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Opperdoes FR, Záhonová K, Škodová-Sveráková I, Bučková B, Chmelová Ľ, Lukeš J, Yurchenko V. In silico prediction of the metabolism of Blastocrithidia nonstop, a trypanosomatid with non-canonical genetic code. BMC Genomics 2024; 25:184. [PMID: 38365628 PMCID: PMC10874023 DOI: 10.1186/s12864-024-10094-8] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 09/03/2023] [Accepted: 02/06/2024] [Indexed: 02/18/2024] Open
Abstract
BACKGROUND Almost all extant organisms use the same, so-called canonical, genetic code with departures from it being very rare. Even more exceptional are the instances when a eukaryote with non-canonical code can be easily cultivated and has its whole genome and transcriptome sequenced. This is the case of Blastocrithidia nonstop, a trypanosomatid flagellate that reassigned all three stop codons to encode amino acids. RESULTS We in silico predicted the metabolism of B. nonstop and compared it with that of the well-studied human parasites Trypanosoma brucei and Leishmania major. The mapped mitochondrial, glycosomal and cytosolic metabolism contains all typical features of these diverse and important parasites. We also provided experimental validation for some of the predicted observations, concerning, specifically presence of glycosomes, cellular respiration, and assembly of the respiratory complexes. CONCLUSIONS In an unusual comparison of metabolism between a parasitic protist with a massively altered genetic code and its close relatives that rely on a canonical code we showed that the dramatic differences on the level of nucleic acids do not seem to be reflected in the metabolisms. Moreover, although the genome of B. nonstop is extremely AT-rich, we could not find any alterations of its pyrimidine synthesis pathway when compared to other trypanosomatids. Hence, we conclude that the dramatic alteration of the genetic code of B. nonstop has no significant repercussions on the metabolism of this flagellate.
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Affiliation(s)
- Fred R Opperdoes
- de Duve Institute, Université catholique de Louvain, Brussels, Belgium
| | - Kristína Záhonová
- Life Science Research Centre, Faculty of Science, University of Ostrava, Ostrava, Czechia
- Institute of Parasitology, Biology Centre, Czech Academy of Sciences, České Budějovice, Czechia
- Department of Parasitology, Faculty of Science, Charles University, BIOCEV, Vestec, Czechia
- Division of Infectious Diseases, Department of Medicine, University of Alberta, Edmonton, Canada
| | - Ingrid Škodová-Sveráková
- Life Science Research Centre, Faculty of Science, University of Ostrava, Ostrava, Czechia
- Institute of Parasitology, Biology Centre, Czech Academy of Sciences, České Budějovice, Czechia
- Department of Biochemistry, Faculty of Natural Sciences, Comenius University, Bratislava, Slovakia
| | - Barbora Bučková
- Department of Biochemistry, Faculty of Natural Sciences, Comenius University, Bratislava, Slovakia
| | - Ľubomíra Chmelová
- Life Science Research Centre, Faculty of Science, University of Ostrava, Ostrava, Czechia
| | - Julius Lukeš
- Institute of Parasitology, Biology Centre, Czech Academy of Sciences, České Budějovice, Czechia
- Faculty of Science, University of South Bohemia, České Budějovice, Czechia
| | - Vyacheslav Yurchenko
- Life Science Research Centre, Faculty of Science, University of Ostrava, Ostrava, Czechia.
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Branched chain amino acids catabolism as a source of new drug targets in pathogenic protists. Exp Parasitol 2023; 249:108499. [PMID: 36898495 DOI: 10.1016/j.exppara.2023.108499] [Citation(s) in RCA: 2] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 12/12/2022] [Revised: 03/02/2023] [Accepted: 03/05/2023] [Indexed: 03/11/2023]
Abstract
Leucine, isoleucine, and valine, collectively termed Branched Chain Amino Acids (BCAA), are hydrophobic amino acids (AAs) and are essential for most eukaryotes since in these organisms they cannot be biosynthesized and must be supplied by the diet. These AAs are structurally relevant for muscle cells and, of course, important for the protein synthesis process. The metabolism of BCAA and its participation in different biological processes in mammals have been relatively well described. However, for other organisms as pathogenic parasites, the literature is really scarce. Here we review the BCAA catabolism, compile evidence on their relevance for pathogenic eukaryotes with special emphasis on kinetoplastids and highlight unique aspects of this underrated pathway.
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Verdaguer IB, Crispim M, Hernández A, Katzin AM. The Biomedical Importance of the Missing Pathway for Farnesol and Geranylgeraniol Salvage. Molecules 2022; 27:molecules27248691. [PMID: 36557825 PMCID: PMC9782597 DOI: 10.3390/molecules27248691] [Citation(s) in RCA: 6] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 11/10/2022] [Revised: 11/30/2022] [Accepted: 12/05/2022] [Indexed: 12/14/2022] Open
Abstract
Isoprenoids are the output of the polymerization of five-carbon, branched isoprenic chains derived from isopentenyl pyrophosphate (IPP) and its isomer, dimethylallyl pyrophosphate (DMAPP). Isoprene units are consecutively condensed to form longer structures such as farnesyl and geranylgeranyl pyrophosphate (FPP and GGPP, respectively), necessary for the biosynthesis of several metabolites. Polyprenyl transferases and synthases use polyprenyl pyrophosphates as their natural substrates; however, it is known that free polyprenols, such as farnesol (FOH), and geranylgeraniol (GGOH) can be incorporated into prenylated proteins, ubiquinone, cholesterol, and dolichols. Furthermore, FOH and GGOH have been shown to block the effects of isoprenoid biosynthesis inhibitors such as fosmidomycin, bisphosphonates, or statins in several organisms. This phenomenon is the consequence of a short pathway, which was observed for the first time more than 25 years ago: the polyprenol salvage pathway, which works via the phosphorylation of FOH and GGOH. Biochemical studies in bacteria, animals, and plants suggest that this pathway can be carried out by two enzymes: a polyprenol kinase and a polyprenyl-phosphate kinase. However, to date, only a few genes have been unequivocally identified to encode these enzymes in photosynthetic organisms. Nevertheless, pieces of evidence for the importance of this pathway abound in studies related to infectious diseases, cancer, dyslipidemias, and nutrition, and to the mitigation of the secondary effects of several drugs. Furthermore, nowadays it is known that both FOH and GGOH can be incorporated via dietary sources that produce various biological effects. This review presents, in a simplified but comprehensive manner, the most important data on the FOH and GGOH salvage pathway, stressing its biomedical importance The main objective of this review is to bring to light the need to discover and characterize the kinases associated with the isoprenoid salvage pathway in animals and pathogens.
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Affiliation(s)
- Ignasi Bofill Verdaguer
- Department of Parasitology, Institute of Biomedical Sciences of the University of São Paulo, Av. Lineu Prestes 1374, São Paulo 05508-000, Brazil
| | - Marcell Crispim
- Department of Parasitology, Institute of Biomedical Sciences of the University of São Paulo, Av. Lineu Prestes 1374, São Paulo 05508-000, Brazil
| | - Agustín Hernández
- Integrated Unit for Research in Biodiversity (BIOTROP-CCBS), Center for Biological and Health Sciences, Federal University of São Carlos, São Carlos 13565-905, Brazil
| | - Alejandro Miguel Katzin
- Department of Parasitology, Institute of Biomedical Sciences of the University of São Paulo, Av. Lineu Prestes 1374, São Paulo 05508-000, Brazil
- Correspondence: ; Tel.: +55-11-3091-7330; Fax: +55-11-3091-7417
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4
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Alpizar-Sosa EA, Ithnin NRB, Wei W, Pountain AW, Weidt SK, Donachie AM, Ritchie R, Dickie EA, Burchmore RJS, Denny PW, Barrett MP. Amphotericin B resistance in Leishmania mexicana: Alterations to sterol metabolism and oxidative stress response. PLoS Negl Trop Dis 2022; 16:e0010779. [PMID: 36170238 PMCID: PMC9581426 DOI: 10.1371/journal.pntd.0010779] [Citation(s) in RCA: 14] [Impact Index Per Article: 7.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 04/21/2022] [Revised: 10/19/2022] [Accepted: 08/31/2022] [Indexed: 11/18/2022] Open
Abstract
Amphotericin B is increasingly used in treatment of leishmaniasis. Here, fourteen independent lines of Leishmania mexicana and one L. infantum line were selected for resistance to either amphotericin B or the related polyene antimicrobial, nystatin. Sterol profiling revealed that, in each resistant line, the predominant wild-type sterol, ergosta-5,7,24-trienol, was replaced by other sterol intermediates. Broadly, two different profiles emerged among the resistant lines. Whole genome sequencing then showed that these distinct profiles were due either to mutations in the sterol methyl transferase (C24SMT) gene locus or the sterol C5 desaturase (C5DS) gene. In three lines an additional deletion of the miltefosine transporter gene was found. Differences in sensitivity to amphotericin B were apparent, depending on whether cells were grown in HOMEM, supplemented with foetal bovine serum, or a serum free defined medium (DM). Metabolomic analysis after exposure to AmB showed that a large increase in glucose flux via the pentose phosphate pathway preceded cell death in cells sustained in HOMEM but not DM, indicating the oxidative stress was more significantly induced under HOMEM conditions. Several of the lines were tested for their ability to infect macrophages and replicate as amastigote forms, alongside their ability to establish infections in mice. While several AmB resistant lines showed reduced virulence, at least two lines displayed heightened virulence in mice whilst retaining their resistance phenotype, emphasising the risks of resistance emerging to this critical drug.
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Affiliation(s)
- Edubiel A. Alpizar-Sosa
- Wellcome Centre for Integrative Parasitology, School of Infection & Immunity, College of Medical, Veterinary and Life Sciences, University of Glasgow, Glasgow, United Kingdom
- Department of Biosciences, Durham University, Durham, United Kingdom
| | - Nur Raihana Binti Ithnin
- Wellcome Centre for Integrative Parasitology, School of Infection & Immunity, College of Medical, Veterinary and Life Sciences, University of Glasgow, Glasgow, United Kingdom
- Department of Medical Microbiology, Faculty of Medicine & Health Sciences, Universiti Putra Malaysia, Serdang, Selangor, Malaysia
| | - Wenbin Wei
- Department of Biosciences, Durham University, Durham, United Kingdom
| | - Andrew W. Pountain
- Wellcome Centre for Integrative Parasitology, School of Infection & Immunity, College of Medical, Veterinary and Life Sciences, University of Glasgow, Glasgow, United Kingdom
- Institute for Computational Medicine, New York University Grossman School of Medicine, New York City, New York, United States of America
| | - Stefan K. Weidt
- Glasgow Polyomics, College of Medical, Veterinary & Life Sciences, University of Glasgow, Garscube Estate, Bearsden, Glasgow, United Kingdom
| | - Anne M. Donachie
- Wellcome Centre for Integrative Parasitology, School of Infection & Immunity, College of Medical, Veterinary and Life Sciences, University of Glasgow, Glasgow, United Kingdom
| | - Ryan Ritchie
- Wellcome Centre for Integrative Parasitology, School of Infection & Immunity, College of Medical, Veterinary and Life Sciences, University of Glasgow, Glasgow, United Kingdom
| | - Emily A. Dickie
- Wellcome Centre for Integrative Parasitology, School of Infection & Immunity, College of Medical, Veterinary and Life Sciences, University of Glasgow, Glasgow, United Kingdom
- Glasgow Polyomics, College of Medical, Veterinary & Life Sciences, University of Glasgow, Garscube Estate, Bearsden, Glasgow, United Kingdom
| | - Richard J. S. Burchmore
- Wellcome Centre for Integrative Parasitology, School of Infection & Immunity, College of Medical, Veterinary and Life Sciences, University of Glasgow, Glasgow, United Kingdom
- Glasgow Polyomics, College of Medical, Veterinary & Life Sciences, University of Glasgow, Garscube Estate, Bearsden, Glasgow, United Kingdom
| | - Paul W. Denny
- Department of Biosciences, Durham University, Durham, United Kingdom
| | - Michael P. Barrett
- Wellcome Centre for Integrative Parasitology, School of Infection & Immunity, College of Medical, Veterinary and Life Sciences, University of Glasgow, Glasgow, United Kingdom
- Glasgow Polyomics, College of Medical, Veterinary & Life Sciences, University of Glasgow, Garscube Estate, Bearsden, Glasgow, United Kingdom
- * E-mail:
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Simvastatin Resistance of Leishmania amazonensis Induces Sterol Remodeling and Cross-Resistance to Sterol Pathway and Serine Protease Inhibitors. Microorganisms 2022; 10:microorganisms10020398. [PMID: 35208853 PMCID: PMC8877030 DOI: 10.3390/microorganisms10020398] [Citation(s) in RCA: 2] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 10/14/2021] [Revised: 11/03/2021] [Accepted: 11/03/2021] [Indexed: 01/27/2023] Open
Abstract
The sterol biosynthesis pathway of Leishmania spp. is used as a pharmacological target; however, available information about the mechanisms of the regulation and remodeling of sterol-related genes is scarce. The present study investigated compensatory mechanisms of the sterol biosynthesis pathway using an inhibitor of HMG-CoA reductase (simvastatin) and by developing drug-resistant parasites to evaluate the impact on sterol remodeling, cross-resistance, and gene expression. Simvastatin-resistant L. amazonensis parasites (LaSimR) underwent reprogramming of sterol metabolism manifested as an increase in cholestane- and stigmastane-based sterols and a decrease in ergostane-based sterols. The levels of the transcripts of sterol 24-C-methyltransferase (SMT), sterol C14-α-demethylase (C14DM), and protease subtilisin (SUB) were increased in LaSimR. LaSimR was cross-resistance to ketoconazole (a C14DM inhibitor) and remained sensitive to terbinafine (an inhibitor of squalene monooxygenase). Sensitivity of the LaSimR mutant to other antileishmanial drugs unrelated to the sterol biosynthesis pathway, such as trivalent antimony and pentamidine, was similar to that of the wild-type strain; however, LaSimR was cross-resistant to miltefosine, general serine protease inhibitor N-p-tosyl-l-phenylalanine chloromethyl ketone (TPCK), subtilisin-specific inhibitor 4-[(diethylamino)methyl]-N-[2-(2-methoxyphenyl)ethyl]-N-(3R)-3-pyrrolidinyl-benzamide dihydrochloride (PF-429242), and tunicamycin. The findings on the regulation of the sterol pathway can support the development of drugs and protease inhibitors targeting this route in parasites.
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Rinaldi MA, Ferraz CA, Scrutton NS. Alternative metabolic pathways and strategies to high-titre terpenoid production in Escherichia coli. Nat Prod Rep 2022; 39:90-118. [PMID: 34231643 PMCID: PMC8791446 DOI: 10.1039/d1np00025j] [Citation(s) in RCA: 26] [Impact Index Per Article: 13.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 04/13/2021] [Indexed: 12/14/2022]
Abstract
Covering: up to 2021Terpenoids are a diverse group of chemicals used in a wide range of industries. Microbial terpenoid production has the potential to displace traditional manufacturing of these compounds with renewable processes, but further titre improvements are needed to reach cost competitiveness. This review discusses strategies to increase terpenoid titres in Escherichia coli with a focus on alternative metabolic pathways. Alternative pathways can lead to improved titres by providing higher orthogonality to native metabolism that redirects carbon flux, by avoiding toxic intermediates, by bypassing highly-regulated or bottleneck steps, or by being shorter and thus more efficient and easier to manipulate. The canonical 2-C-methyl-D-erythritol 4-phosphate (MEP) and mevalonate (MVA) pathways are engineered to increase titres, sometimes using homologs from different species to address bottlenecks. Further, alternative terpenoid pathways, including additional entry points into the MEP and MVA pathways, archaeal MVA pathways, and new artificial pathways provide new tools to increase titres. Prenyl diphosphate synthases elongate terpenoid chains, and alternative homologs create orthogonal pathways and increase product diversity. Alternative sources of terpenoid synthases and modifying enzymes can also be better suited for E. coli expression. Mining the growing number of bacterial genomes for new bacterial terpenoid synthases and modifying enzymes identifies enzymes that outperform eukaryotic ones and expand microbial terpenoid production diversity. Terpenoid removal from cells is also crucial in production, and so terpenoid recovery and approaches to handle end-product toxicity increase titres. Combined, these strategies are contributing to current efforts to increase microbial terpenoid production towards commercial feasibility.
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Affiliation(s)
- Mauro A Rinaldi
- Manchester Institute of Biotechnology, Department of Chemistry, School of Natural Sciences, The University of Manchester, 131 Princess Street, Manchester, M1 7DN, UK.
| | - Clara A Ferraz
- Manchester Institute of Biotechnology, Department of Chemistry, School of Natural Sciences, The University of Manchester, 131 Princess Street, Manchester, M1 7DN, UK.
| | - Nigel S Scrutton
- Manchester Institute of Biotechnology, Department of Chemistry, School of Natural Sciences, The University of Manchester, 131 Princess Street, Manchester, M1 7DN, UK.
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Study the Mechanism of Antileishmanial Action of Xanthium strumarium Against Amastigotes Stages in Leishmania major: A Metabolomics Approach. Jundishapur J Nat Pharm Prod 2021. [DOI: 10.5812/jjnpp.106431] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/16/2022] Open
Abstract
Background: Leishmaniasis is among the most important neglected tropical infections, affecting millions of people worldwide. Since 1945, chemotherapy has been the primary treatment for leishmaniasis; however, lengthy and costly treatments associated with various side effects and strains resistant to the conventional therapy have dramatically reduced chemotherapy compounds’ efficacy. Objectives: The antileishmanial activity of the leaf extract of Xanthium strumarium (Asteraceae) was studied. New insights into its mechanism of action toward Leishmania major were provided through a metabolomics-based study. Methods: J774 macrophages were cultured, infected with stationary promastigotes, and treated with different leaf extract concentrations for three days. Antileishmanial activity was assayed by the MTT colorimetric method, and cell metabolites were extracted. 1HNMR spectroscopy was applied, and outliers were analyzed using multivariate statistical analysis. Results: Xanthium strumarium extract (0.15 µg/mL) showed the best activity against L. major amastigotes with the infection rate (IR) and multiplication index (MI) values of 51% and 57%, respectively. The action of X. strumarium extract on amastigotes was comparable with amphotericin B as the positive control (0.015 µg/mL). According to the obtained P-values, pentanoate and coenzyme A biosynthesis, pentose and glucuronate metabolism, valine, leucine and isoleucine biosynthesis, galactose metabolism, amino sugar and nucleotide sugar metabolism were the most important metabolic pathways affected by the plant extract in the amastigote stage of L. major. Conclusions: Our finding demonstrated that X. strumarium leaf extract could be used for discovering and producing novel leishmanicidal medicines. Moreover, the affected metabolic pathways observed in this study could be potential candidates for drug targeting against leishmaniasis.
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Ahmed H, Curtis CR, Tur-Gracia S, Olatunji TO, Carter KC, Williams RAM. Drug combinations as effective anti-leishmanials against drug resistant Leishmania mexicana. RSC Med Chem 2020; 11:905-912. [PMID: 33479685 DOI: 10.1039/d0md00101e] [Citation(s) in RCA: 6] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 03/31/2020] [Accepted: 06/09/2020] [Indexed: 12/18/2022] Open
Abstract
Leishmania is a parasite that causes the disease leishmaniasis, and 700 000 to 1 million new cases occur each year. There are few drugs that treat the disease and drug resistance in the parasite limits the clinical utility of existing drugs. One way to combat drug resistance is to use combination therapy rather than monotherapy. In this study we have compared the effect of single and combination treatments with four different compounds, i.e. alkylphosphocholine analogues APC12 and APC14, miltefosine (MIL), ketoconazole (KTZ), and amphotericin B (AmpB), on the survival of Leishmania mexicana wild-type promastigotes and a cell line derived from the WT with induced resistance to APC12 (C12Rx). The combination treatment with APC14 and APC16 had a synergistic effect in killing the WT while the combination treatment with KTZ and APC12 or APC14 or APC12 and APC14 had a synergistic effect against C12Rx. More than 90% killing efficiency was obtained using APC12 alone at >1 mg ml-1 against the C12Rx strain; however, combinations with APC14 produced a similar killing efficiency using APC12 at 0.063-0.25 mg ml-1 and APC14 at 0.003-0.5 mg ml-1. These results show that combination therapy can negate induced drug resistance in L. mexicana and that the use of this type of screening system could accelerate the development of drug combinations for clinical use.
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Affiliation(s)
- Humera Ahmed
- University of the West of Scotland Paisley Campus , UK .
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Verdaguer IB, Zafra CA, Crispim M, Sussmann RA, Kimura EA, Katzin AM. Prenylquinones in Human Parasitic Protozoa: Biosynthesis, Physiological Functions, and Potential as Chemotherapeutic Targets. Molecules 2019; 24:molecules24203721. [PMID: 31623105 PMCID: PMC6832408 DOI: 10.3390/molecules24203721] [Citation(s) in RCA: 8] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 08/05/2019] [Revised: 09/25/2019] [Accepted: 10/01/2019] [Indexed: 12/19/2022] Open
Abstract
Human parasitic protozoa cause a large number of diseases worldwide and, for some of these diseases, there are no effective treatments to date, and drug resistance has been observed. For these reasons, the discovery of new etiological treatments is necessary. In this sense, parasitic metabolic pathways that are absent in vertebrate hosts would be interesting research candidates for the identification of new drug targets. Most likely due to the protozoa variability, uncertain phylogenetic origin, endosymbiotic events, and evolutionary pressure for adaptation to adverse environments, a surprising variety of prenylquinones can be found within these organisms. These compounds are involved in essential metabolic reactions in organisms, for example, prevention of lipoperoxidation, participation in the mitochondrial respiratory chain or as enzymatic cofactors. This review will describe several prenylquinones that have been previously characterized in human pathogenic protozoa. Among all existing prenylquinones, this review is focused on ubiquinone, menaquinone, tocopherols, chlorobiumquinone, and thermoplasmaquinone. This review will also discuss the biosynthesis of prenylquinones, starting from the isoprenic side chains to the aromatic head group precursors. The isoprenic side chain biosynthesis maybe come from mevalonate or non-mevalonate pathways as well as leucine dependent pathways for isoprenoid biosynthesis. Finally, the isoprenic chains elongation and prenylquinone aromatic precursors origins from amino acid degradation or the shikimate pathway is reviewed. The phylogenetic distribution and what is known about the biological functions of these compounds among species will be described, as will the therapeutic strategies associated with prenylquinone metabolism in protozoan parasites.
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Affiliation(s)
- Ignasi B. Verdaguer
- Department of Parasitology, Institute of Biomedical Sciences, University of São Paulo, São Paulo 05508000, Brazil; (I.B.V.); (C.A.Z.); (M.C.); (E.A.K.)
| | - Camila A. Zafra
- Department of Parasitology, Institute of Biomedical Sciences, University of São Paulo, São Paulo 05508000, Brazil; (I.B.V.); (C.A.Z.); (M.C.); (E.A.K.)
| | - Marcell Crispim
- Department of Parasitology, Institute of Biomedical Sciences, University of São Paulo, São Paulo 05508000, Brazil; (I.B.V.); (C.A.Z.); (M.C.); (E.A.K.)
| | - Rodrigo A.C. Sussmann
- Department of Parasitology, Institute of Biomedical Sciences, University of São Paulo, São Paulo 05508000, Brazil; (I.B.V.); (C.A.Z.); (M.C.); (E.A.K.)
- Centro de Formação em Ciências Ambientais, Universidade Federal do Sul da Bahia, Porto Seguro 45810-000 Bahia, Brazil
| | - Emília A. Kimura
- Department of Parasitology, Institute of Biomedical Sciences, University of São Paulo, São Paulo 05508000, Brazil; (I.B.V.); (C.A.Z.); (M.C.); (E.A.K.)
| | - Alejandro M. Katzin
- Department of Parasitology, Institute of Biomedical Sciences, University of São Paulo, São Paulo 05508000, Brazil; (I.B.V.); (C.A.Z.); (M.C.); (E.A.K.)
- Correspondence: ; Tel.: +55-11-3091-7330; Fax: +5511-3091-7417
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10
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Balanco JMF, Sussmann RAC, Verdaguer IB, Gabriel HB, Kimura EA, Katzin AM. Tocopherol biosynthesis in Leishmania ( L.) amazonensis promastigotes. FEBS Open Bio 2019; 9:743-754. [PMID: 30984548 PMCID: PMC6443866 DOI: 10.1002/2211-5463.12613] [Citation(s) in RCA: 7] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 10/24/2018] [Revised: 01/17/2019] [Accepted: 02/12/2019] [Indexed: 01/25/2023] Open
Abstract
Leishmaniasis is a neglected disease caused by a trypanosomatid protozoan of the genus Leishmania. Most drugs used to treat leishmaniasis are highly toxic, and the emergence of drug‐resistant strains has been observed. Therefore, new therapeutic targets against leishmaniasis are required. Several isoprenoid compounds, including dolichols or ubiquinones, have been shown to be important for cell viability and proliferation in various trypanosomatid species. Here, we detected the biosynthesis of tocopherol in Leishmania (L.) amazonensis promastigotes in vitro through metabolic labelling with [1‐(n)‐3H]‐phytol. Subsequently, we confirmed the presence of vitamin E in the parasite by gas chromatography–mass spectrometry. Treatment with usnic acid or nitisinone, inhibitors of precursors of vitamin E synthesis, inhibited growth of the parasite in a concentration‐dependent manner. This study provides the first evidence of tocopherol biosynthesis in a trypanosomatid and suggests that inhibitors of the enzyme 4‐hydroxyphenylpyruvate dioxygenase may be suitable for use as antileishmanial compounds. Database The amino acid sequence of a conserved hypothetical protein [Leishmania mexicana MHOM/GT/2001/U1103] has been deposited in GenBank (CBZ28005.1)
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Affiliation(s)
- José Mário F Balanco
- Department of Parasitology Institute of Biomedical Sciences University of São Paulo Brazil
| | - Rodrigo A C Sussmann
- Department of Parasitology Institute of Biomedical Sciences University of São Paulo Brazil
| | - Ignasi B Verdaguer
- Department of Parasitology Institute of Biomedical Sciences University of São Paulo Brazil
| | - Heloisa B Gabriel
- Department of Parasitology Institute of Biomedical Sciences University of São Paulo Brazil
| | - Emilia A Kimura
- Department of Parasitology Institute of Biomedical Sciences University of São Paulo Brazil
| | - Alejandro M Katzin
- Department of Parasitology Institute of Biomedical Sciences University of São Paulo Brazil
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11
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Latimer S, Li Y, Nguyen TTH, Soubeyrand E, Fatihi A, Elowsky CG, Block A, Pichersky E, Basset GJ. Metabolic reconstructions identify plant 3-methylglutaconyl-CoA hydratase that is crucial for branched-chain amino acid catabolism in mitochondria. THE PLANT JOURNAL : FOR CELL AND MOLECULAR BIOLOGY 2018; 95:358-370. [PMID: 29742810 DOI: 10.1111/tpj.13955] [Citation(s) in RCA: 11] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 06/21/2016] [Revised: 04/19/2018] [Accepted: 04/24/2018] [Indexed: 06/08/2023]
Abstract
The proteinogenic branched-chain amino acids (BCAAs) leucine, isoleucine and valine are essential nutrients for mammals. In plants, BCAAs double as alternative energy sources when carbohydrates become limiting, the catabolism of BCAAs providing electrons to the respiratory chain and intermediates to the tricarboxylic acid cycle. Yet, the actual architecture of the degradation pathways of BCAAs is not well understood. In this study, gene network modeling in Arabidopsis and rice, and plant-prokaryote comparative genomics detected candidates for 3-methylglutaconyl-CoA hydratase (4.2.1.18), one of the missing plant enzymes of leucine catabolism. Alignments of these protein candidates sampled from various spermatophytes revealed non-homologous N-terminal extensions that are lacking in their bacterial counterparts, and green fluorescent protein-fusion experiments demonstrated that the Arabidopsis protein, product of gene At4g16800, is targeted to mitochondria. Recombinant At4g16800 catalyzed the dehydration of 3-hydroxymethylglutaryl-CoA into 3-methylglutaconyl-CoA, and displayed kinetic features similar to those of its prokaryotic homolog. When at4g16800 knockout plants were subjected to dark-induced carbon starvation, their rosette leaves displayed accelerated senescence as compared with control plants, and this phenotype was paralleled by a marked increase in the accumulation of free and total leucine, isoleucine and valine. The seeds of the at4g16800 mutant showed a similar accumulation of free BCAAs. These data suggest that 3-methylglutaconyl-CoA hydratase is not solely involved in the degradation of leucine, but is also a significant contributor to that of isoleucine and valine. Furthermore, evidence is shown that unlike the situation observed in Trypanosomatidae, leucine catabolism does not contribute to the formation of the terpenoid precursor mevalonate.
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Affiliation(s)
- Scott Latimer
- Department of Horticultural Sciences, University of Florida, Gainesville, Florida, 32611, USA
| | - Yubing Li
- Department of Horticultural Sciences, University of Florida, Gainesville, Florida, 32611, USA
| | - Thuong T H Nguyen
- Department of Molecular, Cellular, and Developmental Biology, University of Michigan, Ann Arbor, Michigan, 48109, USA
| | - Eric Soubeyrand
- Department of Horticultural Sciences, University of Florida, Gainesville, Florida, 32611, USA
| | - Abdelhak Fatihi
- Center for Plant Science Innovation, University of Nebraska-Lincoln, Lincoln, Nebraska, 68588, USA
| | - Christian G Elowsky
- Center for Plant Science Innovation, University of Nebraska-Lincoln, Lincoln, Nebraska, 68588, USA
| | - Anna Block
- Center for Medical, Agricultural and Veterinary Entomology, ARS, USDA, Gainesville, Florida, 32608, USA
| | - Eran Pichersky
- Department of Molecular, Cellular, and Developmental Biology, University of Michigan, Ann Arbor, Michigan, 48109, USA
| | - Gilles J Basset
- Department of Horticultural Sciences, University of Florida, Gainesville, Florida, 32611, USA
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12
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Recent advances in trypanosomatid research: genome organization, expression, metabolism, taxonomy and evolution. Parasitology 2018; 146:1-27. [PMID: 29898792 DOI: 10.1017/s0031182018000951] [Citation(s) in RCA: 104] [Impact Index Per Article: 17.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/15/2022]
Abstract
Unicellular flagellates of the family Trypanosomatidae are obligatory parasites of invertebrates, vertebrates and plants. Dixenous species are aetiological agents of a number of diseases in humans, domestic animals and plants. Their monoxenous relatives are restricted to insects. Because of the high biological diversity, adaptability to dramatically different environmental conditions, and omnipresence, these protists have major impact on all biotic communities that still needs to be fully elucidated. In addition, as these organisms represent a highly divergent evolutionary lineage, they are strikingly different from the common 'model system' eukaryotes, such as some mammals, plants or fungi. A number of excellent reviews, published over the past decade, were dedicated to specialized topics from the areas of trypanosomatid molecular and cell biology, biochemistry, host-parasite relationships or other aspects of these fascinating organisms. However, there is a need for a more comprehensive review that summarizing recent advances in the studies of trypanosomatids in the last 30 years, a task, which we tried to accomplish with the current paper.
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13
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Millerioux Y, Mazet M, Bouyssou G, Allmann S, Kiema TR, Bertiaux E, Fouillen L, Thapa C, Biran M, Plazolles N, Dittrich-Domergue F, Crouzols A, Wierenga RK, Rotureau B, Moreau P, Bringaud F. De novo biosynthesis of sterols and fatty acids in the Trypanosoma brucei procyclic form: Carbon source preferences and metabolic flux redistributions. PLoS Pathog 2018; 14:e1007116. [PMID: 29813135 PMCID: PMC5993337 DOI: 10.1371/journal.ppat.1007116] [Citation(s) in RCA: 17] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 06/01/2017] [Revised: 06/08/2018] [Accepted: 05/22/2018] [Indexed: 12/27/2022] Open
Abstract
De novo biosynthesis of lipids is essential for Trypanosoma brucei, a protist responsible for the sleeping sickness. Here, we demonstrate that the ketogenic carbon sources, threonine, acetate and glucose, are precursors for both fatty acid and sterol synthesis, while leucine only contributes to sterol production in the tsetse fly midgut stage of the parasite. Degradation of these carbon sources into lipids was investigated using a combination of reverse genetics and analysis of radio-labelled precursors incorporation into lipids. For instance, (i) deletion of the gene encoding isovaleryl-CoA dehydrogenase, involved in the leucine degradation pathway, abolished leucine incorporation into sterols, and (ii) RNAi-mediated down-regulation of the SCP2-thiolase gene expression abolished incorporation of the three ketogenic carbon sources into sterols. The SCP2-thiolase is part of a unidirectional two-step bridge between the fatty acid precursor, acetyl-CoA, and the precursor of the mevalonate pathway leading to sterol biosynthesis, 3-hydroxy-3-methylglutaryl-CoA. Metabolic flux through this bridge is increased either in the isovaleryl-CoA dehydrogenase null mutant or when the degradation of the ketogenic carbon sources is affected. We also observed a preference for fatty acids synthesis from ketogenic carbon sources, since blocking acetyl-CoA production from both glucose and threonine abolished acetate incorporation into sterols, while incorporation of acetate into fatty acids was increased. Interestingly, the growth of the isovaleryl-CoA dehydrogenase null mutant, but not that of the parental cells, is interrupted in the absence of ketogenic carbon sources, including lipids, which demonstrates the essential role of the mevalonate pathway. We concluded that procyclic trypanosomes have a strong preference for fatty acid versus sterol biosynthesis from ketogenic carbon sources, and as a consequence, that leucine is likely to be the main source, if not the only one, used by trypanosomes in the infected insect vector digestive tract to feed the mevalonate pathway.
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Affiliation(s)
- Yoann Millerioux
- Laboratoire de Microbiologie Fondamentale et Pathogénicité (MFP), Université de Bordeaux, CNRS UMR-5234, Bordeaux, France
- Centre de Résonance Magnétique des Systèmes Biologiques (RMSB), Université de Bordeaux, CNRS UMR-5536, Bordeaux, France
| | - Muriel Mazet
- Laboratoire de Microbiologie Fondamentale et Pathogénicité (MFP), Université de Bordeaux, CNRS UMR-5234, Bordeaux, France
- Centre de Résonance Magnétique des Systèmes Biologiques (RMSB), Université de Bordeaux, CNRS UMR-5536, Bordeaux, France
| | - Guillaume Bouyssou
- Membrane Biogenesis Laboratory, CNRS-University of Bordeaux, UMR-5200, INRA Bordeaux Aquitaine, Villenave d'Ornon, France
| | - Stefan Allmann
- Laboratoire de Microbiologie Fondamentale et Pathogénicité (MFP), Université de Bordeaux, CNRS UMR-5234, Bordeaux, France
- Centre de Résonance Magnétique des Systèmes Biologiques (RMSB), Université de Bordeaux, CNRS UMR-5536, Bordeaux, France
| | - Tiila-Riikka Kiema
- Faculty of Biochemistry and Molecular Medicine, Biocenter Oulu, University of Oulu, Oulu, Finland
| | - Eloïse Bertiaux
- Trypanosome Transmission Group, Trypanosome Cell Biology Unit, Department of Parasites and Insect Vectors, INSERM U1201, Institut Pasteur, Paris, France
| | - Laetitia Fouillen
- Membrane Biogenesis Laboratory, CNRS-University of Bordeaux, UMR-5200, INRA Bordeaux Aquitaine, Villenave d'Ornon, France
- Metabolome Facility of Bordeaux, Functional Genomics Center, Villenave d'Ornon
| | - Chandan Thapa
- Faculty of Biochemistry and Molecular Medicine, Biocenter Oulu, University of Oulu, Oulu, Finland
| | - Marc Biran
- Centre de Résonance Magnétique des Systèmes Biologiques (RMSB), Université de Bordeaux, CNRS UMR-5536, Bordeaux, France
| | - Nicolas Plazolles
- Laboratoire de Microbiologie Fondamentale et Pathogénicité (MFP), Université de Bordeaux, CNRS UMR-5234, Bordeaux, France
| | - Franziska Dittrich-Domergue
- Membrane Biogenesis Laboratory, CNRS-University of Bordeaux, UMR-5200, INRA Bordeaux Aquitaine, Villenave d'Ornon, France
| | - Aline Crouzols
- Trypanosome Transmission Group, Trypanosome Cell Biology Unit, Department of Parasites and Insect Vectors, INSERM U1201, Institut Pasteur, Paris, France
| | - Rik K. Wierenga
- Faculty of Biochemistry and Molecular Medicine, Biocenter Oulu, University of Oulu, Oulu, Finland
| | - Brice Rotureau
- Trypanosome Transmission Group, Trypanosome Cell Biology Unit, Department of Parasites and Insect Vectors, INSERM U1201, Institut Pasteur, Paris, France
| | - Patrick Moreau
- Membrane Biogenesis Laboratory, CNRS-University of Bordeaux, UMR-5200, INRA Bordeaux Aquitaine, Villenave d'Ornon, France
| | - Frédéric Bringaud
- Laboratoire de Microbiologie Fondamentale et Pathogénicité (MFP), Université de Bordeaux, CNRS UMR-5234, Bordeaux, France
- Centre de Résonance Magnétique des Systèmes Biologiques (RMSB), Université de Bordeaux, CNRS UMR-5536, Bordeaux, France
- * E-mail:
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14
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The Uptake and Metabolism of Amino Acids, and Their Unique Role in the Biology of Pathogenic Trypanosomatids. Pathogens 2018; 7:pathogens7020036. [PMID: 29614775 PMCID: PMC6027508 DOI: 10.3390/pathogens7020036] [Citation(s) in RCA: 60] [Impact Index Per Article: 10.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 03/05/2018] [Revised: 03/28/2018] [Accepted: 03/29/2018] [Indexed: 01/24/2023] Open
Abstract
Trypanosoma brucei, as well as Trypanosoma cruzi and more than 20 species of the genus Leishmania, form a group of flagellated protists that threaten human health. These organisms are transmitted by insects that, together with mammals, are their natural hosts. This implies that during their life cycles each of them faces environments with different physical, chemical, biochemical, and biological characteristics. In this work we review how amino acids are obtained from such environments, how they are metabolized, and how they and some of their intermediate metabolites are used as a survival toolbox to cope with the different conditions in which these parasites should establish the infections in the insects and mammalian hosts.
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15
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Nayak A, Akpunarlieva S, Barrett M, Burchmore R. A defined medium for Leishmania culture allows definition of essential amino acids. Exp Parasitol 2018; 185:39-52. [PMID: 29326050 DOI: 10.1016/j.exppara.2018.01.009] [Citation(s) in RCA: 12] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 11/24/2017] [Revised: 12/18/2017] [Accepted: 01/05/2018] [Indexed: 10/18/2022]
Abstract
Axenic culture of Leishmania is generally performed in rich, serum-supplemented media which sustain robust growth over multiple passages. The use of such undefined media, however, obscures proteomic analyses and confounds the study of metabolism. We have established a simple, defined culture medium that supports the sustained growth of promastigotes over multiple passages and which yields parasites that have similar infectivity to macrophages to parasites grown in a conventional semi-defined medium. We have exploited this medium to investigate the amino acid requirements of promastigotes in culture and have found that phenylalanine, tryptophan, arginine, leucine, lysine and valine are essential for viability in culture. Most of the 20 proteogenic amino acids promote growth of Leishmania promastigotes, with the exception of alanine, asparagine, and glycine. This defined medium will be useful for further studies of promastigote substrate requirements, and will facilitate future proteomic and metabolomic analyses.
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Affiliation(s)
- Archana Nayak
- Institute of Infection, Immunity and Inflammation and Glasgow Polyomics, College of Medical, Veterinary and Life Sciences, University of Glasgow, Glasgow, UK
| | - Snezhana Akpunarlieva
- Institute of Infection, Immunity and Inflammation and Glasgow Polyomics, College of Medical, Veterinary and Life Sciences, University of Glasgow, Glasgow, UK
| | - Michael Barrett
- Institute of Infection, Immunity and Inflammation and Glasgow Polyomics, College of Medical, Veterinary and Life Sciences, University of Glasgow, Glasgow, UK
| | - Richard Burchmore
- Institute of Infection, Immunity and Inflammation and Glasgow Polyomics, College of Medical, Veterinary and Life Sciences, University of Glasgow, Glasgow, UK.
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16
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Yamauchi N, Tanoue R. Deuterium incorporation experiments from (3R)- and (3S)-[3- 2H]leucine into characteristic isoprenoidal lipid-core of halophilic archaea suggests the involvement of isovaleryl-CoA dehydrogenase. Biosci Biotechnol Biochem 2017; 81:2062-2070. [PMID: 28942710 DOI: 10.1080/09168451.2017.1373588] [Citation(s) in RCA: 1] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.1] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 01/04/2023]
Abstract
The stereochemical reaction course for the two C-3 hydrogens of leucine to produce a characteristic isoprenoidal lipid in halophilic archaea was observed using incubation experiments with whole cell Halobacterium salinarum. Deuterium-labeled (3R)- and (3S)-[3-2H]leucine were freshly prepared as substrates from 2,3-epoxy-4-methyl-1-pentanol. Incorporation of deuterium from (3S)-[3-2H]leucine and loss of deuterium from (3R)-[3-2H]leucine in the lipid-core of H. salinarum was observed. Taken together with the results of our previous report, involving the incubation of chiral-labeled [5-2H]leucine, these results strongly suggested an involvement of isovaleryl-CoA dehydrogenase in leucine conversion to isoprenoid lipid in halophilic archaea. The stereochemical course of the reaction (anti-elimination) might have been the same as that previously reported for mammalian enzyme reactions. Thus, these results suggested that branched amino acids were metabolized to mevalonate in archaea in a manner similar to other organisms.
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Affiliation(s)
- Noriaki Yamauchi
- a Department of Earth and Planetary Sciences, Graduate School of Sciences , Kyushu University , Fukuoka , Japan
| | - Ryo Tanoue
- a Department of Earth and Planetary Sciences, Graduate School of Sciences , Kyushu University , Fukuoka , Japan
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17
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Semini G, Paape D, Paterou A, Schroeder J, Barrios‐Llerena M, Aebischer T. Changes to cholesterol trafficking in macrophages by Leishmania parasites infection. Microbiologyopen 2017; 6:e00469. [PMID: 28349644 PMCID: PMC5552908 DOI: 10.1002/mbo3.469] [Citation(s) in RCA: 25] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 10/04/2016] [Revised: 02/06/2017] [Accepted: 02/17/2017] [Indexed: 11/08/2022] Open
Abstract
Leishmania spp. are protozoan parasites that are transmitted by sandfly vectors during blood sucking to vertebrate hosts and cause a spectrum of diseases called leishmaniases. It has been demonstrated that host cholesterol plays an important role during Leishmania infection. Nevertheless, little is known about the intracellular distribution of this lipid early after internalization of the parasite. Here, pulse-chase experiments with radiolabeled cholesteryl esterified to fatty acids bound to low-density lipoproteins indicated that retention of this source of cholesterol is increased in parasite-containing subcellular fractions, while uptake is unaffected. This is correlated with a reduction or absence of detectable NPC1 (Niemann-Pick disease, type C1), a protein responsible for cholesterol efflux from endocytic compartments, in the Leishmania mexicana habitat and infected cells. Filipin staining revealed a halo around parasites within parasitophorous vacuoles (PV) likely representing free cholesterol accumulation. Labeling of host cell membranous cholesterol by fluorescent cholesterol species before infection revealed that this pool is also trafficked to the PV but becomes incorporated into the parasites' membranes and seems not to contribute to the halo detected by filipin. This cholesterol sequestration happened early after infection and was functionally significant as it correlated with the upregulation of mRNA-encoding proteins required for cholesterol biosynthesis. Thus, sequestration of cholesterol by Leishmania amastigotes early after infection provides a basis to understand perturbation of cholesterol-dependent processes in macrophages that were shown previously by others to be necessary for their proper function in innate and adaptive immune responses.
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Affiliation(s)
- Geo Semini
- Mycotic and Parasitic Agents and MycobacteriaDepartment of Infectious DiseasesRobert Koch‐InstituteBerlinGermany
| | - Daniel Paape
- Institute of Immunology and Infection ResearchThe University of EdinburghEdinburghUK
- Present address:
Welcome Trust Centre for Molecular Parasitology and Institute of Infection Immunity and InflammationCollege of Medical, Veterinary and Life Sciences, University of GlasgowGlasgowUK
| | - Athina Paterou
- Institute of Immunology and Infection ResearchThe University of EdinburghEdinburghUK
| | - Juliane Schroeder
- Institute of Immunology and Infection ResearchThe University of EdinburghEdinburghUK
- Present address:
Welcome Trust Centre for Molecular Parasitology and Institute of Infection Immunity and InflammationCollege of Medical, Veterinary and Life Sciences, University of GlasgowGlasgowUK
| | - Martin Barrios‐Llerena
- Institute of Immunology and Infection ResearchThe University of EdinburghEdinburghUK
- Present address:
Centre for Cardiovascular SciencesQueen's Medical Research Institute University of EdinburghEdinburghUK
| | - Toni Aebischer
- Mycotic and Parasitic Agents and MycobacteriaDepartment of Infectious DiseasesRobert Koch‐InstituteBerlinGermany
- Institute of Immunology and Infection ResearchThe University of EdinburghEdinburghUK
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18
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Mwenechanya R, Kovářová J, Dickens NJ, Mudaliar M, Herzyk P, Vincent IM, Weidt SK, Burgess KE, Burchmore RJS, Pountain AW, Smith TK, Creek DJ, Kim DH, Lepesheva GI, Barrett MP. Sterol 14α-demethylase mutation leads to amphotericin B resistance in Leishmania mexicana. PLoS Negl Trop Dis 2017. [PMID: 28622334 PMCID: PMC5498063 DOI: 10.1371/journal.pntd.0005649] [Citation(s) in RCA: 39] [Impact Index Per Article: 5.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/18/2022] Open
Abstract
Amphotericin B has emerged as the therapy of choice for use against the leishmaniases. Administration of the drug in its liposomal formulation as a single injection is being promoted in a campaign to bring the leishmaniases under control. Understanding the risks and mechanisms of resistance is therefore of great importance. Here we select amphotericin B-resistant Leishmania mexicana parasites with relative ease. Metabolomic analysis demonstrated that ergosterol, the sterol known to bind the drug, is prevalent in wild-type cells, but diminished in the resistant line, where alternative sterols become prevalent. This indicates that the resistance phenotype is related to loss of drug binding. Comparing sequences of the parasites' genomes revealed a plethora of single nucleotide polymorphisms that distinguish wild-type and resistant cells, but only one of these was found to be homozygous and associated with a gene encoding an enzyme in the sterol biosynthetic pathway, sterol 14α-demethylase (CYP51). The mutation, N176I, is found outside of the enzyme's active site, consistent with the fact that the resistant line continues to produce the enzyme's product. Expression of wild-type sterol 14α-demethylase in the resistant cells caused reversion to drug sensitivity and a restoration of ergosterol synthesis, showing that the mutation is indeed responsible for resistance. The amphotericin B resistant parasites become hypersensitive to pentamidine and also agents that induce oxidative stress. This work reveals the power of combining polyomics approaches, to discover the mechanism underlying drug resistance as well as offering novel insights into the selection of resistance to amphotericin B itself.
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Affiliation(s)
- Roy Mwenechanya
- Department of Biomedical Sciences, School of Veterinary Medicine, University of Zambia, Lusaka, Zambia
- Wellcome Centre for Molecular Parasitology, University of Glasgow, 120 University Place, Glasgow, United Kingdom
| | - Julie Kovářová
- Wellcome Centre for Molecular Parasitology, University of Glasgow, 120 University Place, Glasgow, United Kingdom
| | - Nicholas J. Dickens
- Wellcome Centre for Molecular Parasitology, University of Glasgow, 120 University Place, Glasgow, United Kingdom
| | - Manikhandan Mudaliar
- Glasgow Polyomics, Wolfson Wohl Cancer Research Centre, University of Glasgow, Garscube Estate, Bearsden, Glasgow, United Kingdom
| | - Pawel Herzyk
- Glasgow Polyomics, Wolfson Wohl Cancer Research Centre, University of Glasgow, Garscube Estate, Bearsden, Glasgow, United Kingdom
| | - Isabel M. Vincent
- Wellcome Centre for Molecular Parasitology, University of Glasgow, 120 University Place, Glasgow, United Kingdom
| | - Stefan K. Weidt
- Glasgow Polyomics, Wolfson Wohl Cancer Research Centre, University of Glasgow, Garscube Estate, Bearsden, Glasgow, United Kingdom
| | - Karl E. Burgess
- Glasgow Polyomics, Wolfson Wohl Cancer Research Centre, University of Glasgow, Garscube Estate, Bearsden, Glasgow, United Kingdom
| | - Richard J. S. Burchmore
- Wellcome Centre for Molecular Parasitology, University of Glasgow, 120 University Place, Glasgow, United Kingdom
- Glasgow Polyomics, Wolfson Wohl Cancer Research Centre, University of Glasgow, Garscube Estate, Bearsden, Glasgow, United Kingdom
| | - Andrew W. Pountain
- Wellcome Centre for Molecular Parasitology, University of Glasgow, 120 University Place, Glasgow, United Kingdom
| | - Terry K. Smith
- Biomedical Sciences Research Complex, University of St Andrews, North Haugh, St. Andrews, Fife, United Kingdom
| | - Darren J. Creek
- Drug Delivery, Disposition & Dynamics, Monash Institute of Pharmaceutical Sciences, Monash University, Parkville, Victoria, Australia
| | - Dong-Hyun Kim
- Centre for Analytical Bioscience, School of Pharmacy, University of Nottingham, University Park, Nottingham, United Kingdom
| | - Galina I. Lepesheva
- Vanderbilt University School of Medicine, Nashville, TN, United States of America
| | - Michael P. Barrett
- Wellcome Centre for Molecular Parasitology, University of Glasgow, 120 University Place, Glasgow, United Kingdom
- Glasgow Polyomics, Wolfson Wohl Cancer Research Centre, University of Glasgow, Garscube Estate, Bearsden, Glasgow, United Kingdom
- * E-mail:
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19
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de Lima Stein ML, Icimoto MY, de Castro Levatti EV, Oliveira V, Straus AH, Schenkman S. Characterization and role of the 3-methylglutaconyl coenzyme A hidratase in Trypanosoma brucei. Mol Biochem Parasitol 2017; 214:36-46. [PMID: 28366667 DOI: 10.1016/j.molbiopara.2017.03.007] [Citation(s) in RCA: 4] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 08/08/2016] [Revised: 03/25/2017] [Accepted: 03/29/2017] [Indexed: 01/30/2023]
Abstract
Trypanosoma brucei, the agent of African Trypanosomiasis, is a flagellated protozoan parasite that develops in tsetse flies and in the blood of various mammals. The parasite acquires nutrients such as sugars, lipids and amino acids from their hosts. Amino acids are used to generate energy and for protein and lipid synthesis. However, it is still unknown how T. brucei catabolizes most of the acquired amino acids. Here we explored the role of an enzyme of the leucine catabolism, the 3-methylglutaconyl-Coenzyme A hydratase (3-MGCoA-H). It catalyzes the hydration of 3-methylglutaconyl-Coenzyme A (3-MGCoA) into 3-hydroxymethylglutaryl-Coenzyme A (3-HMGCoA). We found that 3-MGCoA-H localizes in the mitochondrial matrix and is expressed in both insect and mammalian bloodstream forms of the parasite. The depletion of 3-MGCoA-H by RNA interference affected minimally the proliferation of both forms. However, an excess of leucine in the culture medium caused growth defects in cells depleted of 3-MGCoA-H, which could be reestablished by mevalonate, a precursor of isoprenoids and steroids. Indeed, procyclics depleted of the 3-MGCoA-H presented reduced levels of synthesized steroids relative to cholesterol that is scavenged by the parasite, and these levels were also reestablished by mevalonate. These results suggest that accumulation of leucine catabolites could affect the level of mevalonate and consequently inhibit the sterol biosynthesis, required for T. brucei growth.
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Affiliation(s)
- Mariana Leão de Lima Stein
- Departamento de Microbiologia, Imunologia e Parasitologia, Universidade Federal de São Paulo, São Paulo, SP, Brazil
| | - Marcelo Yudi Icimoto
- Departamento de Biofísica, Universidade Federal de São Paulo, São Paulo, SP, Brazil
| | | | - Vitor Oliveira
- Departamento de Biofísica, Universidade Federal de São Paulo, São Paulo, SP, Brazil
| | - Anita Hilda Straus
- Departamento de Bioquímica, Universidade Federal de São Paulo, São Paulo, SP, Brazil
| | - Sergio Schenkman
- Departamento de Microbiologia, Imunologia e Parasitologia, Universidade Federal de São Paulo, São Paulo, SP, Brazil.
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20
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Zhao J, Li C, Zhang Y, Shen Y, Hou J, Bao X. Dynamic control of ERG20 expression combined with minimized endogenous downstream metabolism contributes to the improvement of geraniol production in Saccharomyces cerevisiae. Microb Cell Fact 2017; 16:17. [PMID: 28137282 PMCID: PMC5282783 DOI: 10.1186/s12934-017-0641-9] [Citation(s) in RCA: 71] [Impact Index Per Article: 10.1] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 11/24/2016] [Accepted: 01/25/2017] [Indexed: 12/15/2022] Open
Abstract
BACKGROUND Microbial production of monoterpenes provides a promising substitute for traditional chemical-based methods, but their production is lagging compared with sesquiterpenes. Geraniol, a valuable monoterpene alcohol, is widely used in cosmetic, perfume, pharmaceutical and it is also a potential gasoline alternative. Previously, we constructed a geraniol production strain by engineering the mevalonate pathway together with the expression of a high-activity geraniol synthase. RESULTS In this study, we further improved the geraniol production through reducing the endogenous metabolism of geraniol and controlling the precursor geranyl diphosphate flux distribution. The deletion of OYE2 (encoding an NADPH oxidoreductase) or ATF1 (encoding an alcohol acetyltransferase) both involving endogenous conversion of geraniol to other terpenoids, improved geraniol production by 1.7-fold or 1.6-fold in batch fermentation, respectively. In addition, we found that direct down-regulation of ERG20 expression, the branch point regulating geranyl diphosphate flux, does not improve geraniol production. Therefore, we explored dynamic control of ERG20 expression to redistribute the precursor geranyl diphosphate flux and achieved a 3.4-fold increase in geraniol production after optimizing carbon source feeding. Furthermore, the combination of dynamic control of ERG20 expression and OYE2 deletion in LEU2 prototrophic strain increased geraniol production up to 1.69 g/L with pure ethanol feeding in fed-batch fermentation, which is the highest reported production in engineered yeast. CONCLUSION An efficient geraniol production platform was established by reducing the endogenous metabolism of geraniol and by controlling the flux distribution of the precursor geranyl diphosphate. The present work also provides a production basis to synthesis geraniol-derived chemicals, such as monoterpene indole alkaloids.
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Affiliation(s)
- Jianzhi Zhao
- State Key Laboratory of Microbial Technology, School of Life Science, Shandong University, Jinan, 250100, China
| | - Chen Li
- State Key Laboratory of Microbial Technology, School of Life Science, Shandong University, Jinan, 250100, China
| | - Yan Zhang
- State Key Laboratory of Microbial Technology, School of Life Science, Shandong University, Jinan, 250100, China
| | - Yu Shen
- State Key Laboratory of Microbial Technology, School of Life Science, Shandong University, Jinan, 250100, China
| | - Jin Hou
- State Key Laboratory of Microbial Technology, School of Life Science, Shandong University, Jinan, 250100, China.
| | - Xiaoming Bao
- State Key Laboratory of Microbial Technology, School of Life Science, Shandong University, Jinan, 250100, China. .,Shandong Provincial Key Laboratory of Microbial Engineering, School of Bioengineering, QiLu University of Technology, Jinan, 250353, China.
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21
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Opperdoes FR, Butenko A, Flegontov P, Yurchenko V, Lukeš J. Comparative Metabolism of Free-living Bodo saltans
and Parasitic Trypanosomatids. J Eukaryot Microbiol 2016; 63:657-78. [DOI: 10.1111/jeu.12315] [Citation(s) in RCA: 64] [Impact Index Per Article: 8.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 01/12/2016] [Revised: 03/10/2016] [Accepted: 03/20/2016] [Indexed: 12/20/2022]
Affiliation(s)
- Fred R. Opperdoes
- de Duve Institute; Université Catholique de Louvain; Brussels B-1200 Belgium
| | - Anzhelika Butenko
- Life Science Research Centre; Faculty of Science; University of Ostrava; Ostrava 710 00 Czech Republic
| | - Pavel Flegontov
- Life Science Research Centre; Faculty of Science; University of Ostrava; Ostrava 710 00 Czech Republic
- Biology Centre; Institute of Parasitology; Czech Academy of Sciences; České Budějovice (Budweis) 370 05 Czech Republic
- A.A. Kharkevich Institute for Information Transmission Problems; Russian Academy of Sciences; Moscow 127 051 Russia
| | - Vyacheslav Yurchenko
- Life Science Research Centre; Faculty of Science; University of Ostrava; Ostrava 710 00 Czech Republic
- Biology Centre; Institute of Parasitology; Czech Academy of Sciences; České Budějovice (Budweis) 370 05 Czech Republic
- Faculty of Science; Institute of Environmental Technologies; University of Ostrava; Ostrava 710 00 Czech Republic
| | - Julius Lukeš
- Biology Centre; Institute of Parasitology; Czech Academy of Sciences; České Budějovice (Budweis) 370 05 Czech Republic
- Faculty of Science; University of South Bohemia; České Budějovice (Budweis) 370 05 Czech Republic
- Canadian Institute for Advanced Research; Toronto ON M5G 1Z8 Canada
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22
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Manchola NC, Rapado LN, Barisón MJ, Silber AM. Biochemical Characterization of Branched Chain Amino Acids Uptake in Trypanosoma cruzi. J Eukaryot Microbiol 2015; 63:299-308. [PMID: 26496801 DOI: 10.1111/jeu.12278] [Citation(s) in RCA: 19] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.1] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 07/22/2015] [Revised: 09/30/2015] [Accepted: 10/16/2015] [Indexed: 01/02/2023]
Abstract
Trypanosoma cruzi is the etiological agent of Chagas disease. During its life cycle, it alternates among vertebrate and invertebrate hosts. Metabolic flexibility is a main biochemical characteristic of this parasite, which is able to obtain energy by oxidizing a variety of nutrients that can be transported from the extracellular medium. Moreover, several of these metabolites, more specifically amino acids, have a variety of functions beyond being sources of energy. Branched chain amino acids (BCAA), beyond their role in ATP production, are involved in sterol biosynthesis; for example, leucine is involved as a negative regulator of the parasite differentiation process occurring in the insect midgut. BCAA are essential metabolites in most nonphotosynthetic eukaryotes, including trypanosomes. In view of this, the metabolism of BCAA in T. cruzi depends mainly on their transport into the cell. In this work, we kinetically characterized the BCAA transport in T. cruzi epimastigotes. Our data point to BCAA as being transported by a single saturable transport system able to recognize leucine, isoleucine and valine. In view of this, we used leucine to further characterize this system. The transport increased linearly with temperature from 10 to 45 °C, allowing the calculation of an activation energy of 51.30 kJ/mol. Leucine uptake was an active process depending on ATP production and a H(+) gradient, but not on a Na(+) or K(+) gradient at the cytoplasmic membrane level.
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Affiliation(s)
- Nubia C Manchola
- LaBTryps, Instituto de Ciencias Biomedicas II, Universidade de São Paulo, Av. Lineu Prestes 1374, Cidade Universitária Butanta, São Paulo, CEP 05508-900, Brazil
| | - Ludmila N Rapado
- LaBTryps, Instituto de Ciencias Biomedicas II, Universidade de São Paulo, Av. Lineu Prestes 1374, Cidade Universitária Butanta, São Paulo, CEP 05508-900, Brazil
| | - María J Barisón
- LaBTryps, Instituto de Ciencias Biomedicas II, Universidade de São Paulo, Av. Lineu Prestes 1374, Cidade Universitária Butanta, São Paulo, CEP 05508-900, Brazil
| | - Ariel M Silber
- LaBTryps, Instituto de Ciencias Biomedicas II, Universidade de São Paulo, Av. Lineu Prestes 1374, Cidade Universitária Butanta, São Paulo, CEP 05508-900, Brazil
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A Multiplatform Metabolomic Approach to the Basis of Antimonial Action and Resistance in Leishmania infantum. PLoS One 2015; 10:e0130675. [PMID: 26161866 PMCID: PMC4498920 DOI: 10.1371/journal.pone.0130675] [Citation(s) in RCA: 29] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 11/11/2014] [Accepted: 01/25/2015] [Indexed: 12/20/2022] Open
Abstract
There is a rising resistance against antimony drugs, the gold-standard for treatment until some years ago. That is a serious problem due to the paucity of drugs in current clinical use. In a research to reveal how these drugs affect the parasite during treatment and to unravel the underlying basis for their resistance, we have employed metabolomics to study treatment in Leishmania infantum promastigotes. This was accomplished first through the untargeted analysis of metabolic snapshots of treated and untreated parasites both resistant and responders, utilizing a multiplatform approach to give the widest as possible coverage of the metabolome, and additionally through novel monitoring of the origin of the detected alterations through a 13C traceability experiment. Our data stress a multi-target metabolic alteration with treatment, affecting in particular the cell redox system that is essential to cope with detoxification and biosynthetic processes. Additionally, relevant changes were noted in amino acid metabolism. Our results are in agreement with other authors studying other Leishmania species.
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Kaneshiro ES, Johnston LQ, Nkinin SW, Romero BI, Giner JL. Sterols of Saccharomyces cerevisiae erg6 Knockout Mutant Expressing the Pneumocystis carinii S-Adenosylmethionine:Sterol C-24 Methyltransferase. J Eukaryot Microbiol 2014; 62:298-306. [PMID: 25230683 DOI: 10.1111/jeu.12181] [Citation(s) in RCA: 7] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 03/15/2014] [Revised: 07/18/2014] [Accepted: 08/01/2014] [Indexed: 11/29/2022]
Abstract
The AIDS-associated lung pathogen Pneumocystis is classified as a fungus although Pneumocystis has several distinct features such as the absence of ergosterol, the major sterol of most fungi. The Pneumocystis carinii S-adenosylmethionine:sterol C24-methyltransferase (SAM:SMT) enzyme, coded by the erg6 gene, transfers either one or two methyl groups to the C-24 position of the sterol side chain producing both C28 and C29 24-alkylsterols in approximately the same proportions, whereas most fungal SAM:SMT transfer only one methyl group to the side chain. The sterol compositions of wild-type Sacchromyces cerevisiae, the erg6 knockout mutant (Δerg6), and Δerg6 expressing the P. carinii or the S. cerevisiae erg6 gene were analyzed by a variety of chromatographic and spectroscopic procedures to examine functional complementation in the yeast expression system. Detailed sterol analyses were obtained using high performance liquid chromatography and proton nuclear magnetic resonance spectroscopy ((1)H-NMR). The P. carinii SAM:SMT in the Δerg6 restored its ability to produce the C28 sterol ergosterol as the major sterol, and also resulted in low levels of C29 sterols. This indicates that while the P. carinii SAM:SMT in the yeast Δerg6 cells was able to transfer a second methyl group to the side chain, the action of Δ(24(28)) -sterol reductase (coded by the erg4 gene) in the yeast cells prevented the formation and accumulation of as many C29 sterols as that found in P. carinii.
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Affiliation(s)
- Edna S Kaneshiro
- Department of Biological Sciences, University of Cincinnati, Cincinnati, Ohio, 45221-0006
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25
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Proteomic analysis of metacyclogenesis in Leishmania infantum wild-type and PTR1 null mutant. EUPA OPEN PROTEOMICS 2014. [DOI: 10.1016/j.euprot.2014.07.003] [Citation(s) in RCA: 10] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 01/22/2023]
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26
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Uttaro AD. Acquisition and biosynthesis of saturated and unsaturated fatty acids by trypanosomatids. Mol Biochem Parasitol 2014; 196:61-70. [DOI: 10.1016/j.molbiopara.2014.04.001] [Citation(s) in RCA: 21] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.1] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 11/22/2013] [Revised: 03/28/2014] [Accepted: 04/01/2014] [Indexed: 12/21/2022]
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27
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Ketanserin, an antidepressant, exerts its antileishmanial action via inhibition of 3-hydroxy-3-methylglutaryl coenzyme A reductase (HMGR) enzyme of Leishmania donovani. Parasitol Res 2014; 113:2161-8. [PMID: 24728519 DOI: 10.1007/s00436-014-3868-y] [Citation(s) in RCA: 12] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 03/07/2014] [Accepted: 03/21/2014] [Indexed: 12/11/2022]
Abstract
Leishmaniasis is one of the major health problems existing globally. The current chemotherapy for leishmaniasis presents several drawbacks like toxicity and increased resistance to existing drugs, and hence, there is a necessity to look out for the novel drug targets and new chemical entities. Current trend in drug discovery arena is the "repurposing" of old drugs for the treatment of diseases. In the present study, an antidepressant, ketanserin, was found lethal to both Leishmania donovani promastigotes and intracellular amastigotes with no apparent toxicity to the cells. Ketanserin killed promastigotes and amastigotes with an IC50 value of 37 μM and 28 μM respectively, in a dose-dependent manner. Ketanserin was found to inhibit L. donovani recombinant 3-hydroxy-3-methylglutaryl coenzyme A reductase (HMGR) enzyme with an IC50 value of 43 μM. Ketanserin treated promastigotes were exogenously supplemented with sterols like ergosterol and cholesterol to rescue cell death. Ergosterol could recover the inhibition partially, whereas cholesterol supplementation completely failed to rescue the inhibited parasites. Further, HMGR-overexpressing parasites were generated by transfecting Leishmania promastigotes with an episomal pspα hygroα-HMGR construct. Wild-type and HMGR overexpressors of L. donovani were used to study the effect and mode of action of this inhibitor. The HMGR overexpressors showed twofold resistance to ketanserin. These observations suggest that the lethal effect of ketanserin is due to inhibition of HMGR, the rate-limiting enzyme of the ergosterol biosynthetic pathway. Since targeting of the sterol biosynthetic pathway enzymes may be useful therapeutically, the present study may have implications in treatment of leishmaniasis.
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Canuto GAB, Castilho-Martins EA, Tavares MFM, Rivas L, Barbas C, López-Gonzálvez Á. Multi-analytical platform metabolomic approach to study miltefosine mechanism of action and resistance in Leishmania. Anal Bioanal Chem 2014; 406:3459-76. [PMID: 24722876 DOI: 10.1007/s00216-014-7772-1] [Citation(s) in RCA: 46] [Impact Index Per Article: 4.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 01/13/2014] [Revised: 03/03/2014] [Accepted: 03/17/2014] [Indexed: 12/26/2022]
Abstract
Miltefosine (MT) (hexadecylphosphocholine) was implemented to cope with resistance against antimonials, the classical treatment in Leishmaniasis. Given the scarcity of anti- Leishmania (L) drugs and the increasing appearance of resistance, there is an obvious need for understanding the mechanism of action and development of such resistance. Metabolomics is an increasingly popular tool in the life sciences due to it being a relatively fast and accurate technique that can be applied either with a particular focus or in a global manner to reveal new knowledge about biological systems. Three analytical platforms, gas chromatography (GC), liquid chromatography (LC) and capillary electrophoresis (CE) have been coupled to mass spectrometry (MS) to obtain a broad picture of metabolic changes in the parasite. Impairment of the polyamine metabolism from arginine (Arg) to trypanothione in susceptible parasites treated with MT was in some way expected, considering the reactive oxygen species (ROS) production described for MT. Importantly, in resistant parasites an increase in the levels of amino acids was the most outstanding feature, probably related to the adaptation of the resistant strain for its survival inside the parasitophorous vacuole.
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Affiliation(s)
- Gisele A B Canuto
- Centro de Metabolómica y Bioanálisis (CEMBIO), Unidad Metabolómica, Interacciones y Bioanálisis (UMIB), Facultad de Farmacia, Universidad CEU San Pablo, Campus Monteprincipe, Boadilla del Monte, 28668, Madrid, Spain
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Dinesh N, Pallerla DSR, Kaur PK, Kishore Babu N, Singh S. Exploring Leishmania donovani 3-hydroxy-3-methylglutaryl coenzyme A reductase (HMGR) as a potential drug target by biochemical, biophysical and inhibition studies. Microb Pathog 2013; 66:14-23. [PMID: 24239940 DOI: 10.1016/j.micpath.2013.11.001] [Citation(s) in RCA: 26] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 08/27/2013] [Revised: 10/29/2013] [Accepted: 11/01/2013] [Indexed: 01/24/2023]
Abstract
3-Hydroxy-3-methylglutaryl-CoA (HMG-CoA) reductase (HMGR), an NADPH dependant enzyme catalyzes the synthesis of mevalonic acid from HMG-CoA required for isoprenoid biosynthesis. The HMGR gene from Leishmania donovani was cloned and expressed. Genome analysis of L. donovani revealed that HMGR gene having an open reading frame of 1305 bp encodes a putative protein of 434 amino acids. LdHMGR showed optimal activity at pH 7.2 and temperature 37 °C. Kinetic analysis of this enzyme revealed Km values of 35.7 ± 2.5 μM for (R,S)-HMG-CoA and 70 ± 7.9 μM for the cofactor NADPH. On tryptophan fluorescence quenching, the Stern Volmer constant (Ksv), binding constant (Ka) and protein:cofactor stoichiometry for interaction of NADPH cofactor with the enzyme were found to be 6.0 ± 0.7 M(-1), 0.17 μM and 0.72 respectively. Polyclonal anti-rat HMGR antibody detected a band of ∼45 kDa in all phases of promastigote growth. Biophysical analysis of the secondary structure of LdHMGR confirmed the presence of 25.7 ± 0.35% alpha helicity. Thermal denaturation studies showed extreme stability of the enzyme with 60% helical structure retained at 90 °C. Statins (simvastatin and atorvastatin) and non-statin (resveratrol) effectively inhibited the growth of L. donovani promastigotes as well as the catalytic activity of the recombinant LdHMGR. Atorvastatin was found to be most potent antileishmanial inhibitor with an IC50 value of 19.4 ± 3.07 μM and a very lower concentration of 315.5 ± 2.1 nM was enough to cause 50% recombinant LdHMGR enzyme inhibition suggesting direct interaction with the rate limiting enzyme of the ergosterol biosynthetic pathway. Exogenous supplementation of ergosterol in case of atorvastatin and resveratrol treated cells caused complete reversal of growth inhibition whereas simvastatin was found to be ergosterol refractory. Cholesterol supplementation however, failed to overcome growth inhibition in all the cases. Overall our study emphasizes on exploring LdHMGR as a potential drug target for the development of novel antileishmanial agents.
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Affiliation(s)
- Neeradi Dinesh
- Department of Biotechnology, National Institute of Pharmaceutical Education and Research, SAS Nagar, Mohali 160062, Punjab, India
| | - Dheeraj Sree Ram Pallerla
- Department of Biotechnology, National Institute of Pharmaceutical Education and Research, SAS Nagar, Mohali 160062, Punjab, India
| | - Preet Kamal Kaur
- Department of Biotechnology, National Institute of Pharmaceutical Education and Research, SAS Nagar, Mohali 160062, Punjab, India
| | - Neerupudi Kishore Babu
- Department of Biotechnology, National Institute of Pharmaceutical Education and Research, SAS Nagar, Mohali 160062, Punjab, India
| | - Sushma Singh
- Department of Biotechnology, National Institute of Pharmaceutical Education and Research, SAS Nagar, Mohali 160062, Punjab, India.
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Novel sterol metabolic network of Trypanosoma brucei procyclic and bloodstream forms. Biochem J 2012; 443:267-77. [PMID: 22176028 DOI: 10.1042/bj20111849] [Citation(s) in RCA: 36] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/17/2022]
Abstract
Trypanosoma brucei is the protozoan parasite that causes African trypanosomiasis, a neglected disease of people and animals. Co-metabolite analysis, labelling studies using [methyl-2H3]-methionine and substrate/product specificities of the cloned 24-SMT (sterol C24-methyltransferase) and 14-SDM (sterol C14demethylase) from T. brucei afforded an uncommon sterol metabolic network that proceeds from lanosterol and 31-norlanosterol to ETO [ergosta-5,7,25(27)-trien-3β-ol], 24-DTO [dimethyl ergosta-5,7,25(27)-trienol] and ergosterol [ergosta-5,7,22(23)-trienol]. To assess the possible carbon sources of ergosterol biosynthesis, specifically 13C-labelled specimens of lanosterol, acetate, leucine and glucose were administered to T. brucei and the 13C distributions found were in accord with the operation of the acetate-mevalonate pathway, with leucine as an alternative precursor, to ergostenols in either the insect or bloodstream form. In searching for metabolic signatures of procyclic cells, we observed that the 13C-labelling treatments induce fluctuations between the acetyl-CoA (mitochondrial) and sterol (cytosolic) synthetic pathways detected by the progressive increase in 13C-ergosterol production (control<[2-(13)C]leucine<[2-(13)C]acetate<[1-(13)C]glucose) and corresponding depletion of cholesta-5,7,24-trienol. We conclude that anabolic fluxes originating in mitochondrial metabolism constitute a flexible part of sterol synthesis that is further fluctuated in the cytosol, yielding distinct sterol profiles in relation to cell demands on growth.
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Zhou YJ, Gao W, Rong Q, Jin G, Chu H, Liu W, Yang W, Zhu Z, Li G, Zhu G, Huang L, Zhao ZK. Modular pathway engineering of diterpenoid synthases and the mevalonic acid pathway for miltiradiene production. J Am Chem Soc 2012; 134:3234-41. [PMID: 22280121 DOI: 10.1021/ja2114486] [Citation(s) in RCA: 280] [Impact Index Per Article: 23.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 01/05/2023]
Abstract
Microbial production can be advantageous over the extraction of phytoterpenoids from natural plant sources, but it remains challenging to rationally and rapidly access efficient pathway variants. Previous engineering attempts mainly focused on the mevalonic acid (MVA) or methyl-d-erythritol phosphate (MEP) pathways responsible for the generation of precursors for terpenoids biosynthesis, and potential interactions between diterpenoids synthases were unexplored. Miltiradiene, the product of the stepwise conversion of (E,E,E)-geranylgeranyl diphosphate (GGPP) catalyzed by diterpene synthases SmCPS and SmKSL, has recently been identified as the precursor to tanshionones, a group of abietane-type norditerpenoids rich in the Chinese medicinal herb Salvia miltiorrhiza . Here, we present the modular pathway engineering (MOPE) strategy and its application for rapid assembling synthetic miltiradiene pathways in the yeast Saccharomyces cerevisiae . We predicted and analyzed the molecular interactions between SmCPS and SmKSL, and engineered their active sites into close proximity for enhanced metabolic flux channeling to miltiradiene biosynthesis by constructing protein fusions. We show that the fusion of SmCPS and SmKSL, as well as the fusion of BTS1 (GGPP synthase) and ERG20 (farnesyl diphosphate synthase), led to significantly improved miltiradiene production and reduced byproduct accumulation. The MOPE strategy facilitated a comprehensive evaluation of pathway variants involving multiple genes, and, as a result, our best pathway with the diploid strain YJ2X reached miltiradiene titer of 365 mg/L in a 15-L bioreactor culture. These results suggest that terpenoids synthases and the precursor supplying enzymes should be engineered systematically to enable an efficient microbial production of phytoterpenoids.
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Affiliation(s)
- Yongjin J Zhou
- Division of Biotechnology, Dalian Institute of Chemical Physics, CAS, Dalian 116023, People's Republic of China
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32
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Ishimatsu A, Matsuura H, Sano T, Kaya K, Watanabe MM. Biosynthesis of Isoprene Units in the C34 Botryococcene Molecule Produced by Botryococcus Braunii Strain Bot-22. ACTA ACUST UNITED AC 2012. [DOI: 10.1016/j.proenv.2012.05.010] [Citation(s) in RCA: 24] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/29/2022]
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Hemmerlin A, Harwood JL, Bach TJ. A raison d'être for two distinct pathways in the early steps of plant isoprenoid biosynthesis? Prog Lipid Res 2011; 51:95-148. [PMID: 22197147 DOI: 10.1016/j.plipres.2011.12.001] [Citation(s) in RCA: 208] [Impact Index Per Article: 16.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 10/06/2011] [Revised: 11/28/2011] [Accepted: 12/05/2011] [Indexed: 12/12/2022]
Abstract
When compared to other organisms, plants are atypical with respect to isoprenoid biosynthesis: they utilize two distinct and separately compartmentalized pathways to build up isoprene units. The co-existence of these pathways in the cytosol and in plastids might permit the synthesis of many vital compounds, being essential for a sessile organism. While substrate exchange across membranes has been shown for a variety of plant species, lack of complementation of strong phenotypes, resulting from inactivation of either the cytosolic pathway (growth and development defects) or the plastidial pathway (pigment bleaching), seems to be surprising at first sight. Hundreds of isoprenoids have been analyzed to determine their biosynthetic origins. It can be concluded that in angiosperms, under standard growth conditions, C₂₀-phytyl moieties, C₃₀-triterpenes and C₄₀-carotenoids are made nearly exclusively within compartmentalized pathways, while mixed origins are widespread for other types of isoprenoid-derived molecules. It seems likely that this coexistence is essential for the interaction of plants with their environment. A major purpose of this review is to summarize such observations, especially within an ecological and functional context and with some emphasis on regulation. This latter aspect still requires more work and present conclusions are preliminary, although some general features seem to exist.
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Affiliation(s)
- Andréa Hemmerlin
- Institut de Biologie Moléculaire des Plantes du Centre National de la Recherche Scientifique, IBMP-CNRS-UPR2357, Université de Strasbourg, 28 Rue Goethe, F-67083 Strasbourg Cedex, France.
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34
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Creek DJ, Anderson J, McConville MJ, Barrett MP. Metabolomic analysis of trypanosomatid protozoa. Mol Biochem Parasitol 2011; 181:73-84. [PMID: 22027026 DOI: 10.1016/j.molbiopara.2011.10.003] [Citation(s) in RCA: 46] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 08/02/2011] [Revised: 10/04/2011] [Accepted: 10/06/2011] [Indexed: 01/05/2023]
Abstract
Metabolomics aims to measure all low molecular weight chemicals within a given system in a manner analogous to transcriptomics, proteomics and genomics. In this review we highlight metabolomics approaches that are currently being applied to the kinetoplastid parasites, Trypanosoma brucei and Leishmania spp. The use of untargeted metabolomics approaches, made possible through advances in mass spectrometry and informatics, and stable isotope labelling has increased our understanding of the metabolism in these organisms beyond the views established using classical biochemical approaches. Set within the context of metabolic networks, predicted using genome-wide reconstructions of metabolism, new hypotheses on how to target aspects of metabolism to design new drugs against these protozoa are emerging.
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Affiliation(s)
- Darren J Creek
- Wellcome Trust Centre for Molecular Parasitology, Institute of Infection, Immunity and Inflammation, College of Medical, Veterinary and Life Sciences, University of Glasgow, Glasgow G12 8TA, United Kingdom
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35
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Affiliation(s)
- W David Nes
- Department of Chemistry and Biochemistry, Texas Tech University, Lubbock, Texas 79409, USA.
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36
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The characterization and evolutionary relationships of a trypanosomal thiolase. Int J Parasitol 2011; 41:1273-83. [DOI: 10.1016/j.ijpara.2011.07.009] [Citation(s) in RCA: 16] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 05/11/2011] [Revised: 06/22/2011] [Accepted: 07/19/2011] [Indexed: 11/23/2022]
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37
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Ginger ML, McFadden GI, Michels PAM. Rewiring and regulation of cross-compartmentalized metabolism in protists. Philos Trans R Soc Lond B Biol Sci 2010; 365:831-45. [PMID: 20124348 DOI: 10.1098/rstb.2009.0259] [Citation(s) in RCA: 43] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.1] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/13/2022] Open
Abstract
Plastid acquisition, endosymbiotic associations, lateral gene transfer, organelle degeneracy or even organelle loss influence metabolic capabilities in many different protists. Thus, metabolic diversity is sculpted through the gain of new metabolic functions and moderation or loss of pathways that are often essential in the majority of eukaryotes. What is perhaps less apparent to the casual observer is that the sub-compartmentalization of ubiquitous pathways has been repeatedly remodelled during eukaryotic evolution, and the textbook pictures of intermediary metabolism established for animals, yeast and plants are not conserved in many protists. Moreover, metabolic remodelling can strongly influence the regulatory mechanisms that control carbon flux through the major metabolic pathways. Here, we provide an overview of how core metabolism has been reorganized in various unicellular eukaryotes, focusing in particular on one near universal catabolic pathway (glycolysis) and one ancient anabolic pathway (isoprenoid biosynthesis). For the example of isoprenoid biosynthesis, the compartmentalization of this process in protists often appears to have been influenced by plastid acquisition and loss, whereas for glycolysis several unexpected modes of compartmentalization have emerged. Significantly, the example of trypanosomatid glycolysis illustrates nicely how mathematical modelling and systems biology can be used to uncover or understand novel modes of pathway regulation.
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Affiliation(s)
- Michael L Ginger
- Division of Biomedical and Life Sciences, School of Health and Medicine, Lancaster University, Lancaster LA1 4YQ, UK.
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Porsbring T, Blanck H, Tjellström H, Backhaus T. Toxicity of the pharmaceutical clotrimazole to marine microalgal communities. AQUATIC TOXICOLOGY (AMSTERDAM, NETHERLANDS) 2009; 91:203-211. [PMID: 19095311 DOI: 10.1016/j.aquatox.2008.11.003] [Citation(s) in RCA: 46] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.1] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 06/26/2008] [Revised: 09/25/2008] [Accepted: 11/04/2008] [Indexed: 05/27/2023]
Abstract
Clotrimazole belongs to the group of 14alpha-demethylase inhibiting fungicides. It is widely used in human and veterinary medicine and has been identified as a priority pollutant for the marine environment. However, the toxicity of clotrimazole to marine primary producers is largely unknown. We therefore sampled natural microalgal communities (periphyton) and exposed them to concentration series of clotrimazole over 4 days. 50 pmol/L clotrimazole caused a concentration-dependent accumulation of C14alpha-methylated sterol precursors, which coincided with a decrease in algal-specific C14-desmethyl sterols. This indicates an inhibition of algal 14 alpha-demethylases already at environmental concentrations. A clotrimazole concentration of 500 pmol/L reduced total sterol content to 64% of control level. Community chlorophyll a content was affected by clotrimazole in a bi-phasic manner with first reductions becoming visible at 500 pmol/L, along with indications of an altered cycling of photoprotective xanthophyll pigments. Concentrations of 10-100 nmol/L and higher caused large reductions in community growth, and changed community pigment profiles in a concentration-dependent monotonous manner. The study further indicated that diatoms use obtusifoliol as a natural substrate for 14alpha-demethylase, just as higher plants do but also utilize norlanosterol.
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Affiliation(s)
- Tobias Porsbring
- Department of Plant and Environmental Sciences, University of Gothenburg, Box 461, SE-40530 Göteborg, Sweden.
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39
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Intracellular location of the early steps of the isoprenoid biosynthetic pathway in the trypanosomatids Leishmania major and Trypanosoma brucei. Int J Parasitol 2009; 39:307-14. [DOI: 10.1016/j.ijpara.2008.08.012] [Citation(s) in RCA: 26] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 06/27/2008] [Revised: 07/31/2008] [Accepted: 08/08/2008] [Indexed: 11/17/2022]
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40
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Vertommen D, Van Roy J, Szikora JP, Rider MH, Michels PAM, Opperdoes FR. Differential expression of glycosomal and mitochondrial proteins in the two major life-cycle stages of Trypanosoma brucei. Mol Biochem Parasitol 2007; 158:189-201. [PMID: 18242729 DOI: 10.1016/j.molbiopara.2007.12.008] [Citation(s) in RCA: 81] [Impact Index Per Article: 4.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 11/07/2007] [Revised: 12/10/2007] [Accepted: 12/13/2007] [Indexed: 11/30/2022]
Abstract
Label-free semi-quantitative differential three-dimensional liquid chromatography coupled to mass spectrometry (3D-LC-MS/MS) was used to compare the glycosomal and mitochondrial proteomes of the bloodstream- and insect-form of Trypanosoma brucei. The abundance of glycosomal marker proteins identified in the two life-cycle stages corresponded well with the relative importance of biochemical pathways present in the glycosomes of the two stages and the peptide spectral count ratios of selected enzymes were in good agreement with published data about their enzymatic specific activities. This approach proved extremely useful for the generation of large scale proteomics data for the comparison of different life-cycle stages. Several proteins involved in oxidative stress protection, sugar-nucleotide synthesis, purine salvage, nucleotide-monophosphate formation and purine-nucleotide cycle were identified as glycosomal proteins.
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Affiliation(s)
- Didier Vertommen
- Hormone Research Unit, de Duve Institute, Université catholique de Louvain, Avenue Hippocrate 75, B-1200 Brussels, Belgium
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41
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Ershov YV. 2-C-methylerythritol phosphate pathway of isoprenoid biosynthesis as a target in identifying new antibiotics, herbicides, and immunomodulators: A review. APPL BIOCHEM MICRO+ 2007. [DOI: 10.1134/s0003683807020019] [Citation(s) in RCA: 19] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.1] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/23/2022]
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42
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Nowicki C, Cazzulo JJ. Aromatic amino acid catabolism in trypanosomatids. Comp Biochem Physiol A Mol Integr Physiol 2007; 151:381-390. [PMID: 17433885 DOI: 10.1016/j.cbpa.2007.03.010] [Citation(s) in RCA: 23] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 05/11/2006] [Revised: 03/07/2007] [Accepted: 03/08/2007] [Indexed: 11/25/2022]
Abstract
Trypanosomatids cause important human diseases, like sleeping sickness, Chagas disease, and the leishmaniases. Unlike in the mammalian host, the metabolism of aromatic amino acids is a very simple pathway in these parasites. Trypanosoma brucei and Trypanosoma cruzi transaminate the three aromatic amino acids, the resulting 2-oxo acids being reduced to the corresponding lactate derivatives and excreted. In T. cruzi, two enzymes are involved in this process: a tyrosine aminotransferase (TAT), which despite a high sequence similarity with the mammalian enzyme, has a different substrate specificity; and an aromatic L-2-hydroxyacid dehydrogenase (AHADH), which belongs to the subfamily of the cytosolic malate dehydrogenases (MDHs), yet has no MDH activity. In T. cruzi AHADH the substitution of Ala102 for Arg enables AHADH to reduce oxaloacetate. In the members of the 2-hydroxyacid dehydrogenases family, the residue at this position is known to be responsible for substrate specificity. T. cruzi does not possess a cytosolic MDH but contains a mitochondrial and a glycosomal MDH; by contrast T. brucei and Leishmania spp. possess a cytosolic MDH in addition to glycosomal and mitochondrial isozymes. Although Leishmania mexicana also transaminates aromatic amino acids through a broad specificity aminotransferase, the latter presents low sequence similarity with TATs, and this parasite does not seem to have an enzyme equivalent to T. cruzi AHADH. Therefore, these closely related primitive eukaryotes have developed aromatic amino acid catabolism systems using different enzymes and probably for different metabolic purposes.
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Affiliation(s)
- Cristina Nowicki
- IQUIFIB/Facultad de Farmacia y Bioquímica, Universidad de Buenos Aires, Junín 956, CP1113, Argentina.
| | - Juan J Cazzulo
- IIB-INTECH, Instituto de Investigaciones Biotecnológicas, Universidad Nacional de General San Martín-CONICET, Av. Gral. Paz y Albarellos, INTI, edificio 24, 1650 San Martín, Buenos Aires, Argentina
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43
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Opperdoes FR, Coombs GH. Metabolism of Leishmania: proven and predicted. Trends Parasitol 2007; 23:149-58. [PMID: 17320480 DOI: 10.1016/j.pt.2007.02.004] [Citation(s) in RCA: 144] [Impact Index Per Article: 8.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 09/19/2006] [Revised: 01/04/2007] [Accepted: 02/09/2007] [Indexed: 11/16/2022]
Abstract
The complete analysis of the genomes of three major trypanosomatid parasites has facilitated comparison of the metabolic capabilities of each, as predicted from gene sequences. Not surprisingly, there are differences but is it possible to correlate these with the lives of the parasites themselves and make further predictions of the meaning and physiological importance of the apparently parasite-specific metabolism? In this article, we relate gene predictions with the results from experimental studies. We also speculate on the key metabolic adaptations of Leishmania and reasons why it differs from Trypanosoma brucei and Trypanosoma cruzi.
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Affiliation(s)
- Fred R Opperdoes
- Research Unit for Tropical Diseases and Laboratory of Biochemistry, Christian de Duve Institute of Cellular Pathology and Catholic University of Louvain, Avenue Hippocrate 74-75, B-1200 Brussels, Belgium
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44
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Mahmud T. Isotope tracer investigations of natural products biosynthesis: the discovery of novel metabolic pathways. J Labelled Comp Radiopharm 2007. [DOI: 10.1002/jlcr.1391] [Citation(s) in RCA: 13] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/07/2022]
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45
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Ortiz-Gómez A, Jiménez C, Estévez AM, Carrero-Lérida J, Ruiz-Pérez LM, González-Pacanowska D. Farnesyl diphosphate synthase is a cytosolic enzyme in Leishmania major promastigotes and its overexpression confers resistance to risedronate. EUKARYOTIC CELL 2006; 5:1057-64. [PMID: 16835450 PMCID: PMC1489282 DOI: 10.1128/ec.00034-06] [Citation(s) in RCA: 24] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/20/2022]
Abstract
Farnesyl diphosphate synthase is the most likely molecular target of aminobisphosphonates (e.g., risedronate), a set of compounds that have been shown to have antiprotozoal activity both in vitro and in vivo. This protein, together with other enzymes involved in isoprenoid biosynthesis, is an attractive drug target, yet little is known about the compartmentalization of the biosynthetic pathway. Here we show the intracellular localization of the enzyme in wild-type Leishmania major promastigote cells and in transfectants overexpressing farnesyl diphosphate synthase by using purified antibodies generated towards a homogenous recombinant Leishmania major farnesyl diphosphate synthase protein. Indirect immunofluorescence, together with immunoelectron microscopy, indicated that the enzyme is mainly located in the cytoplasm of both wild-type cells and transfectants. Digitonin titration experiments also confirmed this observation. Hence, while the initial step of isoprenoid biosynthesis catalyzed by 3-hydroxy-3-methylglutaryl-coenzyme A reductase is located in the mitochondrion, synthesis of farnesyl diphosphate by farnesyl diphosphate synthase is a cytosolic process. Leishmania major promastigote transfectants overexpressing farnesyl diphosphate synthase were highly resistant to risedronate, and the degree of resistance correlated with the increase in enzyme activity. Likewise, when resistance was induced by stepwise selection with the drug, the resulting resistant promastigotes exhibited increased levels of farnesyl diphosphate synthase. The overproduction of protein under different conditions of exposure to risedronate further supports the hypothesis that this enzyme is the main target of aminobisphosphonates in Leishmania cells.
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Affiliation(s)
- Aurora Ortiz-Gómez
- Instituto de Parasitología y Biomedicina López-Neyra, Consejo Superior de Investigaciones Científicas, Avda. del Conocimiento s/n, Parque Tecnológico Ciencias de la Salud, 18100 Armilla, Granada, Spain
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46
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Bode HB, Wenzel SC, Irschik H, Höfle G, Müller R. Unusual biosynthesis of leupyrrins in the myxobacterium Sorangium cellulosum. Angew Chem Int Ed Engl 2006; 43:4163-7. [PMID: 15307077 DOI: 10.1002/anie.200454240] [Citation(s) in RCA: 28] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/10/2022]
Affiliation(s)
- Helge Björn Bode
- Abteilung Molekularbiologie der Myxobakterien, Gesellschaft für Biotechnologische Forschung, Mascheroder Weg 1, 38124 Braunschweig, Germany
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47
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Oliveira DM, Gouveia JJS, Diniz NB, Pacheco ACL, Vasconcelos EJR, Diniz MC, Viana DA, Ferreira TD, Albuquerque MC, Fortier DC, Maia ARS, Costa LAC, Melo JOP, da Silva MC, Walter CA, Faria JO, Tome AR, Gomes MJN, Oliveira SMP, Araújo-Filho R, Costa RB, Maggioni R. Pathogenomics analysis of Leishmania spp.: flagellar gene families of putative virulence factors. OMICS-A JOURNAL OF INTEGRATIVE BIOLOGY 2005; 9:173-93. [PMID: 15969649 DOI: 10.1089/omi.2005.9.173] [Citation(s) in RCA: 8] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/13/2022]
Abstract
The trypanosomatid flagellar apparatus contains conventional and unique features, whose roles in infectivity are still enigmatic. Although the flagellum and the flagellar pocket are critical organelles responsible for all vesicular trafficking between the cytoplasm and cell surface, still very little is known about their roles in pathogenesis and how molecules get to and from the flagellar pocket. The ongoing analysis of the genome sequences and proteome profiles of Leishmania major and L infantum, Trypanosoma cruzi, T. brucei, and T. gambiensi ( www.genedb.org ), coupled with our own work on L. chagasi (as part of the Brazilian Northeast Genome Program- www.progene.ufpe.br ), prompted us to scrutinize flagellar genes and proteins of Leishmania spp. promastigotes that could be virulence factors in leishmaniasis. We have identified some overlooked parasite factors such as the MNUDC-1 (a protein involved in nuclear development and genomic fusion) and SQS (an enzyme of sterol biosynthesis), among the described flagellar gene families. A database concerning the results of this work, as well as of other studies of Leishmania and its organelles, is available at http://nugen.lcc.uece.br/LPGate . It will serve as a convenient bioinformatics resource on genomics and pathology of the etiological agents of leishmaniasis.
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Affiliation(s)
- Diana M Oliveira
- Núcleo de Genômica e Bioinformática, Faculdade de Veterinária, Universidade Estadual do Ceara (UECE), Campus do Itaperi, Fortaleza, Ceara, Brazil.
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48
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Al-Mohammed HI, Chance ML, Bates PA. Production and characterization of stable amphotericin-resistant amastigotes and promastigotes of Leishmania mexicana. Antimicrob Agents Chemother 2005; 49:3274-80. [PMID: 16048936 PMCID: PMC1196255 DOI: 10.1128/aac.49.8.3274-3280.2005] [Citation(s) in RCA: 39] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.1] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/20/2022] Open
Abstract
The sensitivities of Leishmania mexicana amastigote and promastigote forms to amphotericin B were investigated in vitro and found to be strongly influenced by the culture media used. When differences in culture media were minimized, there was no significant difference in the 50% inhibitory concentration values between the two life cycle stages. Stable amphotericin B-resistant amastigote and promastigote lines were produced by the application of increasing drug pressure to long-term cultures. Lines capable of growth in concentrations of amphotericin B lethal to normal parasites were produced. Compared to normal parasites, these amphotericin-resistant lines showed marked differences in membrane sterol compositions, with very high levels of 4,14,dimethyl-cholesta-8,24-dienol and other methyl sterols. They also showed a consistent morphological feature, the presence of multilamellar membrane-like material in the flagellar pocket, revealed by transmission electron microscopy. Amphotericin-resistant parasites were capable of infecting BALB/c mice, but the resulting lesion growth was slower than that after infection with normal parasites. However, unlike normal parasites, the amphotericin-resistant parasites were unaffected by experimental chemotherapy with amphotericin B. These results show that amphotericin B resistance could arise as a result of increased clinical use of amphotericin B therapy.
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Affiliation(s)
- Hamdan I Al-Mohammed
- Liverpool School of Tropical Medicine, Pembroke Place, Liverpool L3 5QA, United Kingdom
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49
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Mahmud T, Wenzel SC, Wan E, Wen KW, Bode HB, Gaitatzis N, Müller R. A biosynthetic pathway to isovaleryl-CoA in myxobacteria: the involvement of the mevalonate pathway. Chembiochem 2005; 6:322-30. [PMID: 15619721 DOI: 10.1002/cbic.200400261] [Citation(s) in RCA: 34] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/11/2022]
Abstract
A biosynthetic shunt pathway branching from the mevalonate pathway and providing starter units for branched-chain fatty acid and secondary metabolite biosynthesis has been identified in strains of the myxobacterium Stigmatella aurantiaca. This pathway is upregulated when the branched-chain alpha-keto acid dehydrogenase gene (bkd) is inactivated, thus impairing the normal branched-chain amino acid degradation process. We previously proposed that, in this pathway, isovaleryl-CoA is derived from 3,3-dimethylacrylyl-CoA (DMA-CoA). Here we show that DMA-CoA is an isomerization product of 3-methylbut-3-enoyl-CoA (3MB-CoA). This compound is directly derived from 3-hydroxy-3-methylglutaryl-CoA (HMG-CoA) by a decarboxylation/ dehydration reaction resembling the conversion of mevalonate 5-diphosphate to isopentenyl diphosphate. Incubation of cell-free extracts of a bkd mutant with HMG-CoA gave product(s) with the molecular mass of 3MB-CoA or DMA-CoA. The shunt pathway most likely also operates reversibly and provides an alternative source for the monomers of isoprenoid biosynthesis in myxobacteria that utilize L-leucine as precursor.
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Affiliation(s)
- Taifo Mahmud
- College of Pharmacy, Oregon State University, Corvallis, OR 97331-3507, USA.
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50
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Berriman M, Ghedin E, Hertz-Fowler C, Blandin G, Renauld H, Bartholomeu DC, Lennard NJ, Caler E, Hamlin NE, Haas B, Böhme U, Hannick L, Aslett MA, Shallom J, Marcello L, Hou L, Wickstead B, Alsmark UCM, Arrowsmith C, Atkin RJ, Barron AJ, Bringaud F, Brooks K, Carrington M, Cherevach I, Chillingworth TJ, Churcher C, Clark LN, Corton CH, Cronin A, Davies RM, Doggett J, Djikeng A, Feldblyum T, Field MC, Fraser A, Goodhead I, Hance Z, Harper D, Harris BR, Hauser H, Hostetler J, Ivens A, Jagels K, Johnson D, Johnson J, Jones K, Kerhornou AX, Koo H, Larke N, Landfear S, Larkin C, Leech V, Line A, Lord A, Macleod A, Mooney PJ, Moule S, Martin DMA, Morgan GW, Mungall K, Norbertczak H, Ormond D, Pai G, Peacock CS, Peterson J, Quail MA, Rabbinowitsch E, Rajandream MA, Reitter C, Salzberg SL, Sanders M, Schobel S, Sharp S, Simmonds M, Simpson AJ, Tallon L, Turner CMR, Tait A, Tivey AR, Van Aken S, Walker D, Wanless D, Wang S, White B, White O, Whitehead S, Woodward J, Wortman J, Adams MD, Embley TM, Gull K, Ullu E, Barry JD, Fairlamb AH, Opperdoes F, Barrell BG, Donelson JE, Hall N, Fraser CM, Melville SE, El-Sayed NM. The genome of the African trypanosome Trypanosoma brucei. Science 2005; 309:416-22. [PMID: 16020726 DOI: 10.1126/science.1112642] [Citation(s) in RCA: 1249] [Impact Index Per Article: 65.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/24/2022]
Abstract
African trypanosomes cause human sleeping sickness and livestock trypanosomiasis in sub-Saharan Africa. We present the sequence and analysis of the 11 megabase-sized chromosomes of Trypanosoma brucei. The 26-megabase genome contains 9068 predicted genes, including approximately 900 pseudogenes and approximately 1700 T. brucei-specific genes. Large subtelomeric arrays contain an archive of 806 variant surface glycoprotein (VSG) genes used by the parasite to evade the mammalian immune system. Most VSG genes are pseudogenes, which may be used to generate expressed mosaic genes by ectopic recombination. Comparisons of the cytoskeleton and endocytic trafficking systems with those of humans and other eukaryotic organisms reveal major differences. A comparison of metabolic pathways encoded by the genomes of T. brucei, T. cruzi, and Leishmania major reveals the least overall metabolic capability in T. brucei and the greatest in L. major. Horizontal transfer of genes of bacterial origin has contributed to some of the metabolic differences in these parasites, and a number of novel potential drug targets have been identified.
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Affiliation(s)
- Matthew Berriman
- Wellcome Trust Sanger Institute, Wellcome Trust Genome Campus, Hinxton CB10 1SA, UK.
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