell Research Center, Chao Family Comprehensive Cancer Center, Edwards Lifesciences Center for Advanced Cardiovascular Technology, Edwards Lifesciences Center for Advanced Cardiovascular Technology, Department of Biomedical Engineering, and Department of Pharmaceutical Sciences, University of California Irvine, Irvine, California, 92697, United States of America
| | - Weian Zhao
- Sue and Bill Gross Stem Cell Research Center, Chao Family Comprehensive Cancer Center, Edwards Lifesciences Center for Advanced Cardiovascular Technology, Edwards Lifesciences Center for Advanced Cardiovascular Technology, Department of Biomedical Engineering, and Department of Pharmaceutical Sciences, University of California Irvine, Irvine, California, 92697, United States of America
- * E-mail:
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12
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Woelke AL, Kuehne C, Meyer T, Galstyan G, Dernedde J, Knapp EW. Understanding selectin counter-receptor binding from electrostatic energy computations and experimental binding studies. J Phys Chem B 2013; 117:16443-54. [PMID: 24304345 DOI: 10.1021/jp4099123] [Citation(s) in RCA: 14] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 01/13/2023]
Abstract
Higher organisms defend themselves against invading micro-organisms and harmful substances with their immune system. Key players of the immune system are the white blood cells (WBC), which in case of infection move in an extravasation process from blood vessels toward infected tissue promoting inflammation. This process starts with the attachment of the WBC to the blood vessel wall, mediated by protein pair interactions of selectins and counter-receptors (C-R). Individual selectin C-R binding is weak and varies only moderately between the three selectin types. Multivalency enhances such small differences, rendering selectin-binding type specific. In this work, we study selectin C-R binding, the initial step of extravasation. We performed electrostatic energy computations based on the crystal structure of one selectin type co-crystallized with the ligating part of the C-R. The agreement with measured free energies of binding is satisfactory. Additionally, we modeled selectin mutant structures in order to explain differences in binding of the different selectin types. To verify our modeling procedures, surface plasmon resonance data were measured for several mutants and compared with computed binding affinities. Binding affinities computed with soaked rather than co-crystallized selectin C-R structures do not agree with measured data. Hence, these structures are inappropriate to describe the binding mode. The analysis of selectin/C-R binding unravels the role played by individual molecular components in the binding event. This opens new avenues to prevent immune system malfunction, designing drugs that can control inflammatory processes by moderating selectin C-R binding.
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Affiliation(s)
- Anna Lena Woelke
- Institute of Chemistry and Biochemistry, Freie Universität Berlin , D-14195 Berlin, Germany
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14
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Luo J, Xu ZK. Protein−Carbohydrate Interactions on the Surfaces of Glycosylated Membranes. ACTA ACUST UNITED AC 2012. [DOI: 10.1021/bk-2012-1120.ch011] [Citation(s) in RCA: 1] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.1] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 02/22/2023]
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Vázquez-Dorbatt V, Lee J, Lin EW, Maynard HD. Synthesis of Glycopolymers by Controlled Radical Polymerization Techniques and Their Applications. Chembiochem 2012; 13:2478-87. [DOI: 10.1002/cbic.201200480] [Citation(s) in RCA: 83] [Impact Index Per Article: 6.9] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 07/20/2012] [Indexed: 12/26/2022]
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16
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Muthana SM, Campbell CT, Gildersleeve JC. Modifications of glycans: biological significance and therapeutic opportunities. ACS Chem Biol 2012; 7:31-43. [PMID: 22195988 DOI: 10.1021/cb2004466] [Citation(s) in RCA: 93] [Impact Index Per Article: 7.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/28/2022]
Abstract
Carbohydrates play a central role in a wide range of biological processes. As with nucleic acids and proteins, modifications of specific sites within the glycan chain can modulate a carbohydrate's overall biological function. For example, acylation, methylation, sulfation, epimerization, and phosphorylation can occur at various positions within a carbohydrate to modulate bioactivity. Therefore, there is significant interest in identifying discrete carbohydrate modifications and understanding their biological effects. Additionally, enzymes that catalyze those modifications and proteins that bind modified glycans provide numerous targets for therapeutic intervention. This review will focus on modifications of glycans that occur after the oligomer/polymer has been assembled, generally referred to as post-glycosylational modifications.
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Affiliation(s)
- Saddam M. Muthana
- Chemical Biology Laboratory, National Cancer Institute, NCI-Frederick, Frederick, Maryland 21702, United States
| | - Christopher T. Campbell
- Chemical Biology Laboratory, National Cancer Institute, NCI-Frederick, Frederick, Maryland 21702, United States
| | - Jeffrey C. Gildersleeve
- Chemical Biology Laboratory, National Cancer Institute, NCI-Frederick, Frederick, Maryland 21702, United States
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Passacquale G, Ferro A. Current concepts of platelet activation: possibilities for therapeutic modulation of heterotypic vs. homotypic aggregation. Br J Clin Pharmacol 2012; 72:604-18. [PMID: 21223359 DOI: 10.1111/j.1365-2125.2011.03906.x] [Citation(s) in RCA: 16] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/12/2022] Open
Abstract
Thrombogenic and inflammatory activity are two distinct aspects of platelet biology, which are sustained by the ability of activated platelets to interact with each other (homotypic aggregation) and to adhere to circulating leucocytes (heterotypic aggregation). These two events are regulated by distinct biomolecular mechanisms that are selectively activated in different pathophysiological settings. They can occur simultaneously, for example, as part of a pro-thrombotic/pro-inflammatory response induced by vascular damage, or independently, as in certain clinical conditions in which abnormal heterotypic aggregation has been observed in the absence of intravascular thrombosis. Current antiplatelet drugs have been developed to target specific molecular signalling pathways mainly implicated in thrombus formation, and their ever increasing clinical use has resulted in clear benefits in the treatment and prevention of arterial thrombotic events. However, the efficacy of currently available antiplatelet drugs remains suboptimal, most likely because their therapeutic action is limited to only few of the signalling pathways involved in platelet homotypic aggregation. In this context, modulation of heterotypic aggregation, which is believed to contribute importantly to acute thrombotic events, as well to the pathophysiology of atherosclerosis itself, may offer benefits over and above the classical antiplatelet approach. This review will focus on the distinct biomolecular pathways that, following platelet activation, underlie homotypic and heterotypic aggregation, aiming potentially to identify novel therapeutic targets.
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Affiliation(s)
- Gabriella Passacquale
- Department of Clinical Pharmacology, Cardiovascular Division, King's College London, London, UK
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19
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Jung H, Carberry TP, Weck M. Synthesis of First- and Second-Generation Poly(amide)-Dendronized Polymers via Ring-Opening Metathesis Polymerization. Macromolecules 2011. [DOI: 10.1021/ma2016375] [Citation(s) in RCA: 40] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.1] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/29/2022]
Affiliation(s)
- Hwayoon Jung
- Molecular Design Institute, Department of Chemistry, New York University, New York, New York 10003, United States
| | - Tom P. Carberry
- Molecular Design Institute, Department of Chemistry, New York University, New York, New York 10003, United States
| | - Marcus Weck
- Molecular Design Institute, Department of Chemistry, New York University, New York, New York 10003, United States
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20
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Ting SRS, Chen G, Stenzel MH. Synthesis of glycopolymers and their multivalent recognitions with lectins. Polym Chem 2010. [DOI: 10.1039/c0py00141d] [Citation(s) in RCA: 321] [Impact Index Per Article: 22.9] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/21/2022]
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21
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Vázquez-Dorbatt V, Tolstyka ZP, Chang CW, Maynard HD. Synthesis of a pyridyl disulfide end-functionalized glycopolymer for conjugation to biomolecules and patterning on gold surfaces. Biomacromolecules 2009; 10:2207-12. [PMID: 19606855 DOI: 10.1021/bm900395h] [Citation(s) in RCA: 62] [Impact Index Per Article: 4.1] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 01/08/2023]
Abstract
A pyridyl disulfide end-functionalized polymer with N-acetyl-d-glucosamine pendant side-chains was synthesized by atom transfer radical polymerization (ATRP). The glycopolymer was prepared from a pyridyl disulfide initiator catalyzed by a Cu(I)/Cu(II)/2,2'-bipyridine system in a mixture of methanol and water at 30 degrees C. The final polymer had a number-average molecular weight (M(n)) of 13.0 kDa determined by (1)H NMR spectroscopy and a narrow polydispersity index (1.12) determined by gel permeation chromatography (GPC). The pyridyl disulfide end-group was then utilized to conjugate the glycopolymer to a double-stranded short interfering RNA (siRNA). Characterization of the glycopolymer-siRNA by polyacrylamide gel electrophoresis (PAGE) showed 97% conjugation. The activated disulfide polymer was also patterned on gold via microcontact printing. The pyridyl disulfide allowed for ready immobilization of the glycopolymer into 200 microm sized features on the surface.
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Affiliation(s)
- Vimary Vázquez-Dorbatt
- Department of Chemistry and Biochemistry and California Nanosystems Institute, University of California-Los Angeles, Los Angeles, California 90095-1569
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22
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Synthetic neoglycopolymer-recombinant human collagen hybrids as biomimetic crosslinking agents in corneal tissue engineering. Biomaterials 2009; 30:5403-8. [DOI: 10.1016/j.biomaterials.2009.06.016] [Citation(s) in RCA: 50] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 04/23/2009] [Accepted: 06/10/2009] [Indexed: 01/28/2023]
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23
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Cuerrier CM, Gagner A, Lebel R, Gobeil F, Grandbois M. Effect of thrombin and bradykinin on endothelial cell mechanical properties monitored through membrane deformation. J Mol Recognit 2009; 22:389-96. [DOI: 10.1002/jmr.953] [Citation(s) in RCA: 22] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 01/25/2023]
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24
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Affiliation(s)
- Amit Joshi
- The Howard P Isermann Department of Chemical and Biological Engineering, Rensselaer Polytechnic Institute, NY 12180, USA
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Geng J, Mantovani G, Tao L, Nicolas J, Chen G, Wallis R, Mitchell DA, Johnson BRG, Evans SD, Haddleton DM. Site-Directed Conjugation of “Clicked” Glycopolymers To Form Glycoprotein Mimics: Binding to Mammalian Lectin and Induction of Immunological Function. J Am Chem Soc 2007; 129:15156-63. [DOI: 10.1021/ja072999x] [Citation(s) in RCA: 269] [Impact Index Per Article: 15.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/16/2022]
Affiliation(s)
- Jin Geng
- Contribution from the Department of Chemistry, University of Warwick, CV4 7AL, Coventry, United Kingdom; Clinical Sciences Research Institute, Warwick Medical School, University of Warwick, CV2 2DX, Coventry, United Kingdom; Department of Infection, Immunity and Inflammation, University of Leicester, Leicester, United Kingdom; and School of Physics and Astronomy, University of Leeds, Leeds, United Kingdom
| | - Giuseppe Mantovani
- Contribution from the Department of Chemistry, University of Warwick, CV4 7AL, Coventry, United Kingdom; Clinical Sciences Research Institute, Warwick Medical School, University of Warwick, CV2 2DX, Coventry, United Kingdom; Department of Infection, Immunity and Inflammation, University of Leicester, Leicester, United Kingdom; and School of Physics and Astronomy, University of Leeds, Leeds, United Kingdom
| | - Lei Tao
- Contribution from the Department of Chemistry, University of Warwick, CV4 7AL, Coventry, United Kingdom; Clinical Sciences Research Institute, Warwick Medical School, University of Warwick, CV2 2DX, Coventry, United Kingdom; Department of Infection, Immunity and Inflammation, University of Leicester, Leicester, United Kingdom; and School of Physics and Astronomy, University of Leeds, Leeds, United Kingdom
| | - Julien Nicolas
- Contribution from the Department of Chemistry, University of Warwick, CV4 7AL, Coventry, United Kingdom; Clinical Sciences Research Institute, Warwick Medical School, University of Warwick, CV2 2DX, Coventry, United Kingdom; Department of Infection, Immunity and Inflammation, University of Leicester, Leicester, United Kingdom; and School of Physics and Astronomy, University of Leeds, Leeds, United Kingdom
| | - Gaojian Chen
- Contribution from the Department of Chemistry, University of Warwick, CV4 7AL, Coventry, United Kingdom; Clinical Sciences Research Institute, Warwick Medical School, University of Warwick, CV2 2DX, Coventry, United Kingdom; Department of Infection, Immunity and Inflammation, University of Leicester, Leicester, United Kingdom; and School of Physics and Astronomy, University of Leeds, Leeds, United Kingdom
| | - Russell Wallis
- Contribution from the Department of Chemistry, University of Warwick, CV4 7AL, Coventry, United Kingdom; Clinical Sciences Research Institute, Warwick Medical School, University of Warwick, CV2 2DX, Coventry, United Kingdom; Department of Infection, Immunity and Inflammation, University of Leicester, Leicester, United Kingdom; and School of Physics and Astronomy, University of Leeds, Leeds, United Kingdom
| | - Daniel A. Mitchell
- Contribution from the Department of Chemistry, University of Warwick, CV4 7AL, Coventry, United Kingdom; Clinical Sciences Research Institute, Warwick Medical School, University of Warwick, CV2 2DX, Coventry, United Kingdom; Department of Infection, Immunity and Inflammation, University of Leicester, Leicester, United Kingdom; and School of Physics and Astronomy, University of Leeds, Leeds, United Kingdom
| | - Benjamin R. G. Johnson
- Contribution from the Department of Chemistry, University of Warwick, CV4 7AL, Coventry, United Kingdom; Clinical Sciences Research Institute, Warwick Medical School, University of Warwick, CV2 2DX, Coventry, United Kingdom; Department of Infection, Immunity and Inflammation, University of Leicester, Leicester, United Kingdom; and School of Physics and Astronomy, University of Leeds, Leeds, United Kingdom
| | - Stephen D. Evans
- Contribution from the Department of Chemistry, University of Warwick, CV4 7AL, Coventry, United Kingdom; Clinical Sciences Research Institute, Warwick Medical School, University of Warwick, CV2 2DX, Coventry, United Kingdom; Department of Infection, Immunity and Inflammation, University of Leicester, Leicester, United Kingdom; and School of Physics and Astronomy, University of Leeds, Leeds, United Kingdom
| | - David M. Haddleton
- Contribution from the Department of Chemistry, University of Warwick, CV4 7AL, Coventry, United Kingdom; Clinical Sciences Research Institute, Warwick Medical School, University of Warwick, CV2 2DX, Coventry, United Kingdom; Department of Infection, Immunity and Inflammation, University of Leicester, Leicester, United Kingdom; and School of Physics and Astronomy, University of Leeds, Leeds, United Kingdom
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Pérez-Victoria I, Morales JC. One- and two-step enzymatic synthesis of polymerizable vinyladipoyl mono- and diesters of non-reducing trisaccharides. ACTA ACUST UNITED AC 2007. [DOI: 10.1016/j.molcatb.2007.05.005] [Citation(s) in RCA: 12] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/26/2022]
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Kaltgrad E, Sen Gupta S, Punna S, Huang CY, Chang A, Wong CH, Finn MG, Blixt O. Anti-Carbohydrate Antibodies Elicited by Polyvalent Display on a Viral Scaffold. Chembiochem 2007; 8:1455-62. [PMID: 17676704 DOI: 10.1002/cbic.200700225] [Citation(s) in RCA: 78] [Impact Index Per Article: 4.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/06/2022]
Abstract
Tetra- and hexasaccharides were arrayed on the exterior surface of cowpea mosaic virus by using a copper-catalyzed azide-alkyne cycloaddition reaction. Inoculation of chickens with these virus conjugates gave rise to large quantities of polyclonal anti-glycan IgY antibodies that displayed excellent avidity and specificity on analysis with printed glycan microarrays. Avian IgY antibodies are produced in significantly higher yield than is possible for mouse or rabbit IgG, and exhibit reduced cross reactivity with native mammalian proteins. For a tri-LacNAc antigen, affinity purification against immobilized mono-LacNAc was necessary to provide a set of antibodies with specific binding properties. Comparable performance was observed for the virus-based polyclonal versus a commercial monoclonal antibody raised against the globo-H tetrasaccharide; this highlights the utility of the glycan microarray for both quality control and rapid in-depth analysis. Virus-carbohydrate conjugates are promising candidates for development in diagnostic and immunotherapeutic applications.
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Affiliation(s)
- Eiton Kaltgrad
- Department of Chemistry, The Scripps Research Institute, 10550 N. Torrey Pines Road, La Jolla, CA 92037, USA
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From Drug Cocktails to Tissue Engineering: Synthesis of ROMP Polymers for Biomedical Applications. METATHESIS CHEMISTRY 2007. [DOI: 10.1007/978-1-4020-6091-5_17] [Citation(s) in RCA: 4] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 02/10/2023]
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Coullerez G, Seeberger PH, Textor M. Merging Organic and Polymer Chemistries to Create Glycomaterials for Glycomics Applications. Macromol Biosci 2006; 6:634-47. [PMID: 16881090 DOI: 10.1002/mabi.200600090] [Citation(s) in RCA: 49] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/10/2022]
Abstract
[Image: see text] Oligosaccharides at cell surfaces are known to play a critical role in many biological processes such as biorecognition, interactions between cells and with artificial surfaces, immune response, infection and inflammation. In order to facilitate studies of the role of sugars, an increasing number of novel tools are becoming available. New synthetic strategies now provide much more efficient access to complex carbohydrates or glycoconjugates. Branched carbohydrates and hybrids of carbohydrates conjugated to polymers have been prepared using solution and/or solid-phase synthesis and advanced methods of polymerization. These materials are essential for the development of methodologies to study and map the molecular structure-function relationship at interfaces. This article highlights recent advances in the synthesis of carbohydrates and polymer hybrids mimicking the properties and functionalities of the natural oligosaccharides, as well as selected applications in biology, biotechnology and diagnostics.
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Affiliation(s)
- Géraldine Coullerez
- Laboratory for Surface Science and Technology, BioInterfaceGroup, Department of Materials, ETH Zurich, Switzerland.
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Kiessling LL, Gestwicki JE, Strong LE. Synthetische multivalente Liganden als Sonden für die Signaltransduktion. Angew Chem Int Ed Engl 2006. [DOI: 10.1002/ange.200502794] [Citation(s) in RCA: 122] [Impact Index Per Article: 6.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/06/2022]
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Kiessling LL, Gestwicki JE, Strong LE. Synthetic multivalent ligands as probes of signal transduction. Angew Chem Int Ed Engl 2006; 45:2348-68. [PMID: 16557636 PMCID: PMC2842921 DOI: 10.1002/anie.200502794] [Citation(s) in RCA: 687] [Impact Index Per Article: 38.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/11/2022]
Abstract
Cell-surface receptors acquire information from the extracellular environment and coordinate intracellular responses. Many receptors do not operate as individual entities, but rather as part of dimeric or oligomeric complexes. Coupling the functions of multiple receptors may endow signaling pathways with the sensitivity and malleability required to govern cellular responses. Moreover, multireceptor signaling complexes may provide a means of spatially segregating otherwise degenerate signaling cascades. Understanding the mechanisms, extent, and consequences of receptor co-localization and interreceptor communication is critical; chemical synthesis can provide compounds to address the role of receptor assembly in signal transduction. Multivalent ligands can be generated that possess a variety of sizes, shapes, valencies, orientations, and densities of binding elements. This Review focuses on the use of synthetic multivalent ligands to characterize receptor function.
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Affiliation(s)
- Laura L Kiessling
- Department of Chemistry, University of Wisconsin--Madison, 1101 University Ave., Madison, WI 53706, USA.
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Ladmiral V, Mantovani G, Clarkson GJ, Cauet S, Irwin JL, Haddleton DM. Synthesis of Neoglycopolymers by a Combination of “Click Chemistry” and Living Radical Polymerization. J Am Chem Soc 2006; 128:4823-30. [PMID: 16594719 DOI: 10.1021/ja058364k] [Citation(s) in RCA: 522] [Impact Index Per Article: 29.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/30/2022]
Abstract
The synthesis of novel well-defined alkyne side chain functional polymers featuring narrow molecular weight distributions (PDI = 1.09-1.17) by living radical polymerization is described. Grafting of protected and unprotected carbohydrates is achieved via either a C-6 or an anomeric azide (alpha or beta) onto these polymers by Cu(I)-catalyzed "click chemistry", providing a simple and efficient route to synthetic glycopolymers. The strategy provides an extremely powerful tool for the synthesis of libraries of materials that differ only in the nature of the sugar moiety presented on a well-defined polymer scaffold. A library of multivalent ligands were then prepared following a "coclicking" synthetic protocol, and the reactivity of these glycopolymers in the presence of concanavalin A and Ricinus communis agglutinin, model lectins able to selectively bind appropriate mannose and galactose derivatives, respectively, was assessed.
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Affiliation(s)
- Vincent Ladmiral
- Contribution from the Department of Chemistry, University of Warwick, Coventry CV4 7AL, United Kingdom
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Sun M, Graham JS, Hegedüs B, Marga F, Zhang Y, Forgacs G, Grandbois M. Multiple membrane tethers probed by atomic force microscopy. Biophys J 2005; 89:4320-9. [PMID: 16183875 PMCID: PMC1366996 DOI: 10.1529/biophysj.104.058180] [Citation(s) in RCA: 142] [Impact Index Per Article: 7.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 01/27/2023] Open
Abstract
Using the atomic force microscope to locally probe the cell membrane, we observed the formation of multiple tethers (thin nanotubes, each requiring a similar pulling force) as reproducible features within force profiles recorded on individual cells. Forces obtained with Chinese hamster ovary cells, a malignant human brain tumor cell line, and human endothelial cells (EA hy926) were found to be 28 +/- 10 pN, 29 +/- 9 pN, and 29 +/- 10 pN, respectively, independent of the nature of attachment to the cantilever. The rather large variation of the tether pulling forces measured at several locations on individual cells points to the existence of heterogeneity in the membrane properties of a morphologically homogeneous cell. Measurement of the summary lengths of the simultaneously extracted tethers provides a measure of the size of the available membrane reservoir through which co-existing tethers are associated. As expected, partial disruption of the actin cytoskeleton and removal of the hyaluronan backbone of the glycocalyx were observed to result in a marked decrease (30-50%) in the magnitude and a significant sharpening of the force distribution indicating reduced heterogeneity of membrane properties. Taken together, our results demonstrate the ability of the plasma membrane to locally produce multiple interdependent tethers-a process that could play an important role in the mechanical association of cells with their environment.
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Affiliation(s)
- Mingzhai Sun
- Department of Physics, University of Missouri, Columbia, Missouri, USA
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Rele SM, Cui W, Wang L, Hou S, Barr-Zarse G, Tatton D, Gnanou Y, Esko JD, Chaikof EL. Dendrimer-like PEO glycopolymers exhibit anti-inflammatory properties. J Am Chem Soc 2005; 127:10132-3. [PMID: 16028900 PMCID: PMC2556565 DOI: 10.1021/ja0511974] [Citation(s) in RCA: 112] [Impact Index Per Article: 5.9] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/29/2022]
Abstract
A new class of high molecular weight polysulfated PEO dendrimer-like glycopolymer has been synthesized by a combination of arm-first and core-first methodologies followed by trichloroacetimidate glycosidation as a facile bioconjugation strategy. An L-selectin antagonist was identified that exhibits 103-fold greater activity than other multivalent sLex glycopolymers and 20-50 times greater potency than other linear heparinoids. A significant reduction in inflammatory cell recruitment was observed in vivo.
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Affiliation(s)
- Shyam M. Rele
- Departments of Surgery and Biomedical Engineering, Emory University and School of Chemical and Biomolecular Engineering, Georgia Institute of Technology, Atlanta, Georgia 30322
| | - Wanxing Cui
- Departments of Surgery and Biomedical Engineering, Emory University and School of Chemical and Biomolecular Engineering, Georgia Institute of Technology, Atlanta, Georgia 30322
| | - Lianchun Wang
- Departments of Surgery and Biomedical Engineering, Emory University and School of Chemical and Biomolecular Engineering, Georgia Institute of Technology, Atlanta, Georgia 30322
| | - Sijian Hou
- Departments of Surgery and Biomedical Engineering, Emory University and School of Chemical and Biomolecular Engineering, Georgia Institute of Technology, Atlanta, Georgia 30322
| | - Ginger Barr-Zarse
- Departments of Surgery and Biomedical Engineering, Emory University and School of Chemical and Biomolecular Engineering, Georgia Institute of Technology, Atlanta, Georgia 30322
| | - Daniel Tatton
- Departments of Surgery and Biomedical Engineering, Emory University and School of Chemical and Biomolecular Engineering, Georgia Institute of Technology, Atlanta, Georgia 30322
| | - Yves Gnanou
- Departments of Surgery and Biomedical Engineering, Emory University and School of Chemical and Biomolecular Engineering, Georgia Institute of Technology, Atlanta, Georgia 30322
| | - Jeffrey D. Esko
- Departments of Surgery and Biomedical Engineering, Emory University and School of Chemical and Biomolecular Engineering, Georgia Institute of Technology, Atlanta, Georgia 30322
| | - Elliot L. Chaikof
- Departments of Surgery and Biomedical Engineering, Emory University and School of Chemical and Biomolecular Engineering, Georgia Institute of Technology, Atlanta, Georgia 30322
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Abstract
Asthma and COPD are chronic inflammatory conditions that affect hundreds of millions of patients worldwide. New therapeutics are desperately needed, especially those that target the underlying causes and prevent disease progression. Although asthma and COPD have distinct etiologies, both are associated with reduced airflow caused by excess infiltration of inflammatory cells into healthy lung tissues. As selectin-mediated adhesion of leukocytes to the vascular endothelium is a key early event in the initiation of the inflammatory response, selectin inhibition is thought to be a good target for therapeutic intervention. Three known selectins are expressed in distinct subsets of cells: P-selectin is presented on the surface of activated platelets and endothelial cells, L-selectin is constitutively expressed on leukocytes, and E-selectin synthesis is upregulated in activated endothelial cells. They mediate cell-cell adhesion in the shear flow of the bloodstream via specialized interactions with clusters of oligosaccharides presented on cell surface glycopeptide ligands. The role of selectin-ligand interactions in the inflammatory response has been demonstrated in various animal models, prompting considerable attention from the pharmaceutical industry. Drug discovery efforts have yielded many different classes of selectin inhibitors, including soluble protein ligands, antibodies, oligosaccharides and small molecules. Although many selectin inhibitors have shown activity in preclinical models, clinical progress of selectin-directed therapies has been slow. Early approaches employed carbohydrate-based inhibitors to mimic the natural ligand sialyl Lewis X; however, these compounds proved challenging to develop. Cytel’s CY 1503, a complex oligosaccharide, progressed to phase II/III trials for reperfusion injury, but further development was halted when it failed to demonstrate clinical efficacy. Two protein-based selectin inhibitors have reached phase II development. These included Wyeth’s recombinant soluble P-selectin ligand, TSI (PSGL-1), which was discontinued after disappointing results in myocardial infarction trials and Protein Design Labs’ humanized anti-L-selectin monoclonal antibody, which is currently in development for trauma. Bimosiamose, discovered by Encysive Pharmaceutical and presently being developed by Revotar Biopharmaceuticals, is an 863 g/mol molecular weight dimer with minimal carbohydrate content and is, to date, the leading selectin inhibitor in clinical development. This compound has shown promise in a phase Ha ‘proof of concept’ trial in patients with asthma, reducing airway recruitment of eosinophils after intravenous administration. Further clinical development of an inhaled formulation is underway. Despite a significant need for new therapeutics, selectin inhibitors have not yet been explored for the treatment of COPD. Bimosiamose represents an important proof of principle, and hopefully continued success will spark renewed interest in selectin-directed therapeutics for respiratory diseases.
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Affiliation(s)
- Suzanne J Romano
- Novasite Pharmaceuticals Inc., San Diego, California 92121, USA.
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Wei W, Wei FC, Hung LM. Diazoxide ameliorates microcirculatory disturbances through PKC-dependent Pathway in I/R-injured rat cremaster muscles. J Biomed Sci 2005; 12:521-9. [PMID: 15959630 DOI: 10.1007/s11373-005-3730-4] [Citation(s) in RCA: 7] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 06/17/2004] [Accepted: 12/28/2004] [Indexed: 11/29/2022] Open
Abstract
Diazoxide is a selective mitochondria ATP-sensitive potassium (K(ATP)) channel opener, which has been reported to preserve the microvascular integrity of ischemia-reperfusion (I/R)-injured tissues. Our study aimed to assess diazoxide's effects on I/R-injured cremaster muscles and to further elucidate its underlying mechanisms. Male Sprague Dawley (SD) rats were randomized (n = 8 per group) into four groups: sham-operated control group, I/R group (4 h of pudic epigastic artery ischemia followed by 2 h of reperfusion), diazoxide + I/R group, and chelerythrine (PKC inhibitor)+diazoxide+I/R group. Microscopically, we observed that I/R markedly increased the number of rolling, adhering, and transmigrating leukocytes. I/R also markedly decreased the number of functional capillaries. Biochemically, we found that I/R significantly increased TNF-alpha, E-selectin,L-selectin and P-selectin expressions. However, I/R did not cause significant changes in ICAM-1 and PECAM-1 expressions. On the other hand, in I/R + diazoxide group, we found that diazoxide reduced the number of rolling, adhering, and transmigrating leukocytes. Furthermore, biochemical study revealed that diazoxide caused only a decrease in L-selectin expression but had no effect on TNF-alpha, E-selectin, P-selectin, ICAM-1, and PECAM-1 expressions. Finally, in chelerythrine + diazoxide + I/R group, we observed that diazoxide's protective effects were blocked by the addition of chelerythrine. Diazoxide's ability to protect against I/R injury was confirmed by the observation that it reduced the number of rolling, adhering, and transmigrating leukocytes, and increased the number of functional capillaries. Our results indicated that diazoxide operated via a PKC-dependent pathway to achieve protection against I/R injury.
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Affiliation(s)
- William Wei
- Department of Life Science and Plastic & Reconstructive Surgery, College of Medicine, Chang Gung Memorial Hospital, Chang Gung University, Taoyuan, Taiwan
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Mowery P, Yang ZQ, Gordon EJ, Dwir O, Spencer AG, Alon R, Kiessling LL. Synthetic glycoprotein mimics inhibit L-selectin-mediated rolling and promote L-selectin shedding. ACTA ACUST UNITED AC 2005; 11:725-32. [PMID: 15157883 DOI: 10.1016/j.chembiol.2004.03.027] [Citation(s) in RCA: 59] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.1] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 10/15/2003] [Revised: 03/05/2004] [Accepted: 03/11/2004] [Indexed: 12/18/2022]
Abstract
L-selectin is a leukocyte cell-surface protein that facilitates the rolling of leukocytes along the endothelium, a process that leads to leukocyte migration to a site of infection. Preventing L-selectin-mediated rolling minimizes leukocyte adhesion and extravasation; therefore, compounds that inhibit rolling may act as anti-inflammatory agents. To investigate the potential role of multivalent ligands as rolling inhibitors, compounds termed neoglycopolymers were synthesized that possess key structural features of physiological L-selectin ligands. Sulfated neoglycopolymers substituted with sialyl Lewis x derivatives (3',6-disulfo Lewis x or 6-sulfo sialyl Lewis x) or a sulfatide analog (3,6-disulfo galactose) inhibited L-selectin-mediated rolling of lymphoid cells. Functional analysis of the inhibitory ligands indicates that they also induce proteolytic release of L-selectin. Thus, their inhibitory potency may arise from their ability to induce shedding. Our data indicate that screening for compounds that promote L-selectin release can identify ligands that inhibit rolling.
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Affiliation(s)
- Patricia Mowery
- Department of Biochemistry, 433 Babcock Drive, University of Wisconsin-Madison, Madison, WI 53706 USA
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Chandrasekaran EV, Lakhaman SS, Chawda R, Piskorz CF, Neelamegham S, Matta KL. Identification of Physiologically Relevant Substrates for Cloned Gal: 3-O-Sulfotransferases (Gal3STs). J Biol Chem 2004; 279:10032-41. [PMID: 14701868 DOI: 10.1074/jbc.m311989200] [Citation(s) in RCA: 17] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.9] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/06/2022] Open
Abstract
Sulfated glycoconjugates regulate biological processes such as cell adhesion and cancer metastasis. We examined the acceptor specificities and kinetic properties of three cloned Gal:3-O-sulfotransferases (Gal3STs) ST-2, ST-3, and ST-4 along with a purified Gal3ST from colon carcinoma LS180 cells. Gal3ST-2 was the dominant Gal3ST in LS180. While the mucin core-2 structure Galbeta1,4GlcNAcbeta1,6(3-O-MeGalbeta1,3)GalNAcalpha-O-Bn (where Bn is benzyl) and the disaccharide Galbeta1,4GlcNAc served as high affinity acceptors for Gal3ST-2 and Gal3ST-3, 3-O-MeGalbeta1,4GlcNAcbeta1,-6(Galbeta1,3)GalNAcalpha-O-Bn and Galbeta1,3GalNAcalpha-O-Al (where Al is allyl) were efficient acceptors for Gal3ST-4. The activities of Gal3ST-2 and Gal3ST-3 could be distinguished with the Globo H precursor (Galbeta1,3GalNAcbeta1,3Galalpha-O-Me) and fetuin triantennary asialoglycopeptide. Gal3ST-2 acted efficiently on the former, while Gal3ST-3 showed preference for the latter. Gal3ST-4 also acted on the Globo H precursor but not the glycopeptide. In support of the specificity, Gal3ST-2 activity toward the Galbeta1,4GlcNAcbeta unit on mucin core-2 as well as the Globo H precursor could be inhibited competitively by Galbeta1,4GlcNAcbeta1,6(3-O-sulfoGalbeta1,3)GalNAcalpha-O-Bn but not 3-O-sulfoGalbeta1,-4GlcNAcbeta1,6(Galbeta1,3)GalNAcalpha-O-Bn. Remarkably these sulfotransferases were uniquely specific for sulfated substrates: Gal3ST-3 utilized Galbeta1,4(6-O-sulfo)-GlcNAcbeta-O-Al as acceptor, Gal3ST-2 acted efficiently on Galbeta1,3(6-O-sulfo)GlcNAcbeta-O-Al, and Gal3ST-4 acted efficiently on Galbeta1,3(6-O-sulfo)GalNAcalpha-O-Al. Mg(2+), Mn(2+), and Ca(2+) stimulated the activities of Gal3ST-2, whereas only Mg(2+) augmented Gal3ST-3 activity. Divalent cations did not stimulate Gal3ST-4, although inhibition was noted at high Mn(2+) concentrations. The fine substrate specificities of Gal3STs indicate a distinct physiological role for each enzyme.
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Affiliation(s)
- E V Chandrasekaran
- Department of Molecular and Cellular Biophysics, Roswell Park Cancer Institute, Buffalo, New York 14263, USA
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John AE, Lukacs NW, Berlin AA, Palecanda A, Bargatze RF, Stoolman LM, Nagy JO. Discovery of a potent nanoparticle P-selectin antagonist with anti-inflammatory effects in allergic airway disease. FASEB J 2003; 17:2296-8. [PMID: 14563683 PMCID: PMC2839900 DOI: 10.1096/fj.03-0166fje] [Citation(s) in RCA: 39] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.9] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 01/07/2023]
Abstract
The severity of allergic asthma is dependent, in part, on the intensity of peribronchial inflammation. P-selectin is known to play a role in the development of allergen-induced peribronchial inflammation and airway hyperreactivity. Selective inhibitors of P-selectin-mediated leukocyte endothelial-cell interactions may therefore attenuate the inflammatory processes associated with allergic airway disease. Novel P-selectin inhibitors were created using a polyvalent polymer nanoparticle capable of displaying multiple synthetic, low molecular weight ligands. By assembling a particle that presents an array of groups, which as monomers interact with only low affinity, we created a construct that binds extremely efficiently to P-selectin. The ligands acted as mimetics of the key binding elements responsible for the high-avidity adhesion of P-selectin to the physiologic ligand, PSGL-1. The inhibitors were initially evaluated using an in vitro shear assay system in which interactions between circulating cells and P-selectin-coated capillary tubes were measured. The nanoparticles were shown to preferentially bind to selectins expressed on activated endothelial cells. We subsequently demonstrated that nanoparticles displaying P-selectin blocking arrays were functionally active in vivo, significantly reducing allergen-induced airway hyperreactivity and peribronchial eosinophilic inflammation in a murine model of asthma.
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Affiliation(s)
- Alison E. John
- Dept of Pathology, University of Michigan Medical School, Ann Arbor, MI 48109
| | - Nicholas W. Lukacs
- Dept of Pathology, University of Michigan Medical School, Ann Arbor, MI 48109
| | - Aaron A. Berlin
- Dept of Pathology, University of Michigan Medical School, Ann Arbor, MI 48109
| | | | | | - Lloyd M. Stoolman
- Dept of Pathology, University of Michigan Medical School, Ann Arbor, MI 48109
| | - Jon O. Nagy
- LigoCyte Pharmaceuticals, Inc., Bozeman, MT 59718
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Ali M, Hicks AER, Hellewell PG, Thoma G, Norman KE. Polymers carrying sLe
x
‐mimetics are superior inhibitors of E‐selectin‐dependent leukocyte rolling in vivo. FASEB J 2003; 18:152-4. [PMID: 14597557 DOI: 10.1096/fj.03-0346fje] [Citation(s) in RCA: 19] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.9] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 01/28/2023]
Abstract
Selectins mediate leukocyte rolling and may represent good anti-inflammatory drug targets. Detailed knowledge regarding the structure of selectin ligands has permitted development of selectin antagonists with varying specificities and activity. Efficacy of monovalent selectin antagonists may be increased by presenting them on a polymer backbone. We have synthesized a range of multivalent selectin antagonists and characterized their activity by using intravital microscopy of the mouse cremaster muscle. The monovalent inhibitor CGP77175A inhibited E-selectin-dependent leukocyte rolling at a dose of 3 mg/kg. Multivalent presentation of CGP77175A on a modified polylysine backbone (degree of polymerization = 1200; 50% of the polylysines carry the inhibitor) greatly enhanced in vivo activity giving an inhibitor that produced an equivalent effect at 0.1 mg/kg. The polylysine conjugate was also longer acting than the monovalent antagonist. In spite of greatly enhanced activity against E-selectin compared with monovalent inhibitor, the multivalent inhibitor had no measurable effect on P- or L-selectin-dependent leukocyte rolling.
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Affiliation(s)
- Majid Ali
- Cardiovascular Research Group, Clinical Sciences Centre, Northern General Hospital, Sheffield S5 7AU, UK
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de Graffenried CL, Bertozzi CR. Golgi localization of carbohydrate sulfotransferases is a determinant of L-selectin ligand biosynthesis. J Biol Chem 2003; 278:40282-95. [PMID: 12855678 DOI: 10.1074/jbc.m304928200] [Citation(s) in RCA: 28] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/06/2022] Open
Abstract
Sulfation of endothelial glycoproteins by the sulfotransferase GlcNAc6ST-2 is a regulatory modification that promotes binding of the leukocyte adhesion molecule L-selectin. GlcNAc6ST-2 is a member of a family of related enzymes that act on similar carbohydrate substrates in vitro but discrete glycoproteins in vivo. We demonstrate that GlcNAc6ST-1, -2, and -3 have distinct Golgi distributions, with GlcNAc6ST-1 confined to the trans-Golgi network, GlcNAc6ST-3 confined to the early secretory pathway, and GlcNAc6ST-2 distributed throughout the Golgi. Their localization was correlated with preferred activity on either N-linked or O-linked glycoproteins. A chimera comprising the localization domain of GlcNAc6ST-1 fused to the catalytic domain of GlcNAc6ST-2 was confined to the trans-Golgi network and adopted the substrate preference of GlcNAc6ST-1. We propose a model in which Golgi enzyme localization and competition orchestrate the biosynthesis of L-selectin ligands.
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Hittelet A, Camby I, Nagy N, Legendre H, Bronckart Y, Decaestecker C, Kaltner H, Nifant'ev NE, Bovin NV, Pector JC, Salmon I, Gabius HJ, Kiss R, Yeaton P. Binding sites for Lewis antigens are expressed by human colon cancer cells and negatively affect their migration. J Transl Med 2003; 83:777-87. [PMID: 12808113 DOI: 10.1097/01.lab.0000073129.62433.39] [Citation(s) in RCA: 18] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.9] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/27/2022] Open
Abstract
In colon cancer, endothelial cell selectins can promote tumor cell attachment via interactions with sialylated Lewis antigens present at the surface of tumor cells, thereby facilitating tumor cell arrest and transmigration into the extravascular space. However, it is not known whether Lewis antigens interact with colon tumor cells and modify their migration. Our aim was to detect the presence of binding sites on human tumor cells for Lewis(a/x) antigens and their sialylated derivatives in vitro and in vivo and to analyze their influence on migration of colon cancer cells. The immunocytochemical and histochemical levels of expression of the four Lewis antigens were quantitatively determined in four human colon cancer cell lines and in in vivo nude mice xenografts. The levels of expression of specific binding sites for these sugar epitopes were determined by synthetic neoglycoconjugates. The influence of binding of these carbohydrate ligands on cancer cell migration was quantitatively evaluated by computer-assisted phase-contrast videomicroscopy performed on Matrigel culture supports either left uncoated or coated with neoglycoconjugate presenting synthetic Lewis(a), sialyl Lewis(a), Lewis(x), or sialyl Lewis(x) antigens. The influence of the calcium concentration in the culture medium on the Lewis antigen-mediated effects was checked. Human colon cancer cells expressed significant amounts of specific binding sites detected by the synthetic probes in addition to the oligosaccharide epitopes. The expression levels differed considerably between the four cell lines and between in vitro and in vivo specimens. Cell migration analysis revealed that the four Lewis antigens markedly decreased the levels of migration of the HCT-15 and LoVo cancer cells. This effect depends on the calcium concentration in the culture medium. Binding sites for Lewis epitopes are present on colon cancer cells. The functional relevance of these sites is indicated by the negative influence on cell migration of a matrix containing the oligosaccharides as ligand parts.
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Affiliation(s)
- Axel Hittelet
- Department of Gastroenterology, Erasmus University Hospital, Faculty of Medicine, Université Libre de Bruxelles, Jules Bordet Institute, Brussels, Belgium
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Xia J, Alderfer JL, Locke RD, Piskorz CF, Matta KL. Complex oligosaccharide investigations: synthesis of an octasaccharide incorporating the dimeric Le(x) structure of PSGL-1. J Org Chem 2003; 68:2752-9. [PMID: 12662048 DOI: 10.1021/jo020698u] [Citation(s) in RCA: 17] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 01/01/2023]
Abstract
The synthesis of an octasaccharide containing the dimeric Le(x) oligosaccharide structure found in PSGL-1 carbohydrate chains is reported. Several approaches were investigated employing regioselective and stereoselective glycosylation procedures, and a novel Lewis(x) trisaccharide donor, 7, was prepared and utilized as a key intermediate building block in the scheme developed for the construction of octasaccharide 3. Toward the preparation of 7, investigations into the influence of different protecting groups upon the relative reactivities of disaccharide acceptor moieties, 25 or 26, and the fucosyl donors, 10 and 11, were conducted using similar glycosylating conditions. Dramatic differences were noted between the effects of electron-donating and electron-withdrawing groups upon the reactivity of the acceptor hydroxyl. A similar effect upon the glycosylating capability of the donor molecule was, likewise, observed. The repeat use of donor 7 was instrumental in the synthesis of the desired dimeric octasaccharide structure 3. The structure and purity of 3 and important intermediates were fully characterized by DQF-COSY, TOCSY, ROESY, and ESI mass spectroscopy.
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Affiliation(s)
- Jie Xia
- Molecular and Cellular Biophysics, Roswell Park Cancer Institute, Buffalo, New York 14263, USA
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Yang ZQ, Puffer EB, Pontrello JK, Kiessling LL. Synthesis of a multivalent display of a CD22-binding trisaccharide. Carbohydr Res 2002; 337:1605-13. [PMID: 12423961 DOI: 10.1016/s0008-6215(02)00270-7] [Citation(s) in RCA: 28] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/18/2022]
Abstract
Multivalent interactions have been implicated in the binding of B-cell surface glycoprotein CD22 to its physiological ligands. Because CD22 can influence B-cell antigen receptor (BCR) signaling, multivalent ligands that cluster CD22 may influence B-cell responses. Here, we report an efficient synthesis of a fluorophore-labeled multivalent display of a CD22-binding trisaccharide, Neu5Acalpha2,6Galbeta1,4Glc, using the ring-opening metathesis polymerization (ROMP). Our synthetic strategy involves the modification of an N-hydroxysuccinimide (NHS) ester-substituted polymer generated by ROMP with the aminopropyl glycoside of the trisaccharide. The conjugation efficiency for the coupling is high; when 0.3 equiv of the trisaccharide derivative were used relative to NHS ester groups, the mole fraction (chi) of trisaccharide ligand incorporated onto the backbone was 0.3. A fluorescein-labeled version of the multivalent ligand binds to cells expressing CD22.
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Affiliation(s)
- Zhi-Qiang Yang
- Department of Chemistry, University of Wisconsin-Madison, Madison, WI 53706, USA
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47
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de Rossi LW, Horn NA, Buhre W, Gass F, Hutschenreuter G, Rossaint R. The Effect of Isoflurane on Neutrophil Selectin and β2-Integrin Activation In Vitro. Anesth Analg 2002. [DOI: 10.1213/00000539-200209000-00017] [Citation(s) in RCA: 19] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.9] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/14/2022]
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de Rossi LW, Horn NA, Buhre W, Gass F, Hutschenreuter G, Rossaint R. The effect of isoflurane on neutrophil selectin and beta(2)-integrin activation in vitro. Anesth Analg 2002; 95:583-7, table of contents. [PMID: 12198042 DOI: 10.1097/00000539-200209000-00017] [Citation(s) in RCA: 7] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 02/02/2023]
Abstract
UNLABELLED Isoflurane is reported to reduce ischemia-reperfusion injury. Lower expression of CD11b may be responsible for attenuated postischemic neutrophil adhesion to vascular endothelium. However, neutrophil adhesion to vascular endothelium is a multistep process involving several selectins and beta(2)-integrins. Therefore, we assessed whether isoflurane affects the activation of the selectins P-selectin glycoprotein ligand-1 (PSGL-1) and L-selectin and the beta(2)-integrins CD11a and CD11b. Whole blood was incubated for 60 min with 0.5 or 1 minimum alveolar anesthetic concentration (MAC) isoflurane. After incubation, neutrophils were activated with N-formyl-methionyl-leucyl-phenylalanine (FMLP) or phorbol-12-myristate-13-acetate (PMA). Activation of adhesion molecules was evaluated via flow cytometry, and 1 MAC isoflurane reduced the expression of CD11a in the unstimulated samples. After stimulation with FMLP and PMA, shedding of L-selectin was lower in the presence of isoflurane. Furthermore, 1 MAC isoflurane reduced FMLP-induced activation of CD11a and CD11b compared with unexposed blood samples. These results demonstrate that isoflurane affects the activation of three adhesion molecules involved in the multistep process of neutrophil recruitment. First, isoflurane inhibits the activation of L-selectin, which mediates the neutrophil tethering and rolling on the vascular endothelium. Second, isoflurane attenuates the activation of both beta(2)-integrins-CD11a and CD11b-which mediate firm adhesion and transendothelial migration. IMPLICATIONS Adhesion of neutrophils to endothelial cells in reperfusion injury is mediated by different adhesion molecules. This study indicates that the inhibiting effect of isoflurane on neutrophil recruitment may be mediated by a decreased activation of the L-selectin and by attenuation of the activation of the beta(2)-integrins CD11a and CD11b.
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Affiliation(s)
- Lothar W de Rossi
- Department of Anesthesiology, University Hospital, Rheinisch-Westfälische Technische Hochschule Aachen, Pauwelsstrasse 30, D-52074 Aachen, Germany.
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Unger FM. The chemistry of oligosaccharide ligands of selectins: significance for the development of new immunomodulatory medicines. Adv Carbohydr Chem Biochem 2002; 57:207-435. [PMID: 11836943 DOI: 10.1016/s0065-2318(01)57018-3] [Citation(s) in RCA: 24] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.1] [Reference Citation Analysis] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/18/2022]
Affiliation(s)
- F M Unger
- Institute of Chemistry and Center for Ultrastructure Research, Agricultural University, Vienna, Austria
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Wang L, Brown JR, Varki A, Esko JD. Heparin's anti-inflammatory effects require glucosamine 6-O-sulfation and are mediated by blockade of L- and P-selectins. J Clin Invest 2002. [PMID: 12093896 DOI: 10.1172/jci0214996] [Citation(s) in RCA: 234] [Impact Index Per Article: 10.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/17/2022] Open
Abstract
Heparin has been used clinically as an anticoagulant and antithrombotic agent for over 60 years. Here we show that the potent anti-inflammatory property of heparin results primarily from blockade of P-selectin and L-selectin. Unfractionated heparin and chemically modified analogs were tested as inhibitors of selectin binding to immobilized sialyl Lewis(X) and of cell adhesion to immobilized selectins or thrombin-activated endothelial cells. Compared with unfractionated heparin, the modified heparinoids had inhibitory activity in this general order: over-O-sulfated heparin > heparin > 2-O,3-O-desulfated > or = N-desulfated/N-acetylated heparin > or = carboxyl-reduced heparin > or= N-,2-O,3-O-desulfated heparin >> 6-O-desulfated heparin. The heparinoids also showed similar differences in their ability to inhibit thioglycollate-induced peritonitis and oxazolone-induced delayed-type hypersensitivity. Mice deficient in P- or L-selectins showed impaired inflammation, which could be further reduced by heparin. However, heparin had no additional effect in mice deficient in both P- and L-selectins. We conclude that (a) heparin's anti-inflammatory effects are mainly mediated by blocking P- and L-selectin-initiated cell adhesion; (b) the sulfate groups at C6 on the glucosamine residues play a critical role in selectin inhibition; and (c) some non-anticoagulant forms of heparin retain anti-inflammatory activity. Such analogs may prove useful as therapeutically effective inhibitors of inflammation.
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Affiliation(s)
- Lianchun Wang
- Department of Cellular and Molecular Medicine, University of California-San Diego, 9500 Gilman Drive, La Jolla, CA 92093-0687, USA
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