1
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Rawson AM, Dempster AW, Humphreys CM, Minton NP. Pathogenicity and virulence of Clostridium botulinum. Virulence 2023; 14:2205251. [PMID: 37157163 PMCID: PMC10171130 DOI: 10.1080/21505594.2023.2205251] [Citation(s) in RCA: 7] [Impact Index Per Article: 7.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 05/10/2023] Open
Abstract
Clostridium botulinum, a polyphyletic Gram-positive taxon of bacteria, is classified purely by their ability to produce botulinum neurotoxin (BoNT). BoNT is the primary virulence factor and the causative agent of botulism. A potentially fatal disease, botulism is classically characterized by a symmetrical descending flaccid paralysis, which is left untreated can lead to respiratory failure and death. Botulism cases are classified into three main forms dependent on the nature of intoxication; foodborne, wound and infant. The BoNT, regarded as the most potent biological substance known, is a zinc metalloprotease that specifically cleaves SNARE proteins at neuromuscular junctions, preventing exocytosis of neurotransmitters, leading to muscle paralysis. The BoNT is now used to treat numerous medical conditions caused by overactive or spastic muscles and is extensively used in the cosmetic industry due to its high specificity and the exceedingly small doses needed to exert long-lasting pharmacological effects. Additionally, the ability to form endospores is critical to the pathogenicity of the bacteria. Disease transmission is often facilitated via the metabolically dormant spores that are highly resistant to environment stresses, allowing persistence in the environment in unfavourable conditions. Infant and wound botulism infections are initiated upon germination of the spores into neurotoxin producing vegetative cells, whereas foodborne botulism is attributed to ingestion of preformed BoNT. C. botulinum is a saprophytic bacterium, thought to have evolved its potent neurotoxin to establish a source of nutrients by killing its host.
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Affiliation(s)
- Alexander M Rawson
- Clostridia Research Group, BBSRC/EPSRC Synthetic Biology Research Centre (SBRC), School of Life Sciences, The Biodiscovery Institute, The University of Nottingham, Nottingham, UK
| | - Andrew W Dempster
- Clostridia Research Group, BBSRC/EPSRC Synthetic Biology Research Centre (SBRC), School of Life Sciences, The Biodiscovery Institute, The University of Nottingham, Nottingham, UK
| | - Christopher M Humphreys
- Clostridia Research Group, BBSRC/EPSRC Synthetic Biology Research Centre (SBRC), School of Life Sciences, The Biodiscovery Institute, The University of Nottingham, Nottingham, UK
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2
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Wang J, Ding Z, Xu W, He L, Huang J, Zhang C, Guo Q, Zou W. Botulinum toxin type A counteracts neuropathic pain by countering the increase of GlyT2 expression in the spinal cord of CCI rats. Brain Res 2022; 1796:148095. [PMID: 36165874 DOI: 10.1016/j.brainres.2022.148095] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 03/25/2022] [Revised: 08/26/2022] [Accepted: 09/15/2022] [Indexed: 11/15/2022]
Abstract
Botulinum toxin type A (BoNT/A) is a potent toxin, acts by cleaving synaptosome-associated-protein-25 (SNAP-25) to regulate the release of the neural transmitter and shows analgesic effect in neuropathic pain. However, the mechanisms of BoNT/A actions involved in nociceptions remain unclear. Glycine transporter 2 (GlyT2) is an isoform of glycine transporters, which plays an important role in the regulation of glycinergic neurotransmission. Inhibition of GlyTs could decrease pain sensation in neuropathic pain, the role of GlyT2 in the analgesic effect of BoNT/A has not been studied yet. In our present study, we demonstrated that the protein levels of GlyT2 and SNAP-25 were upregulated in the spinal cord after the development of chronic constriction injury (CCI)-induced neuropathic pain. Intraplantar application of BoNT/A (20 U/kg) attenuated mechanical allodynia induced by CCI and downregulated GlyT2 expression in the spinal cord. The application of BoNT/A s also decreased the expression of GlyT2 in pheochromocytoma (PC12) cells. Moreover, intrathecal application of lentivirus-mediated GlyT2 reversed the antinociceptive effect of BoNT/A in CCI rats. These findings indicate that GlyT2 contributes to the antinociceptive effect of BoNT/A and suggest a novel mechanism underlying BoNT/A's antinociception action.
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Affiliation(s)
- Jian Wang
- Department of Anesthesiology, Xiangya Hospital, Central South University, Changsha, Hunan 410008, China; National Clinical Research Center for Geriatric Disorders, Xiangya Hospital, Central South University, Changsha, Hunan 410008, China
| | - Zhuofeng Ding
- Department of Anesthesiology, Xiangya Hospital, Central South University, Changsha, Hunan 410008, China
| | - Wei Xu
- Department of Anesthesiology, Hunan Provincial Maternal and Child Health Care Hospital, Changsha, Hunan 410008, China
| | - Liqiong He
- Department of Anesthesiology, Xiangya Hospital, Central South University, Changsha, Hunan 410008, China
| | - Jiangju Huang
- Department of Anesthesiology, The First Hospital of Changsha, Changsha, Hunan 410008, China
| | - Chengliang Zhang
- Department of Cardiovascular Surgery, Xiangya Hospital, Central South University, Changsha, Hunan 410008, China
| | - Qulian Guo
- Department of Anesthesiology, Xiangya Hospital, Central South University, Changsha, Hunan 410008, China; National Clinical Research Center for Geriatric Disorders, Xiangya Hospital, Central South University, Changsha, Hunan 410008, China
| | - Wangyuan Zou
- Department of Anesthesiology, Xiangya Hospital, Central South University, Changsha, Hunan 410008, China; National Clinical Research Center for Geriatric Disorders, Xiangya Hospital, Central South University, Changsha, Hunan 410008, China.
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3
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Rasetti-Escargueil C, Popoff MR. Recent Developments in Botulinum Neurotoxins Detection. Microorganisms 2022; 10:microorganisms10051001. [PMID: 35630444 PMCID: PMC9145529 DOI: 10.3390/microorganisms10051001] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 04/01/2022] [Revised: 04/29/2022] [Accepted: 05/03/2022] [Indexed: 02/04/2023] Open
Abstract
Botulinum neurotoxins (BoNTs) are produced as protein complexes by bacteria of the genus Clostridium that are Gram-positive, anaerobic and spore forming (Clostridium botulinum, C. butyricum, C. baratii and C. argentinense spp.). BoNTs show a high immunological and genetic diversity. Therefore, fast, precise, and more reliable detection methods are still required to monitor outbreaks and ensure surveillance of botulism. The botulinum toxin field also comprises therapeutic uses, basic research studies and biodefense issues. This review presents currently available detection methods, and new methods offering the potential of enhanced precision and reproducibility. While the immunological methods offer a range of benefits, such as rapid analysis time, reproducibility and high sensitivity, their implementation is subject to the availability of suitable tools and reagents, such as specific antibodies. Currently, the mass spectrometry approach is the most sensitive in vitro method for a rapid detection of active or inactive forms of BoNTs. However, these methods require inter-laboratory validation before they can be more widely implemented in reference laboratories. In addition, these surrogate in vitro models also require full validation before they can be used as replacement bioassays of potency. Cell-based assays using neuronal cells in culture recapitulate all functional steps of toxin activity, but are still at various stages of development; they are not yet sufficiently robust, due to high batch-to-batch cell variability. Cell-based assays have a strong potential to replace the mouse bioassay (MBA) in terms of BoNT potency determination in pharmaceutical formulations; they can also help to identify suitable inhibitors while reducing the number of animals used. However, the development of safe countermeasures still requires the use of in vivo studies to complement in vitro immunological or cell-based approaches.
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4
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Fabris F, Šoštarić P, Matak I, Binz T, Toffan A, Simonato M, Montecucco C, Pirazzini M, Rossetto O. Detection of VAMP Proteolysis by Tetanus and Botulinum Neurotoxin Type B In Vivo with a Cleavage-Specific Antibody. Int J Mol Sci 2022; 23:ijms23084355. [PMID: 35457172 PMCID: PMC9024618 DOI: 10.3390/ijms23084355] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 03/22/2022] [Revised: 04/08/2022] [Accepted: 04/12/2022] [Indexed: 11/17/2022] Open
Abstract
Tetanus and Botulinum type B neurotoxins are bacterial metalloproteases that specifically cleave the vesicle-associated membrane protein VAMP at an identical peptide bond, resulting in inhibition of neuroexocytosis. The minute amounts of these neurotoxins commonly used in experimental animals are not detectable, nor is detection of their VAMP substrate sensitive enough. The immune detection of the cleaved substrate is much more sensitive, as we have previously shown for botulinum neurotoxin type A. Here, we describe the production in rabbit of a polyclonal antibody raised versus a peptide encompassing the 13 residues C-terminal with respect to the neurotoxin cleavage site. The antibody was affinity purified and found to recognize, with high specificity and selectivity, the novel N-terminus of VAMP that becomes exposed after cleavage by tetanus toxin and botulinum toxin type B. This antibody recognizes the neoepitope not only in native and denatured VAMP but also in cultured neurons and in neurons in vivo in neurotoxin-treated mice or rats, suggesting the great potential of this novel tool to elucidate tetanus and botulinum B toxin activity in vivo.
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Affiliation(s)
- Federico Fabris
- Department of Biomedical Sciences, University of Padova, Via Ugo Bassi 58/B, 35131 Padova, Italy; (F.F.); (C.M.)
| | - Petra Šoštarić
- Department of Pharmacology, School of Medicine, University of Zagreb, Šalata 11, 10000 Zagreb, Croatia; (P.Š.); (I.M.)
| | - Ivica Matak
- Department of Pharmacology, School of Medicine, University of Zagreb, Šalata 11, 10000 Zagreb, Croatia; (P.Š.); (I.M.)
| | - Thomas Binz
- Institute of Cellular Biochemistry, Hannover Medical School, Carl-Neuberg-Straße 1, 30625 Hannover, Germany;
| | - Anna Toffan
- Istituto Zooprofilattico Sperimentale delle Venezie, Viale dell’Università 10, 35020 Legnaro, Italy;
| | - Morena Simonato
- Institute of Neuroscience, Italian Research Council, University of Padova, Via Ugo Bassi 58/B, 35131 Padova, Italy;
| | - Cesare Montecucco
- Department of Biomedical Sciences, University of Padova, Via Ugo Bassi 58/B, 35131 Padova, Italy; (F.F.); (C.M.)
- Institute of Neuroscience, Italian Research Council, University of Padova, Via Ugo Bassi 58/B, 35131 Padova, Italy;
| | - Marco Pirazzini
- Department of Biomedical Sciences, University of Padova, Via Ugo Bassi 58/B, 35131 Padova, Italy; (F.F.); (C.M.)
- Interdepartmental Research Center of Myology CIR-Myo, University of Padova, Via Ugo Bassi 58/B, 35131 Padova, Italy
- Correspondence: (M.P.); (O.R.)
| | - Ornella Rossetto
- Department of Biomedical Sciences, University of Padova, Via Ugo Bassi 58/B, 35131 Padova, Italy; (F.F.); (C.M.)
- Institute of Neuroscience, Italian Research Council, University of Padova, Via Ugo Bassi 58/B, 35131 Padova, Italy;
- Interdepartmental Research Center of Myology CIR-Myo, University of Padova, Via Ugo Bassi 58/B, 35131 Padova, Italy
- Correspondence: (M.P.); (O.R.)
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5
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Chen Z, Peng B, Ioannidis VN, Li M, Karypis G, Ning X. A knowledge graph of clinical trials ([Formula: see text]). Sci Rep 2022; 12:4724. [PMID: 35304504 PMCID: PMC8933553 DOI: 10.1038/s41598-022-08454-z] [Citation(s) in RCA: 3] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 11/05/2021] [Accepted: 02/28/2022] [Indexed: 02/05/2023] Open
Abstract
Effective and successful clinical trials are essential in developing new drugs and advancing new treatments. However, clinical trials are very expensive and easy to fail. The high cost and low success rate of clinical trials motivate research on inferring knowledge from existing clinical trials in innovative ways for designing future clinical trials. In this manuscript, we present our efforts on constructing the first publicly available Clinical Trials Knowledge Graph, denoted as [Formula: see text]. [Formula: see text] includes nodes representing medical entities in clinical trials (e.g., studies, drugs and conditions), and edges representing the relations among these entities (e.g., drugs used in studies). Our embedding analysis demonstrates the potential utilities of [Formula: see text] in various applications such as drug repurposing and similarity search, among others.
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Affiliation(s)
- Ziqi Chen
- The Ohio State University, Columbus, USA
| | - Bo Peng
- The Ohio State University, Columbus, USA
| | | | - Mufei Li
- Amazon Web Services Shanghai AI Lab, Shanghai, China
| | | | - Xia Ning
- The Ohio State University, Columbus, USA
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6
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Sen E, Kota KP, Panchal RG, Bavari S, Kiris E. Screening of a Focused Ubiquitin-Proteasome Pathway Inhibitor Library Identifies Small Molecules as Novel Modulators of Botulinum Neurotoxin Type A Toxicity. Front Pharmacol 2021; 12:763950. [PMID: 34646144 PMCID: PMC8503599 DOI: 10.3389/fphar.2021.763950] [Citation(s) in RCA: 2] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 08/24/2021] [Accepted: 09/14/2021] [Indexed: 01/18/2023] Open
Abstract
Botulinum neurotoxins (BoNTs) are known as the most potent bacterial toxins, which can cause potentially deadly disease botulism. BoNT Serotype A (BoNT/A) is the most studied serotype as it is responsible for most human botulism cases, and its formulations are extensively utilized in clinics for therapeutic and cosmetic applications. BoNT/A has the longest-lasting effect in neurons compared to other serotypes, and there has been high interest in understanding how BoNT/A manages to escape protein degradation machinery in neurons for months. Recent work demonstrated that an E3 ligase, HECTD2, leads to efficient ubiquitination of the BoNT/A Light Chain (A/LC); however, the dominant activity of a deubiquitinase (DUB), VCIP135, inhibits the degradation of the enzymatic component. Another DUB, USP9X, was also identified as a potential indirect contributor to A/LC degradation. In this study, we screened a focused ubiquitin-proteasome pathway inhibitor library, including VCIP135 and USP9X inhibitors, and identified ten potential lead compounds affecting BoNT/A mediated SNAP-25 cleavage in neurons in pre-intoxication conditions. We then tested the dose-dependent effects of the compounds and their potential toxic effects in cells. A subset of the lead compounds demonstrated efficacy on the stability and ubiquitination of A/LC in cells. Three of the compounds, WP1130 (degrasyn), PR-619, and Celastrol, further demonstrated efficacy against BoNT/A holotoxin in an in vitro post-intoxication model. Excitingly, PR-619 and WP1130 are known inhibitors of VCIP135 and USP9X, respectively. Modulation of BoNT turnover in cells by small molecules can potentially lead to the development of effective countermeasures against botulism.
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Affiliation(s)
- Edanur Sen
- Department of Biological Sciences, Middle East Technical University, Ankara, Turkey
| | - Krishna P Kota
- Therapeutic Discovery Branch, United States Army Medical Research Institute of Infectious Diseases, Frederick, MD, United States
| | - Rekha G Panchal
- Therapeutic Discovery Branch, United States Army Medical Research Institute of Infectious Diseases, Frederick, MD, United States
| | - Sina Bavari
- Edge BioInnovation and Healion Bio, Frederick, MD, United States
| | - Erkan Kiris
- Department of Biological Sciences, Middle East Technical University, Ankara, Turkey
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7
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Périer C, Martin V, Cornet S, Favre‐Guilmard C, Rocher M, Bindler J, Wagner S, Andriambeloson E, Rudkin B, Marty R, Vignaud A, Beard M, Lezmi S, Kalinichev M. Recombinant botulinum neurotoxin serotype A1 in vivo characterization. Pharmacol Res Perspect 2021; 9:e00857. [PMID: 34632725 PMCID: PMC8502944 DOI: 10.1002/prp2.857] [Citation(s) in RCA: 11] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 01/11/2021] [Revised: 08/02/2021] [Accepted: 08/04/2021] [Indexed: 12/27/2022] Open
Abstract
Clinically used botulinum neurotoxins (BoNTs) are natural products of Clostridium botulinum. A novel, recombinant BoNT type A1 (rBoNT/A1; IPN10260) has been synthesized using the native amino acid sequence expressed in Escherichia coli and has previously been characterized in vitro and ex vivo. Here, we aimed to characterize rBoNT/A1 in vivo and evaluate its effects on skeletal muscle. The properties of rBoNT/A1 following single, intramuscular administration were evaluated in the mouse and rat digit abduction score (DAS) assays and compared with those of natural BoNT/A1 (nBoNT/A1). rBoNT/A1-injected tibialis anterior was assessed in the in situ muscle force test in rats. rBoNT/A1-injected gastrocnemius lateralis (GL) muscle was assessed in the compound muscle action potential (CMAP) test in rats. The rBoNT/A1-injected GL muscle was evaluated for muscle weight, volume, myofiber composition and immunohistochemical detection of cleaved SNAP25 (c-SNAP25). Results showed that rBoNT/A1 and nBoNT/A1 were equipotent and had similar onset and duration of action in both mouse and rat DAS assays. rBoNT/A1 caused a dose-dependent inhibition of muscle force and a rapid long-lasting reduction in CMAP amplitude that lasted for at least 30 days. Dose-dependent reductions in GL weight and volume and increases in myofiber atrophy were accompanied by immunohistochemical detection of c-SNAP25. Overall, rBoNT/A1 and nBoNT/A1 exhibited similar properties following intramuscular administration. rBoNT/A1 inhibited motoneurons neurotransmitter release, which was robust, long-lasting, and accompanied by cleavage of SNAP25. rBoNT/A1 is a useful tool molecule for comparison with current natural and future modified recombinant neurotoxins products.
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Affiliation(s)
| | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | - Brian Rudkin
- CARPACCIO.cloudLyonFrance
- Univ Lyon, Université Lyon 1, INSERMStem Cell and Brain Research Institute U120BronFrance
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8
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Nepal MR, Jeong TC. Alternative Methods for Testing Botulinum Toxin: Current Status and Future Perspectives. Biomol Ther (Seoul) 2020; 28:302-310. [PMID: 32126735 PMCID: PMC7327137 DOI: 10.4062/biomolther.2019.200] [Citation(s) in RCA: 10] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 11/29/2019] [Revised: 02/06/2020] [Accepted: 02/17/2020] [Indexed: 01/29/2023] Open
Abstract
Botulinum toxins are neurotoxic modular proteins composed of a heavy chain and a light chain connected by a disulfide bond and are produced by Clostridium botulinum. Although lethally toxic, botulinum toxin in low doses is clinically effective in numerous medical conditions, including muscle spasticity, strabismus, hyperactive urinary bladder, excessive sweating, and migraine. Globally, several companies are now producing products containing botulinum toxin for medical and cosmetic purposes, including the reduction of facial wrinkles. To test the efficacy and toxicity of botulinum toxin, animal tests have been solely and widely used, resulting in the inevitable sacrifice of hundreds of animals. Hence, alternative methods are urgently required to replace animals in botulinum toxin testing. Here, the various alternative methods developed to test the toxicity and efficacy of botulinum toxins have been briefly reviewed and future perspectives have been detailed.
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Affiliation(s)
- Mahesh Raj Nepal
- College of Pharmacy, Yeungnam University, Gyeongsan 38541, Republic of Korea
| | - Tae Cheon Jeong
- College of Pharmacy, Yeungnam University, Gyeongsan 38541, Republic of Korea
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Schenke M, Schjeide BM, Püschel GP, Seeger B. Analysis of Motor Neurons Differentiated from Human Induced Pluripotent Stem Cells for the Use in Cell-Based Botulinum Neurotoxin Activity Assays. Toxins (Basel) 2020; 12:toxins12050276. [PMID: 32344847 PMCID: PMC7291138 DOI: 10.3390/toxins12050276] [Citation(s) in RCA: 12] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 02/12/2020] [Revised: 04/12/2020] [Accepted: 04/23/2020] [Indexed: 01/03/2023] Open
Abstract
Botulinum neurotoxins (BoNTs) are potent neurotoxins produced by bacteria, which inhibit neurotransmitter release, specifically in their physiological target known as motor neurons (MNs). For the potency assessment of BoNTs produced for treatment in traditional and aesthetic medicine, the mouse lethality assay is still used by the majority of manufacturers, which is ethically questionable in terms of the 3Rs principle. In this study, MNs were differentiated from human induced pluripotent stem cells based on three published protocols. The resulting cell populations were analyzed for their MN yield and their suitability for the potency assessment of BoNTs. MNs produce specific gangliosides and synaptic proteins, which are bound by BoNTs in order to be taken up by receptor-mediated endocytosis, which is followed by cleavage of specific soluble N-ethylmaleimide-sensitive-factor attachment receptor (SNARE) proteins required for neurotransmitter release. The presence of receptors and substrates for all BoNT serotypes was demonstrated in MNs generated in vitro. In particular, the MN differentiation protocol based on Du et al. yielded high numbers of MNs in a short amount of time with high expression of BoNT receptors and targets. The resulting cells are more sensitive to BoNT/A1 than the commonly used neuroblastoma cell line SiMa. MNs are, therefore, an ideal tool for being combined with already established detection methods.
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Affiliation(s)
- Maren Schenke
- Institute for Food Toxicology, Department of Food Toxicology and Replacement/Complementary Methods to Animal Testing, University of Veterinary Medicine, 30173 Hannover, Germany;
| | - Brit-Maren Schjeide
- Institute of Nutritional Science, Department of Nutritional Biochemistry, University of Potsdam, 14558 Nuthetal, Germany; (B.-M.S.); (G.P.P.)
| | - Gerhard P. Püschel
- Institute of Nutritional Science, Department of Nutritional Biochemistry, University of Potsdam, 14558 Nuthetal, Germany; (B.-M.S.); (G.P.P.)
| | - Bettina Seeger
- Institute for Food Toxicology, Department of Food Toxicology and Replacement/Complementary Methods to Animal Testing, University of Veterinary Medicine, 30173 Hannover, Germany;
- Correspondence:
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Vazquez-Cintron E, Machamer J, Ondeck C, Pagarigan K, Winner B, Bodner P, Kelly K, Pennington MR, McNutt P. Symptomatic treatment of botulism with a clinically approved small molecule. JCI Insight 2020; 5:132891. [PMID: 31996484 DOI: 10.1172/jci.insight.132891] [Citation(s) in RCA: 13] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 08/26/2019] [Accepted: 12/18/2019] [Indexed: 11/17/2022] Open
Abstract
Botulinum neurotoxins (BoNTs) are potent neuroparalytic toxins that cause mortality through respiratory paralysis. The approved medical countermeasure for BoNT poisoning is infusion of antitoxin immunoglobulins. However, antitoxins have poor therapeutic efficacy in symptomatic patients; thus, there is an urgent need for treatments that reduce the need for artificial ventilation. We report that the US Food and Drug Administration-approved potassium channel blocker 3,4-diaminopyridine (3,4-DAP) reverses respiratory depression and neuromuscular weakness in murine models of acute and chronic botulism. In ex vivo studies, 3,4-DAP restored end-plate potentials and twitch contractions of diaphragms isolated from mice at terminal stages of BoNT serotype A (BoNT/A) botulism. In vivo, human-equivalent doses of 3,4-DAP reversed signs of severe respiratory depression and restored mobility in BoNT/A-intoxicated mice at terminal stages of respiratory collapse. Multiple-dosing administration of 3,4-DAP improved respiration and extended survival at up to 5 LD50 BoNT/A. Finally, 3,4-DAP reduced gastrocnemius muscle paralysis and reversed respiratory depression in sublethal models of serotype A-, B-, and E-induced botulism. These findings make a compelling argument for repurposing 3,4-DAP to symptomatically treat symptoms of muscle paralysis caused by botulism, independent of serotype. Furthermore, they suggest that 3,4-DAP is effective for a range of botulism symptoms at clinically relevant time points.
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11
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Mechanisms of Botulinum Toxin Type A Action on Pain. Toxins (Basel) 2019; 11:toxins11080459. [PMID: 31387301 PMCID: PMC6723487 DOI: 10.3390/toxins11080459] [Citation(s) in RCA: 92] [Impact Index Per Article: 18.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 07/14/2019] [Revised: 07/26/2019] [Accepted: 07/29/2019] [Indexed: 12/31/2022] Open
Abstract
Already a well-established treatment for different autonomic and movement disorders, the use of botulinum toxin type A (BoNT/A) in pain conditions is now continuously expanding. Currently, the only approved use of BoNT/A in relation to pain is the treatment of chronic migraines. However, controlled clinical studies show promising results in neuropathic and other chronic pain disorders. In comparison with other conventional and non-conventional analgesic drugs, the greatest advantages of BoNT/A use are its sustained effect after a single application and its safety. Its efficacy in certain therapy-resistant pain conditions is of special importance. Novel results in recent years has led to a better understanding of its actions, although further experimental and clinical research is warranted. Here, we summarize the effects contributing to these advantageous properties of BoNT/A in pain therapy, specific actions along the nociceptive pathway, consequences of its central activities, the molecular mechanisms of actions in neurons, and general pharmacokinetic parameters.
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12
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Botulinum Toxin Induced Atrophy: An Uncharted Territory. Toxins (Basel) 2018; 10:toxins10080313. [PMID: 30072597 PMCID: PMC6115806 DOI: 10.3390/toxins10080313] [Citation(s) in RCA: 18] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 07/04/2018] [Revised: 07/30/2018] [Accepted: 07/31/2018] [Indexed: 11/29/2022] Open
Abstract
Botulinum neurotoxins (BoNTs) produce local chemo-denervation by cleaving soluble N-ethylmaleimide-sensitive factor activating protein receptor (SNARE) proteins. Botulinum neurotoxins are therapeutically indicated in several neurological disorders and have been in use for three decades. The long-term efficacy, safety, and side effects of BoNTs have been well documented in the literature. However, the development of muscle atrophy following chronic exposure to BoNTs has not received sufficient attention. Muscle atrophy is not only cosmetically distressing, but also has an impact on future injections. An extensive literature search was conducted on atrophy and mechanisms of atrophy. Five hundred and four relevant articles in the English language were reviewed. This review revealed the surprising lack of documentation of atrophy within the literature. In addition, as demonstrated in this review, the mechanisms and the clinical factors that may lead to atrophy have also been poorly studied. However, even with this limited information it is possible to indicate factors that could modify the clinical approach to botulinum toxin injections. This review highlights the need for further study of atrophy following BoNT injections.
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13
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Maiarù M, Leese C, Certo M, Echeverria-Altuna I, Mangione AS, Arsenault J, Davletov B, Hunt SP. Selective neuronal silencing using synthetic botulinum molecules alleviates chronic pain in mice. Sci Transl Med 2018; 10:10/450/eaar7384. [DOI: 10.1126/scitranslmed.aar7384] [Citation(s) in RCA: 21] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 01/23/2018] [Revised: 04/20/2018] [Accepted: 06/28/2018] [Indexed: 12/16/2022]
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14
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Caleo M, Restani L. Exploiting Botulinum Neurotoxins for the Study of Brain Physiology and Pathology. Toxins (Basel) 2018; 10:toxins10050175. [PMID: 29693600 PMCID: PMC5983231 DOI: 10.3390/toxins10050175] [Citation(s) in RCA: 12] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 03/31/2018] [Revised: 04/21/2018] [Accepted: 04/23/2018] [Indexed: 01/25/2023] Open
Abstract
Botulinum neurotoxins are metalloproteases that specifically cleave N-ethylmaleimide-sensitive factor attachment protein receptor (SNARE) proteins in synaptic terminals, resulting in a potent inhibition of vesicle fusion and transmitter release. The family comprises different serotypes (BoNT/A to BoNT/G). The natural target of these toxins is represented by the neuromuscular junction, where BoNTs block acetylcholine release. In this review, we describe the actions of botulinum toxins after direct delivery to the central nervous system (CNS), where BoNTs block exocytosis of several transmitters, with near-complete silencing of neural networks. The use of clostridial neurotoxins in the CNS has allowed us to investigate specifically the role of synaptic activity in different physiological and pathological processes. The silencing properties of BoNTs can be exploited for therapeutic purposes, for example to counteract pathological hyperactivity and seizures in epileptogenic brain foci, or to investigate the role of activity in degenerative diseases like prion disease. Altogether, clostridial neurotoxins and their derivatives hold promise as powerful tools for both the basic understanding of brain function and the dissection and treatment of activity-dependent pathogenic pathways.
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Affiliation(s)
- Matteo Caleo
- CNR Neuroscience Institute, via G. Moruzzi 1, 56124 Pisa, Italy.
| | - Laura Restani
- CNR Neuroscience Institute, via G. Moruzzi 1, 56124 Pisa, Italy.
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A Study and Review of Effects of Botulinum Toxins on Mast Cell Dependent and Independent Pruritus. Toxins (Basel) 2018; 10:toxins10040134. [PMID: 29570628 PMCID: PMC5923300 DOI: 10.3390/toxins10040134] [Citation(s) in RCA: 9] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 03/07/2018] [Revised: 03/21/2018] [Accepted: 03/21/2018] [Indexed: 12/03/2022] Open
Abstract
Pruriceptive itch originates following activation of peripheral sensory nerve terminals when pruritogens come in contact with the skin. The ability of botulinum neurotoxins (BoNTs) to attenuate transmitter release from afferent terminals provides a rationale for studying its effect on pruritus. This study investigated the effects of BoNT/A1 and BoNT/B1 on mast cell dependent (Compound 48/80:48/80) and independent (Chloroquine:CQ) scratching. C57Bl/6 male mice received intradermal injection of 1.5 U of BoNT/A1, BoNT/B1 or saline 2, 7, 14 and 21 days prior to ipsilateral 48/80 or CQ at the nape of the neck. Ipsilateral hind paw scratching was determined using an automated recording device. The effect of BoNTs on 48/80 mediated mast cell degranulation was analyzed in human and murine mast cells and the presence of SNAREs was determined using qPCR, immunostaining and Western blot. Pre-treatment with BoNT/A1 and BoNT/B1 reduced 48/80 and CQ induced scratching behavior starting on day 2 with reversal by day 21. Both serotypes inhibited 48/80 induced mast cell degranulation. qPCR and immunostaining detected SNAP-25 mRNA and protein, respectively, in mast cells, however, Western blots did not. This study demonstrates the long-lasting anti-pruritic effects of two BoNT serotypes, in a murine pruritus model using two different mechanistically driven pruritogens. These data also indicate that BoNTs may have a direct effect upon mast cell degranulation.
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16
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Bradford AB, Machamer JB, Russo TM, McNutt PM. 3,4-diaminopyridine reverses paralysis in botulinum neurotoxin-intoxicated diaphragms through two functionally distinct mechanisms. Toxicol Appl Pharmacol 2018; 341:77-86. [PMID: 29366638 DOI: 10.1016/j.taap.2018.01.012] [Citation(s) in RCA: 8] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 09/26/2017] [Revised: 01/15/2018] [Accepted: 01/18/2018] [Indexed: 01/11/2023]
Abstract
Botulinum neurotoxins (BoNTs) are exceedingly potent neurological poisons that prevent neurotransmitter release from peripheral nerve terminals by cleaving presynaptic proteins required for synaptic vesicle fusion. The ensuing neuromuscular paralysis causes death by asphyxiation. Although no antidotal treatments exist to block toxin activity within the nerve terminal, aminopyridine antagonists of voltage-gated potassium channels have been proposed as symptomatic treatments for botulism toxemia. However, clinical evaluation of aminopyridines as symptomatic treatments for botulism has been inconclusive, in part because mechanisms responsible for reversal of paralysis in BoNT-poisoned nerve terminals are not understood. Here we measured the effects of 3,4-diaminopyridine (DAP) on phrenic nerve-elicited diaphragm contraction and end-plate potentials at various times after intoxication with BoNT serotypes A, B, or E. We found that DAP-mediated increases in quantal content promote neurotransmission from intoxicated nerve terminals through two functionally distinguishable mechanisms. First, DAP increases the probability of neurotransmission at non-intoxicated release sites. This mechanism is serotype-independent, becomes less effective as nerve terminals become progressively impaired, and remains susceptible to ongoing intoxication. Second, DAP elicits persistent production of toxin-resistant endplate potentials from nerve terminals fully intoxicated by BoNT/A, but not serotypes B or E. Since this effect appears specific to BoNT/A intoxication, we propose that DAP treatment enables BoNT/A-cleaved SNAP-25 to productively engage in fusogenic release by increasing the opportunity for low-efficiency fusion events. These findings have important implications for DAP as a botulism therapeutic by defining conditions under which DAP may be clinically effective in reversing botulism symptoms.
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Affiliation(s)
- Aaron B Bradford
- Department of Neuroscience, United States Army Medical Research Institute of Chemical Defense, 2900 Ricketts Point Road, Gunpowder, MD 21010, USA
| | - James B Machamer
- Department of Neuroscience, United States Army Medical Research Institute of Chemical Defense, 2900 Ricketts Point Road, Gunpowder, MD 21010, USA
| | - Trisha M Russo
- Department of Neuroscience, United States Army Medical Research Institute of Chemical Defense, 2900 Ricketts Point Road, Gunpowder, MD 21010, USA
| | - Patrick M McNutt
- Department of Neuroscience, United States Army Medical Research Institute of Chemical Defense, 2900 Ricketts Point Road, Gunpowder, MD 21010, USA.
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17
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Use-dependent potentiation of voltage-gated calcium channels rescues neurotransmission in nerve terminals intoxicated by botulinum neurotoxin serotype A. Sci Rep 2017; 7:15862. [PMID: 29158500 PMCID: PMC5696531 DOI: 10.1038/s41598-017-16064-3] [Citation(s) in RCA: 6] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.9] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 09/25/2017] [Accepted: 11/06/2017] [Indexed: 01/27/2023] Open
Abstract
Botulinum neurotoxins (BoNTs) are highly potent toxins that cleave neuronal SNARE proteins required for neurotransmission, causing flaccid paralysis and death by asphyxiation. Currently, there are no clinical treatments to delay or reverse BoNT-induced blockade of neuromuscular transmission. While aminopyridines have demonstrated varying efficacy in transiently reducing paralysis following BoNT poisoning, the precise mechanisms by which aminopyridines symptomatically treat botulism are not understood. Here we found that activity-dependent potentiation of presynaptic voltage-gated calcium channels (VGCCs) underlies 3,4-diaminopyridine (3,4-DAP)-mediated rescue of neurotransmission in central nervous system synapses and mouse diaphragm neuromuscular junctions fully intoxicated by BoNT serotype A. Combinatorial treatments with 3,4-DAP and VGCC agonists proved synergistic in restoring suprathreshold endplate potentials in mouse diaphragms fully intoxicated by BoNT/A. In contrast, synapses fully intoxicated by BoNT serotypes D or E were refractory to synaptic rescue by any treatment. We interpret these data to propose that increasing the duration or extent of VGCC activation prolongs the opportunity for low-efficiency fusion by fusogenic complexes incorporating BoNT/A-cleaved SNAP-25. The identification of VGCC agonists that rescue neurotransmission in BoNT/A-intoxicated synapses provides compelling evidence for potential therapeutic utility in some cases of human botulism.
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18
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Yadirgi G, Stickings P, Rajagopal S, Liu Y, Sesardic D. Immuno-detection of cleaved SNAP-25 from differentiated mouse embryonic stem cells provides a sensitive assay for determination of botulinum A toxin and antitoxin potency. J Immunol Methods 2017; 451:90-99. [PMID: 28943257 DOI: 10.1016/j.jim.2017.09.007] [Citation(s) in RCA: 11] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 07/12/2017] [Revised: 09/19/2017] [Accepted: 09/20/2017] [Indexed: 01/12/2023]
Abstract
Botulinum toxin type A is a causative agent of human botulism. Due to high toxicity and ease of production it is classified by the Centres for Disease Control and Prevention as a category A bioterrorism agent. The same serotype, BoNT/A, is also the most widely used in pharmaceutical preparations for treatment of a diverse range of neuromuscular disorders. Traditionally, animals are used to confirm the presence and activity of toxin and to establish neutralizing capabilities of countermeasures in toxin neutralization tests. Cell based assays for BoNT/A have been reported as the most viable alternative to animal models, since they are capable of reflecting all key steps (binding, translocation, internalization and cleavage of intracellular substrate) involved in toxin activity. In this paper we report preliminary development of a simple immunochemical method for specifically detecting BoNT/A cleaved intracellular substrate, SNAP-25, in cell lysates of neurons derived from mouse embryonic stem cells. The assay offers sensitivity of better than 0.1LD50/ml (3fM) which is not matched by other functional assays, including the mouse bioassay, and provides serotype specificity for quantitative detection of BoNT/A and anti-BoNT/A antitoxin. Subject to formal validation, the method described here could potentially be used as a substitute for the mouse bioassay to measure potency and consistency of therapeutic products.
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Affiliation(s)
- G Yadirgi
- Division of Bacteriology, National Institute for Biological Standards and Control, a center of the Medicines and Healthcare Products Regulatory Agency, South Mimms, Potters Bar, Hertfordshire EN6 3QG, UK.
| | - P Stickings
- Division of Bacteriology, National Institute for Biological Standards and Control, a center of the Medicines and Healthcare Products Regulatory Agency, South Mimms, Potters Bar, Hertfordshire EN6 3QG, UK.
| | - S Rajagopal
- Division of Bacteriology, National Institute for Biological Standards and Control, a center of the Medicines and Healthcare Products Regulatory Agency, South Mimms, Potters Bar, Hertfordshire EN6 3QG, UK.
| | - Y Liu
- Division of Bacteriology, National Institute for Biological Standards and Control, a center of the Medicines and Healthcare Products Regulatory Agency, South Mimms, Potters Bar, Hertfordshire EN6 3QG, UK.
| | - D Sesardic
- Division of Bacteriology, National Institute for Biological Standards and Control, a center of the Medicines and Healthcare Products Regulatory Agency, South Mimms, Potters Bar, Hertfordshire EN6 3QG, UK.
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19
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Pirazzini M, Rossetto O, Eleopra R, Montecucco C. Botulinum Neurotoxins: Biology, Pharmacology, and Toxicology. Pharmacol Rev 2017; 69:200-235. [PMID: 28356439 PMCID: PMC5394922 DOI: 10.1124/pr.116.012658] [Citation(s) in RCA: 410] [Impact Index Per Article: 58.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/23/2022] Open
Abstract
The study of botulinum neurotoxins (BoNT) is rapidly progressing in many aspects.
Novel BoNTs are being discovered owing to next generation sequencing, but their
biologic and pharmacological properties remain largely unknown. The molecular
structure of the large protein complexes that the toxin forms with accessory
proteins, which are included in some BoNT type A1 and B1 pharmacological
preparations, have been determined. By far the largest effort has been dedicated to
the testing and validation of BoNTs as therapeutic agents in an ever increasing
number of applications, including pain therapy. BoNT type A1 has been also exploited
in a variety of cosmetic treatments, alone or in combination with other agents, and
this specific market has reached the size of the one dedicated to the treatment of
medical syndromes. The pharmacological properties and mode of action of BoNTs have
shed light on general principles of neuronal transport and protein-protein
interactions and are stimulating basic science studies. Moreover, the wide array of
BoNTs discovered and to be discovered and the production of recombinant BoNTs endowed
with specific properties suggest novel uses in therapeutics with increasing
disease/symptom specifity. These recent developments are reviewed here to provide an
updated picture of the biologic mechanism of action of BoNTs, of their increasing use
in pharmacology and in cosmetics, and of their toxicology.
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Affiliation(s)
- Marco Pirazzini
- Department of Biomedical Sciences, University of Padova, Italy (M.P., O.R., C.M.); Neurologic Department, University-Hospital S. Maria della Misericordia, Udine, Italy (R.E.); and Consiglio Nazionale delle Ricerche, Institute of Neuroscience, University of Padova, Italy (C.M.)
| | - Ornella Rossetto
- Department of Biomedical Sciences, University of Padova, Italy (M.P., O.R., C.M.); Neurologic Department, University-Hospital S. Maria della Misericordia, Udine, Italy (R.E.); and Consiglio Nazionale delle Ricerche, Institute of Neuroscience, University of Padova, Italy (C.M.)
| | - Roberto Eleopra
- Department of Biomedical Sciences, University of Padova, Italy (M.P., O.R., C.M.); Neurologic Department, University-Hospital S. Maria della Misericordia, Udine, Italy (R.E.); and Consiglio Nazionale delle Ricerche, Institute of Neuroscience, University of Padova, Italy (C.M.)
| | - Cesare Montecucco
- Department of Biomedical Sciences, University of Padova, Italy (M.P., O.R., C.M.); Neurologic Department, University-Hospital S. Maria della Misericordia, Udine, Italy (R.E.); and Consiglio Nazionale delle Ricerche, Institute of Neuroscience, University of Padova, Italy (C.M.)
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20
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Jenkinson SP, Grandgirard D, Heidemann M, Tscherter A, Avondet MA, Leib SL. Embryonic Stem Cell-Derived Neurons Grown on Multi-Electrode Arrays as a Novel In vitro Bioassay for the Detection of Clostridium botulinum Neurotoxins. Front Pharmacol 2017; 8:73. [PMID: 28280466 PMCID: PMC5322221 DOI: 10.3389/fphar.2017.00073] [Citation(s) in RCA: 18] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 11/11/2016] [Accepted: 02/06/2017] [Indexed: 12/01/2022] Open
Abstract
Clostridium botulinum neurotoxins (BoNTs) are the most poisonous naturally occurring protein toxins known to mankind and are the causative agents of the severe and potentially life-threatening disease botulism. They are also known for their application as cosmetics and as unique bio-pharmaceuticals to treat an increasing number of neurological and non-neurological disorders. Currently, the potency of biologically active BoNT for therapeutic use is mainly monitored by the murine LD50-assay, an ethically disputable test causing suffering and death of a considerable number of mice. The aim of this study was to establish an in vitro assay as an alternative to the widely used in vivo mouse bioassay. We report a novel BoNT detection assay using mouse embryonic stem cell-derived neurons (mESN) cultured on multi-electrode arrays (MEAs). After 21 days in culture, the mESN formed a neuronal network showing spontaneous bursting activity based on functional synapses and express the necessary target proteins for BoNTs. Treating cultures for 6 h with 16.6 pM of BoNT serotype A and incubation with 1.66 pM BoNT/A or 33 Units/ml of Botox® for 24 h lead to a significant reduction of both spontaneous network bursts and average spike rate. This data suggests that mESN cultured on MEAs pose a novel, biologically relevant model that can be used to detect and quantify functional BoNT effects, thus accelerating BoNT research while decreasing animal use.
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Affiliation(s)
- Stephen P Jenkinson
- Neuroinfection Laboratory, Institute for Infectious Diseases, University of BernBern, Switzerland; Biology Division, Spiez Laboratory, Swiss Federal Office for Civil ProtectionSpiez, Switzerland; Cluster for Regenerative Neuroscience, Department for Clinical Research, University of BernBern, Switzerland; Graduate School for Cellular and Biomedical Sciences, University of BernBern, Switzerland
| | - Denis Grandgirard
- Neuroinfection Laboratory, Institute for Infectious Diseases, University of BernBern, Switzerland; Cluster for Regenerative Neuroscience, Department for Clinical Research, University of BernBern, Switzerland
| | | | - Anne Tscherter
- Department of Physiology, University of Bern Bern, Switzerland
| | - Marc-André Avondet
- Biology Division, Spiez Laboratory, Swiss Federal Office for Civil Protection Spiez, Switzerland
| | - Stephen L Leib
- Neuroinfection Laboratory, Institute for Infectious Diseases, University of BernBern, Switzerland; Cluster for Regenerative Neuroscience, Department for Clinical Research, University of BernBern, Switzerland
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21
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Rossetto O, Pirazzini M, Montecucco C. Current gaps in basic science knowledge of botulinum neurotoxin biological actions. Toxicon 2015; 107:59-63. [DOI: 10.1016/j.toxicon.2015.07.002] [Citation(s) in RCA: 10] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.1] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 06/26/2015] [Accepted: 07/01/2015] [Indexed: 12/27/2022]
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22
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Kiris E, Nuss JE, Stanford SM, Wanner LM, Cazares L, Maestre MF, Du HT, Gomba GY, Burnett JC, Gussio R, Bottini N, Panchal RG, Kane CD, Tessarollo L, Bavari S. Phosphatase Inhibitors Function as Novel, Broad Spectrum Botulinum Neurotoxin Antagonists in Mouse and Human Embryonic Stem Cell-Derived Motor Neuron-Based Assays. PLoS One 2015; 10:e0129264. [PMID: 26061731 PMCID: PMC4462581 DOI: 10.1371/journal.pone.0129264] [Citation(s) in RCA: 6] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 01/22/2015] [Accepted: 05/06/2015] [Indexed: 12/05/2022] Open
Abstract
There is an urgent need to develop novel treatments to counter Botulinum neurotoxin (BoNT) poisoning. Currently, the majority of BoNT drug development efforts focus on directly inhibiting the proteolytic components of BoNT, i.e. light chains (LC). Although this is a rational approach, previous research has shown that LCs are extremely difficult drug targets and that inhibiting multi-serotype BoNTs with a single LC inhibitor may not be feasible. An alternative approach would target neuronal pathways involved in intoxication/recovery, rather than the LC itself. Phosphorylation-related mechanisms have been implicated in the intoxication pathway(s) of BoNTs. However, the effects of phosphatase inhibitors upon BoNT activity in the physiological target of BoNTs, i.e. motor neurons, have not been investigated. In this study, a small library of phosphatase inhibitors was screened for BoNT antagonism in the context of mouse embryonic stem cell-derived motor neurons (ES-MNs). Four inhibitors were found to function as BoNT/A antagonists. Subsequently, we confirmed that these inhibitors protect against BoNT/A in a dose-dependent manner in human ES-MNs. Additionally, these compounds provide protection when administered in post-intoxication scenario. Importantly, the inhibitors were also effective against BoNT serotypes B and E. To the best of our knowledge, this is the first study showing phosphatase inhibitors as broad-spectrum BoNT antagonists.
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Affiliation(s)
- Erkan Kiris
- Geneva Foundation, Tacoma, WA, United States of America
- Department of Molecular and Translational Sciences, US Army Medical Research Institute of Infectious Diseases, Frederick, MD, United States of America
- Mouse Cancer Genetics Program, Center for Cancer Research, National Cancer Institute (NCI), Frederick, MD, United States of America
| | - Jonathan E. Nuss
- Department of Molecular and Translational Sciences, US Army Medical Research Institute of Infectious Diseases, Frederick, MD, United States of America
| | - Stephanie M. Stanford
- Division of Cellular Biology, La Jolla Institute for Allergy and Immunology, La Jolla, CA, United States of America
| | - Laura M. Wanner
- Department of Molecular and Translational Sciences, US Army Medical Research Institute of Infectious Diseases, Frederick, MD, United States of America
| | - Lisa Cazares
- Department of Molecular and Translational Sciences, US Army Medical Research Institute of Infectious Diseases, Frederick, MD, United States of America
| | - Michael F. Maestre
- Division of Cellular Biology, La Jolla Institute for Allergy and Immunology, La Jolla, CA, United States of America
| | - Hao T. Du
- Department of Molecular and Translational Sciences, US Army Medical Research Institute of Infectious Diseases, Frederick, MD, United States of America
| | - Glenn Y. Gomba
- Department of Molecular and Translational Sciences, US Army Medical Research Institute of Infectious Diseases, Frederick, MD, United States of America
| | - James C. Burnett
- Leidos Biomedical Research, Inc., Computational Drug Development Group (CDDG), NCI, Frederick, MD, United States of America
- CDDG, Developmental Therapeutics Program, NCI, Frederick, MD, United States of America
| | - Rick Gussio
- CDDG, Developmental Therapeutics Program, NCI, Frederick, MD, United States of America
| | - Nunzio Bottini
- Division of Cellular Biology, La Jolla Institute for Allergy and Immunology, La Jolla, CA, United States of America
| | - Rekha G. Panchal
- Department of Molecular and Translational Sciences, US Army Medical Research Institute of Infectious Diseases, Frederick, MD, United States of America
| | - Christopher D. Kane
- Department of Molecular and Translational Sciences, US Army Medical Research Institute of Infectious Diseases, Frederick, MD, United States of America
- Henry M. Jackson Foundation, Bethesda, MD, United States of America
- DoD Biotechnology High Performance Computing Software Applications Institute (BHSAI), Telemedicine and Advanced Technology Research Center (TATRC), US Army Medical Research and Materiel Command (USAMRMC), Frederick, MD, United States of America
| | - Lino Tessarollo
- Mouse Cancer Genetics Program, Center for Cancer Research, National Cancer Institute (NCI), Frederick, MD, United States of America
| | - Sina Bavari
- Department of Molecular and Translational Sciences, US Army Medical Research Institute of Infectious Diseases, Frederick, MD, United States of America
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Lou X, Shin J, Yang Y, Kim J, Shin YK. Synaptotagmin-1 is an antagonist for Munc18-1 in SNARE zippering. J Biol Chem 2015; 290:10535-43. [PMID: 25716321 DOI: 10.1074/jbc.m114.631341] [Citation(s) in RCA: 18] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 12/08/2014] [Indexed: 12/17/2022] Open
Abstract
In neuroexocytosis, SNAREs and Munc18-1 may consist of the minimal membrane fusion machinery. Consistent with this notion, we observed, using single molecule fluorescence assays, that Munc18-1 stimulates SNARE zippering and SNARE-dependent lipid mixing in the absence of a major Ca(2+) sensor synaptotagmin-1 (Syt1), providing the structural basis for the conserved function of Sec1/Munc18 proteins in exocytosis. However, when full-length Syt1 is present, no enhancement of SNARE zippering and no acceleration of Ca(2+)-triggered content mixing by Munc18-1 are observed. Thus, our results show that Syt1 acts as an antagonist for Munc18-1 in SNARE zippering and fusion pore opening. Although the Sec1/Munc18 family may serve as part of the fusion machinery in other exocytotic pathways, Munc18-1 may have evolved to play a different role, such as regulating syntaxin-1a in neuroexocytosis.
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Affiliation(s)
- Xiaochu Lou
- From the Department of Biochemistry, Biophysics and Molecular Biology, Iowa State University, Ames, Iowa 50011 and
| | - Jaeil Shin
- From the Department of Biochemistry, Biophysics and Molecular Biology, Iowa State University, Ames, Iowa 50011 and
| | - Yoosoo Yang
- the Biomedical Research Institute, Korea Institute of Science and Technology (KIST), Hwarangno 14-gil 6, Seongbuk-gu, Seoul 136-791, South Korea
| | - Jaewook Kim
- the Biomedical Research Institute, Korea Institute of Science and Technology (KIST), Hwarangno 14-gil 6, Seongbuk-gu, Seoul 136-791, South Korea
| | - Yeon-Kyun Shin
- From the Department of Biochemistry, Biophysics and Molecular Biology, Iowa State University, Ames, Iowa 50011 and the Biomedical Research Institute, Korea Institute of Science and Technology (KIST), Hwarangno 14-gil 6, Seongbuk-gu, Seoul 136-791, South Korea
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24
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Fossati G, Morini R, Corradini I, Antonucci F, Trepte P, Edry E, Sharma V, Papale A, Pozzi D, Defilippi P, Meier JC, Brambilla R, Turco E, Rosenblum K, Wanker EE, Ziv NE, Menna E, Matteoli M. Reduced SNAP-25 increases PSD-95 mobility and impairs spine morphogenesis. Cell Death Differ 2015; 22:1425-36. [PMID: 25678324 DOI: 10.1038/cdd.2014.227] [Citation(s) in RCA: 49] [Impact Index Per Article: 5.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 03/10/2014] [Revised: 10/22/2014] [Accepted: 11/26/2014] [Indexed: 12/24/2022] Open
Abstract
Impairment of synaptic function can lead to neuropsychiatric disorders collectively referred to as synaptopathies. The SNARE protein SNAP-25 is implicated in several brain pathologies and, indeed, brain areas of psychiatric patients often display reduced SNAP-25 expression. It has been recently found that acute downregulation of SNAP-25 in brain slices impairs long-term potentiation; however, the processes through which this occurs are still poorly defined. We show that in vivo acute downregulation of SNAP-25 in CA1 hippocampal region affects spine number. Consistently, hippocampal neurons from SNAP-25 heterozygous mice show reduced densities of dendritic spines and defective PSD-95 dynamics. Finally, we show that, in brain, SNAP-25 is part of a molecular complex including PSD-95 and p140Cap, with p140Cap being capable to bind to both SNAP-25 and PSD-95. These data demonstrate an unexpected role of SNAP-25 in controlling PSD-95 clustering and open the possibility that genetic reductions of the protein levels - as occurring in schizophrenia - may contribute to the pathology through an effect on postsynaptic function and plasticity.
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Affiliation(s)
- G Fossati
- 1] Department of Biotechnology and Translational Medicine, University of Milan, Milano 20129, Italy [2] Humanitas Clinical and Research Center, Laboratory of Pharmacology and Brain Pathology, Via Manzoni 56, Rozzano, 20089 Milano, Italy
| | - R Morini
- 1] Department of Biotechnology and Translational Medicine, University of Milan, Milano 20129, Italy [2] Humanitas Clinical and Research Center, Laboratory of Pharmacology and Brain Pathology, Via Manzoni 56, Rozzano, 20089 Milano, Italy
| | - I Corradini
- 1] Department of Biotechnology and Translational Medicine, University of Milan, Milano 20129, Italy [2] Istituto di Neuroscienze del CNR, Milano 20129, Italy
| | - F Antonucci
- 1] Department of Biotechnology and Translational Medicine, University of Milan, Milano 20129, Italy [2] Istituto di Neuroscienze del CNR, Milano 20129, Italy
| | - P Trepte
- Neuroproteomics, Max Delbrueck Center for Molecular Medicine (MDC), Berlin 13125, Germany
| | - E Edry
- Sagol Department of Neurobiology, Center for Gene Manipulation in the Adult Brain (CGMB), Haifa University, Haifa, Israel
| | - V Sharma
- Sagol Department of Neurobiology, Center for Gene Manipulation in the Adult Brain (CGMB), Haifa University, Haifa, Israel
| | - A Papale
- Division of Neuroscience, Institute of Experimental Neurology, San Raffaele Scientific Institute and University, Milano 20132, Italy
| | - D Pozzi
- Humanitas Clinical and Research Center, Laboratory of Pharmacology and Brain Pathology, Via Manzoni 56, Rozzano, 20089 Milano, Italy
| | - P Defilippi
- Department of Molecular Biotechnology and Health Sciences, University of Torino, Torino 10124, Italy
| | - J C Meier
- 1] RNA Editing and Hyperexcitability Disorders Helmholtz Group, Max Delbrück Center for Molecular Medicine, Berlin, Germany [2] TU Braunschweig, Zoological Institute, Division of Cell Biology and Cell Physiology, Braunschweig, Germany
| | - R Brambilla
- Division of Neuroscience, Institute of Experimental Neurology, San Raffaele Scientific Institute and University, Milano 20132, Italy
| | - E Turco
- Department of Molecular Biotechnology and Health Sciences, University of Torino, Torino 10124, Italy
| | - K Rosenblum
- Sagol Department of Neurobiology, Center for Gene Manipulation in the Adult Brain (CGMB), Haifa University, Haifa, Israel
| | - E E Wanker
- Neuroproteomics, Max Delbrueck Center for Molecular Medicine (MDC), Berlin 13125, Germany
| | - N E Ziv
- Network Biology Labs and Faculty of Medicine, Technion, 33000 Haifa, Israel
| | - E Menna
- 1] Humanitas Clinical and Research Center, Laboratory of Pharmacology and Brain Pathology, Via Manzoni 56, Rozzano, 20089 Milano, Italy [2] Istituto di Neuroscienze del CNR, Milano 20129, Italy
| | - M Matteoli
- 1] Department of Biotechnology and Translational Medicine, University of Milan, Milano 20129, Italy [2] Humanitas Clinical and Research Center, Laboratory of Pharmacology and Brain Pathology, Via Manzoni 56, Rozzano, 20089 Milano, Italy
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25
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Lawrence GW, Wang J, Brin MF, Aoki KR, Wheeler L, Dolly JO. Fusion of Golgi-derived vesicles mediated by SNAP-25 is essential for sympathetic neuron outgrowth but relatively insensitive to botulinum neurotoxins in vitro. FEBS J 2014; 281:3243-60. [PMID: 24863955 DOI: 10.1111/febs.12858] [Citation(s) in RCA: 3] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 01/16/2014] [Revised: 03/28/2014] [Accepted: 05/21/2014] [Indexed: 01/12/2023]
Abstract
Sympathetic neurons ramify to innervate multiple cells in target tissues. In compartmentalized cultures of rat superior cervical ganglion neurons, cleavage of synaptosomal-associated protein of Mr = 25 000 (SNAP-25) in neurites exposed to botulinum neurotoxin type A (BoNT/A) arrested their growth and collapsed interstitial branches, but this required large, nonclinical doses. A protease-inactive mutant proved ineffective, confirming involvement of SNAP-25 in neurite extension and arborization. BoNT/C1 acted like BoNT/A, but BoNT/E caused only mild inhibition, likely due to transient SNAP-25 proteolysis. Near-total lack of susceptibility to BoNT/B or BoNT/D revealed that vesicle-associated membrane protein (VAMPs) isoforms 1-3 are not essential. Neurite length was not reduced when either BoNT/A or BoNT/C1 was applied to the somata, with no detrimental effect on neuron viability being observed. Treatments that protect cells from deprivation of nerve growth factor failed to prevent the toxin-induced loss of neurites. Inactivation of SNAP-25 caused the accumulation at neurite branch sites of Golgi-derived organelles labelled with N-(4,4-difluoro-5,7-dimethyl-4-bora-3a,4a-diaza-s-indacene-3-pentanoyl)-sphingosine conjugated to bovine serum albumin, prior to the collapse of arbors. Notably, neurite growth was ~ 1000-fold less susceptible to BoNT/A than cholinergic transmission in these neurons. Accordingly, a BoNT/A acceptor synaptic vesicle protein 2 (SV2) was found to be colocalized with VAMP 1-3, but not with VAMP 7, which is implicated in the growth of neurites. In conclusion, neurites depend on SNAP-25 for extension but this is quite resistant to BoNT/A, possibly, because of a low density of SV2 at growth sites that are distant from the highly susceptible regions of neurotransmitter release.
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Affiliation(s)
- Gary W Lawrence
- International Centre for Neurotherapeutics, Dublin City University, Ireland
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Matak I, Lacković Z. Botulinum toxin A, brain and pain. Prog Neurobiol 2014; 119-120:39-59. [PMID: 24915026 DOI: 10.1016/j.pneurobio.2014.06.001] [Citation(s) in RCA: 110] [Impact Index Per Article: 11.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 01/08/2014] [Revised: 05/25/2014] [Accepted: 06/03/2014] [Indexed: 10/25/2022]
Abstract
Botulinum neurotoxin type A (BoNT/A) is one of the most potent toxins known and a potential biological threat. At the same time, it is among the most widely used therapeutic proteins used yearly by millions of people, especially for cosmetic purposes. Currently, its clinical use in certain types of pain is increasing, and its long-term duration of effects represents a special clinical value. Efficacy of BoNT/A in different types of pain has been found in numerous clinical trials and case reports, as well as in animal pain models. However, sites and mechanisms of BoNT/A actions involved in nociception are a matter of controversy. In analogy with well known neuroparalytic effects in peripheral cholinergic synapses, presently dominant opinion is that BoNT/A exerts pain reduction by inhibiting peripheral neurotransmitter/inflammatory mediator release from sensory nerves. On the other hand, growing number of behavioral and immunohistochemical studies demonstrated the requirement of axonal transport for BoNT/A's antinociceptive action. In addition, toxin's enzymatic activity in central sensory regions was clearly identified after its peripheral application. Apart from general pharmacology, this review summarizes the clinical and experimental evidence for BoNT/A antinociceptive activity and compares the data in favor of peripheral vs. central site and mechanism of action. Based on literature review and published results from our laboratory we propose that the hypothesis of peripheral site of BoNT/A action is not sufficient to explain the experimental data collected up to now.
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Affiliation(s)
- Ivica Matak
- Laboratory of Molecular Neuropharmacology, Department of Pharmacology and Croatian Brain Research Institute, University of Zagreb School of Medicine, Šalata 11, 10000 Zagreb, Croatia
| | - Zdravko Lacković
- Laboratory of Molecular Neuropharmacology, Department of Pharmacology and Croatian Brain Research Institute, University of Zagreb School of Medicine, Šalata 11, 10000 Zagreb, Croatia.
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In vitro assay using engineered yeast vacuoles for neuronal SNARE-mediated membrane fusion. Proc Natl Acad Sci U S A 2014; 111:7677-82. [PMID: 24821814 DOI: 10.1073/pnas.1400036111] [Citation(s) in RCA: 11] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.1] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/18/2022] Open
Abstract
Intracellular membrane fusion requires not only SNARE proteins but also other regulatory proteins such as the Rab and Sec1/Munc18 (SM) family proteins. Although neuronal SNARE proteins alone can drive the fusion between synthetic liposomes, it remains unclear whether they are also sufficient to induce the fusion of biological membranes. Here, through the use of engineered yeast vacuoles bearing neuronal SNARE proteins, we show that neuronal SNAREs can induce membrane fusion between yeast vacuoles and that this fusion does not require the function of the Rab protein Ypt7p or the SM family protein Vps33p, both of which are essential for normal yeast vacuole fusion. Although excess vacuolar SNARE proteins were also shown to mediate Rab-bypass fusion, this fusion required homotypic fusion and vacuole protein sorting complex, which bears Vps33p and was accompanied by extensive membrane lysis. We also show that this neuronal SNARE-driven vacuole fusion can be stimulated by the neuronal SM protein Munc18 and blocked by botulinum neurotoxin serotype E, a well-known inhibitor of synaptic vesicle fusion. Taken together, our results suggest that neuronal SNARE proteins are sufficient to induce biological membrane fusion, and that this new assay can be used as a simple and complementary method for investigating synaptic vesicle fusion mechanisms.
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Baskaran P, Thyagarajan B. Acute and chronic effects of botulinum neurotoxin a on the mammalian neuromuscular junction. Muscle Nerve 2014; 50:206-15. [PMID: 24218344 DOI: 10.1002/mus.24119] [Citation(s) in RCA: 7] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 05/13/2013] [Revised: 10/30/2013] [Accepted: 11/07/2013] [Indexed: 11/07/2022]
Abstract
INTRODUCTION Botulinum neurotoxin A (BoNT/A) cleaves SNAP-25 and inhibits acetylcholine (ACh) release at the neuromuscular junctions (NMJ) to cause neuroparalysis. Previous reports indicate a dyssynchrony between the inhibitory effect of BoNT/A on ACh release and SNAP-25 cleavage. METHODS We tested the in vitro (acute; 90 min) and in vivo (chronic; 12 h) effects of BoNT/A on stimulus-evoked ACh release (SEAR), twitch tension, and SNAP-25 cleavage in isolated extensor digitorum longus (EDL) nerve-muscle preparations (NMP). RESULTS In vitro or in vivo BoNT/A poisoning inhibited SEAR and twitch tension. Conversely, SNAP-25 cleavage and inhibition of spontaneous release frequency were observed only in NMP poisoned with BoNT/A in vivo. Moreover, chronic treatment of BoNT/A inhibited ionomycin stimulated Ca(2+) signals in Neuro 2a cells. CONCLUSIONS These results demonstrate that the inhibition of SEAR precedes SNAP-25 cleavage and suggest involvement of a more complex mechanism for the inhibitory effect of BoNT/A at the NMJ.
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Affiliation(s)
- Padmamalini Baskaran
- School of Pharmacy, 1000 East University Avenue, University of Wyoming, Laramie, Wyoming, 82071
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Meng J, Dolly JO, Wang J. Selective cleavage of SNAREs in sensory neurons unveils protein complexes mediating peptide exocytosis triggered by different stimuli. Mol Neurobiol 2014; 50:574-88. [PMID: 24604356 DOI: 10.1007/s12035-014-8665-1] [Citation(s) in RCA: 15] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 11/12/2013] [Accepted: 02/20/2014] [Indexed: 11/28/2022]
Abstract
Oligomerisation of soluble N-ethylmaleimide-sensitive factor attachment protein receptor (SNARE) complexes is required for synaptic vesicle fusion and neurotransmitter release. How these regulate the release of pain peptides elicited by different stimuli from sensory neurons has not been established. Herein, K(+) depolarization was found to induce multiple sodium dodecyl sulfate (SDS)-resistant SNARE complexes in sensory neurons exposed to botulinum neurotoxins (BoNTs), with molecular weights ranging from 104-288 k (large) to 38-104 k (small). Isoform 1 of vesicle-associated membrane protein 1 (VAMP 1) assembled into stable complexes upon depolarisation and was required for the participation of intact synaptosome-associated protein of relative molecular mass 25 k (SNAP-25) or BoNT/A-truncated form (SNAP-25A) in the large functional and small inactive SDS-resistant SNARE complexes. Cleaving VAMP 1 decreased SNAP-25A in the functional complexes to a much greater extent than the remaining intact SNAP-25. Syntaxin 1 proved essential for the incorporation of intact and SNAP-25A into the large complexes. Truncation of syntaxin 1 by BoNT/C1 caused /A- and/or /C1-truncated SNAP-25 to appear in non-functional complexes and blocked the release of calcitonin gene-related peptide (CGRP) elicited by capsaicin, ionomycin, thapsigargin or K(+) depolarization. Only the latter two were susceptible to /A. Inhibition of CGRP release by BoNT/A was reversed by capsaicin and/or ionomycin, an effect overcome by BoNT/C1. Unlike BoNT/B, BoNT/D cleaved VAMP 1 in addition to 2 and 3 in rat sensory neurons and blocked both CGRP and substance P release. Thus, unlike SNAP-25, syntaxin 1 and VAMP 1 are more suitable targets to abolish functional SNARE complexes and pain peptide release evoked by any stimuli.
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Affiliation(s)
- Jianghui Meng
- International Centre for Neurotherapeutics, Dublin City University, Glasnevin, Dublin 9, Ireland
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Pantano S, Montecucco C. The blockade of the neurotransmitter release apparatus by botulinum neurotoxins. Cell Mol Life Sci 2014; 71:793-811. [PMID: 23749048 PMCID: PMC11113401 DOI: 10.1007/s00018-013-1380-7] [Citation(s) in RCA: 89] [Impact Index Per Article: 8.9] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 03/05/2013] [Revised: 05/15/2013] [Accepted: 05/16/2013] [Indexed: 12/22/2022]
Abstract
The high toxicity of the seven serotypes of botulinum neurotoxins (BoNT/A to G), together with their specificity and reversibility, includes them in the list A of potential bioterrorism weapons and, at the same time, among the therapeutics of choice for a variety of human syndromes. They invade nerve terminals and cleave specifically the three proteins which form the heterotrimeric SNAP REceptors (SNARE) complex that mediates neurotransmitter release. The BoNT-induced cleavage of the SNARE proteins explains by itself the paralysing activity of the BoNTs because the truncated proteins cannot form the SNARE complex. However, in the case of BoNT/A, the most widely used toxin in therapy, additional factors come into play as it only removes a few residues from the synaptosomal associate protein of 25 kDa C-terminus and this results in a long duration of action. To explain these facts and other experimental data, we present here a model for the assembly of the neuroexocytosis apparatus in which Synaptotagmin and Complexin first assist the zippering of the SNARE complex, and then stabilize and clamp an octameric radial assembly of the SNARE complexes.
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Affiliation(s)
- Sergio Pantano
- Institut Pasteur de Montevideo, Calle Mataojo 2020, CP 11400 Montevideo, Uruguay
| | - Cesare Montecucco
- Department of Biomedical Sciences, University of Padova, Padua, Italy
- Institute of Neuroscience, National Research Council, Viale G. Colombo 3, 35121 Padua, Italy
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Wang L, Sun Y, Yang W, Lindo P, Singh BR. Type A botulinum neurotoxin complex proteins differentially modulate host response of neuronal cells. Toxicon 2014; 82:52-60. [PMID: 24560879 DOI: 10.1016/j.toxicon.2014.02.004] [Citation(s) in RCA: 18] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 11/12/2013] [Revised: 01/24/2014] [Accepted: 02/06/2014] [Indexed: 12/26/2022]
Abstract
Type A Botulinum neurotoxin (BoNT/A), the most potent poison known to mankind, is produced by Clostridium botulinum type A as a complex with neurotoxin-associated proteins (NAPs). Currently BoNT/A in purified and complex forms are both available in therapeutic and cosmetic applications to treat neuromuscular disorders. Whereas Xeomin(®) (incobotulinumtoxin A, Merz Pharmaceuticals, Germany) is free from complexing proteins, Botox(®) (onabotulinumtoxin A, Allergan, USA) contains NAPs, which by themselves have no known role in the intracellular biochemical process involved in the blockade of neurotransmitter release. Since the fate and possible interactions of NAPs with patient tissues after intramuscular injection are not known, it was the aim of this study to evaluate the binding of BoNT/A and/or the respective NAPs to cells derived from neuronal and non-neuronal human tissues, and to further explore neuronal cell responses to different components of BoNT/A. BoNT/A alone, the complete BoNT/A complex, and the NAPs alone, all bind to neuronal SH-SY5Y cells. The BoNT/A complex and NAPs additionally bind to RMS13 skeletal muscle cells, TIB-152 lymphoblasts, Detroit 551 fibroblasts besides the SH-SY5Y cells. However, no binding to these non-neuronal cells was observed with pure BoNT/A. Although BoNT/A, both in its purified and complex forms, bind to SH-SY5Y, the intracellular responses of the SH-SY5Y cells to these BoNT/A components are not clearly understood. Examination of inflammatory cytokine released from SH-SY5Y cells revealed that BoNT/A did not increase the release of inflammatory cytokines, whereas exposure to NAPs significantly increased release of IL-6, and MCP-1, and exposure to BoNT/A complex significantly increased release of IL-6, MCP-1, IL-8, TNF-α, and RANTES vs. control, suggesting that different components of BoNT/A complex induce significantly differential host response in human neuronal cells. Results suggest that host response to different compositions of BoNT/A based therapeutics may play important role in local and systemic symptoms in patients.
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Affiliation(s)
- Lei Wang
- Prime Bio Inc., Dartmouth, MA 02747, USA.
| | - Yi Sun
- Prime Bio Inc., Dartmouth, MA 02747, USA
| | | | - Paul Lindo
- Prime Bio Inc., Dartmouth, MA 02747, USA
| | - Bal Ram Singh
- Prime Bio Inc., Dartmouth, MA 02747, USA; Department of Chemistry and Biochemistry, University of Massachusetts Dartmouth, Dartmouth, MA 02747, USA
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Zhang P, Ray R, Singh BR, Ray P. Mastoparan-7 rescues botulinum toxin-A poisoned neurons in a mouse spinal cord cell culture model. Toxicon 2013; 76:37-43. [DOI: 10.1016/j.toxicon.2013.09.002] [Citation(s) in RCA: 10] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.9] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 02/21/2013] [Revised: 08/29/2013] [Accepted: 09/06/2013] [Indexed: 10/26/2022]
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Kato K, Akaike N, Kohda T, Torii Y, Goto Y, Harakawa T, Ginnaga A, Kaji R, Kozaki S. Botulinum neurotoxin A2 reduces incidence of seizures in mouse models of temporal lobe epilepsy. Toxicon 2013; 74:109-15. [PMID: 23954512 DOI: 10.1016/j.toxicon.2013.07.027] [Citation(s) in RCA: 9] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 04/12/2013] [Revised: 07/13/2013] [Accepted: 07/30/2013] [Indexed: 12/01/2022]
Abstract
Temporal lobe epilepsy often shows pharmacoresistance, and well-known anti-convulsants sometimes are not effective for blocking chronic seizures. Botulinum neurotoxins are metalloproteases that act on presynaptic proteins and inhibit neurotransmitter release in both the peripheral and central nerve systems. That is why neurotoxins may elicit an effect for the restraint of the seizures. Meanwhile, it has been suggested that a property and the stability of neurotoxin activities differ among the types A-G, in which type A neurotoxin (ANTX) is, especially, the most stable and can continue having activity for a long term. The present study therefore investigated the effects of hippocampal injections of A2NTX on seizures derived in TLE model mice, received repeated kindling stimulations in the amygdala. The injections induced complete disappearance of grand mal seizures in half of the population of amygdala kindled mice for 4 days. The injections also induced reduction of the evoked seizure level significantly for at least 18 days after injections. Taken together, these results suggest that A2NTX prevents from epileptic seizures, proposing that A2NTX is available as a new antiepileptic reagent.
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Affiliation(s)
- Keiko Kato
- Faculty of Life Sciences, Kyoto Sangyo University, Motoyama, Kamigamo, Kita-ku, Kyoto 603-8555, Japan.
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Mustafa G, Anderson EM, Bokrand-Donatelli Y, Neubert JK, Caudle RM. Anti-nociceptive effect of a conjugate of substance P and light chain of botulinum neurotoxin type A. Pain 2013; 154:2547-2553. [PMID: 23933181 DOI: 10.1016/j.pain.2013.07.041] [Citation(s) in RCA: 27] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 02/21/2013] [Revised: 06/26/2013] [Accepted: 07/23/2013] [Indexed: 10/26/2022]
Abstract
Neuropathic pain is a debilitating condition resulting from damage to sensory transmission pathways in the peripheral and central nervous system. A potential new way of treating chronic neuropathic pain is to target specific pain-processing neurons based on their expression of particular receptor molecules. We hypothesized that a toxin-neuropeptide conjugate would alter pain by first being taken up by specific receptors for the neuropeptide expressed on the neuronal cells. Then, once inside the cell the toxin would inhibit the neurons' activity without killing the neurons, thereby providing pain relief without lesioning the nervous system. In an effort to inactivate the nociceptive neurons in the trigeminal nucleus caudalis in mice, we targeted the NK1 receptor (NK1R) using substance P (SP). The catalytically active light chain of botulinum neurotoxin type A (LC/A) was conjugated with SP. Our results indicate that the conjugate BoNT/A-LC:SP is internalized in cultured NK1R-expressing neurons and also cleaves the target of botulinum toxin, a component-docking motif necessary for release of neurotransmitters called SNAP-25. The conjugate was next tested in a murine model of Taxol-induced neuropathic pain. An intracisternal injection of BoNT/A-LC:SP decreased thermal hyperalgesia as measured by the operant orofacial nociception assay. These findings indicate that conjugates of the light chain of botulinum toxin are extremely promising agents for use in suppressing neuronal activity for extended time periods, and that BoNT/A-LC:SP may be a useful agent for treating chronic pain.
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Affiliation(s)
- Golam Mustafa
- Department of Oral and Maxillofacial Surgery, University of Florida College of Dentistry, Gainesville, FL, USA Department of Neuroscience, University of Florida College of Medicine, McKnight Brain Institute, Gainesville, FL, USA Department of Orthodontics, University of Florida, Gainesville, FL, USA
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Lawrence GW, Ovsepian SV, Wang J, Aoki KR, Dolly JO. Therapeutic effectiveness of botulinum neurotoxin A: Potent blockade of autonomic transmission by targeted cleavage of only the pertinent SNAP-25. Neuropharmacology 2013; 70:287-95. [DOI: 10.1016/j.neuropharm.2013.02.012] [Citation(s) in RCA: 14] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 09/07/2012] [Revised: 01/17/2013] [Accepted: 02/14/2013] [Indexed: 11/16/2022]
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Simpson L. The life history of a botulinum toxin molecule. Toxicon 2013; 68:40-59. [DOI: 10.1016/j.toxicon.2013.02.014] [Citation(s) in RCA: 66] [Impact Index Per Article: 6.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 10/01/2012] [Revised: 02/13/2013] [Accepted: 02/19/2013] [Indexed: 12/31/2022]
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Morphological and functional differentiation in BE(2)-M17 human neuroblastoma cells by treatment with Trans-retinoic acid. BMC Neurosci 2013; 14:49. [PMID: 23597229 PMCID: PMC3639069 DOI: 10.1186/1471-2202-14-49] [Citation(s) in RCA: 30] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 11/15/2012] [Accepted: 04/09/2013] [Indexed: 02/05/2023] Open
Abstract
Background Immortalized neuronal cell lines can be induced to differentiate into more mature neurons by adding specific compounds or growth factors to the culture medium. This property makes neuronal cell lines attractive as in vitro cell models to study neuronal functions and neurotoxicity. The clonal human neuroblastoma BE(2)-M17 cell line is known to differentiate into a more prominent neuronal cell type by treatment with trans-retinoic acid. However, there is a lack of information on the morphological and functional aspects of these differentiated cells. Results We studied the effects of trans-retinoic acid treatment on (a) some differentiation marker proteins, (b) types of voltage-gated calcium (Ca2+) channels and (c) Ca2+-dependent neurotransmitter ([3H] glycine) release in cultured BE(2)-M17 cells. Cells treated with 10 μM trans-retinoic acid (RA) for 72 hrs exhibited marked changes in morphology to include neurite extensions; presence of P/Q, N and T-type voltage-gated Ca2+ channels; and expression of neuron specific enolase (NSE), synaptosomal-associated protein 25 (SNAP-25), nicotinic acetylcholine receptor α7 (nAChR-α7) and other neuronal markers. Moreover, retinoic acid treated cells had a significant increase in evoked Ca2+-dependent neurotransmitter release capacity. In toxicity studies of the toxic gas, phosgene (CG), that differentiation of M17 cells with RA was required to see the changes in intracellular free Ca2+ concentrations following exposure to CG. Conclusion Taken together, retinoic acid treated cells had improved morphological features as well as neuronal characteristics and functions; thus, these retinoic acid differentiated BE(2)-M17 cells may serve as a better neuronal model to study neurobiology and/or neurotoxicity.
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Pellett S. Progress in cell based assays for botulinum neurotoxin detection. Curr Top Microbiol Immunol 2013; 364:257-85. [PMID: 23239357 DOI: 10.1007/978-3-642-33570-9_12] [Citation(s) in RCA: 30] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 02/07/2023]
Abstract
Botulinum neurotoxins (BoNTs) are the most potent human toxins known and the causative agent of botulism, and are widely used as valuable pharmaceuticals. The BoNTs are modular proteins consisting of a heavy chain and a light chain linked by a disulfide bond. Intoxication of neuronal cells by BoNTs is a multi-step process including specific cell binding, endocytosis, conformational change in the endosome, translocation of the enzymatic light chain into the cells cytosol, and SNARE target cleavage. The quantitative and reliable potency determination of fully functional BoNTs produced as active pharmaceutical ingredient (API) requires an assay that considers all steps in the intoxication pathway. The in vivo mouse bioassay has for years been the 'gold standard' assay used for this purpose, but it requires the use of large numbers of mice and thus causes associated costs and ethical concerns. Cell-based assays are currently the only in vitro alternative that detect fully functional BoNTs in a single assay and have been utilized for years for research purposes. Within the last 5 years, several cell-based BoNT detection assays have been developed that are able to quantitatively determine BoNT potency with similar or greater sensitivity than the mouse bioassay. These assays now offer an alternative method for BoNT potency determination. Such quantitative and reliable BoNT potency determination is a crucial step in basic research, in the development of pharmaceutical BoNTs, and in the quantitative detection of neutralizing antibodies.
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Affiliation(s)
- Sabine Pellett
- Department of Bacteriology, University of Wisconsin, Madison, WI 53706, USA.
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Abstract
OnabotulinumtoxinA has recently been approved by regulatory agencies in the UK and United States for treatment of chronic migraine based on data generated from the PREEMPT studies. As such, onabotulinumtoxinA is the only prophylactic therapy specifically approved for chronic migraine. Most headache clinicians would agree that acute episodic migraine and chronic migraine differ in their pathophysiology, etiology, diagnosis, and response to pharmacological as well as nonpharmacological therapies. Of the 7 botulinum neurotoxin serotypes, botulinum neurotoxin type A (onabotulinumtoxinA) has been the most thoroughly investigated in preclinical and clinical studies. Based on preclinical studies, onabotulinumtoxinA is known to inhibit the release of excitatory neurotransmitters from both motor and sensory neurons by preventing vesicle fusion to the cell membrane. In addition to the well-documented myorelaxant effects of this neurotoxin, onabotulinumtoxinA can exert a direct analgesic effect that likely involves inhibition of primary and secondary nociceptive neurons. The inhibitory effects of onabotulinumtoxinA are also likely to involve suppressing the activity of myogenic trigger points and decreasing the persistent nociceptive barrage that promotes and maintains central sensitization. This article describes possible mechanisms to explain how onabotulinumtoxinA functions as a therapy for chronic migraine and considers why treatment with the neurotoxin is not effective in some chronic migraineurs.
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Affiliation(s)
- Paul L Durham
- Center for Biomedical & Life Sciences, Missouri State University, Springfield, MO 65806, USA.
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Mohrmann R, Sørensen JB. SNARE requirements en route to exocytosis: from many to few. J Mol Neurosci 2012; 48:387-94. [PMID: 22427188 DOI: 10.1007/s12031-012-9744-2] [Citation(s) in RCA: 29] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 12/23/2011] [Accepted: 02/29/2012] [Indexed: 12/30/2022]
Abstract
Although it has been known for almost two decades that the ternary complex of N-ethylmaleimide-sensitive factor attachment protein receptors (SNAREs) constitutes the functional unit driving membrane fusion, our knowledge about the dynamical arrangement and organization of SNARE proteins and their complexes before and during vesicle exocytosis is still limited. Here, we review recent progress in this expanding field with emphasis on the question of fusion complex stoichiometry, i.e., how many SNARE proteins and complexes are needed for the fusion of a vesicle with the plasma membrane.
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Affiliation(s)
- Ralf Mohrmann
- Department of Physiology, University of Saarland, Homburg, Germany.
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Kiris E, Nuss JE, Burnett JC, Kota KP, Koh DC, Wanner LM, Torres-Melendez E, Gussio R, Tessarollo L, Bavari S. Embryonic stem cell-derived motoneurons provide a highly sensitive cell culture model for botulinum neurotoxin studies, with implications for high-throughput drug discovery. Stem Cell Res 2011; 6:195-205. [PMID: 21353660 PMCID: PMC3081902 DOI: 10.1016/j.scr.2011.01.002] [Citation(s) in RCA: 35] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Submit a Manuscript] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 11/04/2010] [Revised: 01/05/2011] [Accepted: 01/10/2011] [Indexed: 11/21/2022] Open
Abstract
Botulinum neurotoxins (BoNTs) inhibit cholinergic synaptic transmission by specifically cleaving proteins that are crucial for neurotransmitter exocytosis. Due to the lethality of these toxins, there are elevated concerns regarding their possible use as bioterrorism agents. Moreover, their widespread use for cosmetic purposes, and as medical treatments, has increased the potential risk of accidental overdosing and environmental exposure. Hence, there is an urgent need to develop novel modalities to counter BoNT intoxication. Mammalian motoneurons are the main target of BoNTs; however, due to the difficulty and poor efficiency of the procedures required to isolate the cells, they are not suitable for high-throughput drug screening assays. Here, we explored the suitability of embryonic stem (ES) cell-derived motoneurons as a renewable, reproducible, and physiologically relevant system for BoNT studies. We found that the sensitivity of ES-derived motoneurons to BoNT/A intoxication is comparable to that of primary mouse spinal motoneurons. Additionally, we demonstrated that several BoNT/A inhibitors protected SNAP-25, the BoNT/A substrate, in the ES-derived motoneuron system. Furthermore, this system is compatible with immunofluorescence-based high-throughput studies. These data suggest that ES-derived motoneurons provide a highly sensitive system that is amenable to large-scale screenings to rapidly identify and evaluate the biological efficacies of novel therapeutics.
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Affiliation(s)
- Erkan Kiris
- Department of Target Discovery and Experimental Microbiology, US Army Medical Research Institute of Infectious Diseases, Frederick, MD 21702, USA
- Neural Development Group, Mouse Cancer Genetics Program, Center for Cancer Research, National Cancer Institute, Frederick, MD 21702, USA
| | - Jonathan E. Nuss
- Department of Target Discovery and Experimental Microbiology, US Army Medical Research Institute of Infectious Diseases, Frederick, MD 21702, USA
| | - James C. Burnett
- SAIC Frederick, Inc., Target Structure-Based Drug Discovery Group (TSBDDG), National Cancer Institute at Frederick, MD 21702, USA
- TSBDDG, Information Technology Branch, Developmental Therapeutics Program, National Cancer Institute at Frederick, MD 2170, USA
| | - Krishna P. Kota
- Department of Target Discovery and Experimental Microbiology, US Army Medical Research Institute of Infectious Diseases, Frederick, MD 21702, USA
| | - Dawn C. Koh
- Neural Development Group, Mouse Cancer Genetics Program, Center for Cancer Research, National Cancer Institute, Frederick, MD 21702, USA
| | - Laura M. Wanner
- Department of Target Discovery and Experimental Microbiology, US Army Medical Research Institute of Infectious Diseases, Frederick, MD 21702, USA
| | - Edna Torres-Melendez
- Department of Target Discovery and Experimental Microbiology, US Army Medical Research Institute of Infectious Diseases, Frederick, MD 21702, USA
| | - Rick Gussio
- TSBDDG, Information Technology Branch, Developmental Therapeutics Program, National Cancer Institute at Frederick, MD 2170, USA
| | - Lino Tessarollo
- Neural Development Group, Mouse Cancer Genetics Program, Center for Cancer Research, National Cancer Institute, Frederick, MD 21702, USA
| | - Sina Bavari
- Department of Target Discovery and Experimental Microbiology, US Army Medical Research Institute of Infectious Diseases, Frederick, MD 21702, USA
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Megighian A, Scorzeto M, Zanini D, Pantano S, Rigoni M, Benna C, Rossetto O, Montecucco C, Zordan M. Arg206 of SNAP-25 is essential for neuroexocytosis at the Drosophila melanogaster neuromuscular junction. J Cell Sci 2010; 123:3276-83. [DOI: 10.1242/jcs.071316] [Citation(s) in RCA: 17] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/20/2022] Open
Abstract
An analysis of SNAP-25 isoform sequences indicates that there is a highly conserved arginine residue (198 in vertebrates, 206 in the genus Drosophila) within the C-terminal region, which is cleaved by botulinum neurotoxin A, with consequent blockade of neuroexocytosis. The possibility that it may play an important role in the function of the neuroexocytosis machinery was tested at neuromuscular junctions of Drosophila melanogaster larvae expressing SNAP-25 in which Arg206 had been replaced by alanine. Electrophysiological recordings of spontaneous and evoked neurotransmitter release under different conditions as well as testing for the assembly of the SNARE complex indicate that this residue, which is at the P1′ position of the botulinum neurotoxin A cleavage site, plays an essential role in neuroexocytosis. Computer graphic modelling suggests that this arginine residue mediates protein–protein contacts within a rosette of SNARE complexes that assembles to mediate the fusion of synaptic vesicles with the presynaptic plasma membrane.
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Affiliation(s)
- Aram Megighian
- Department of Human Anatomy and Physiology, Section of Physiology, University of Padova, 35131, Italy
| | - Michele Scorzeto
- Department of Human Anatomy and Physiology, Section of Physiology, University of Padova, 35131, Italy
| | - Damiano Zanini
- Department of Human Anatomy and Physiology, Section of Physiology, University of Padova, 35131, Italy
- Department of Biology, University of Padova, 35121, Italy
| | - Sergio Pantano
- Biomolecular Simulations Group, Institut Pasteur de Montevideo, Mataojo 2020, CP 11400, Montevideo, Uruguay
| | - Michela Rigoni
- Department of Biomedical Sciences, University of Padova, 35121, Italy
| | - Clara Benna
- Department of Biology, University of Padova, 35121, Italy
| | - Ornella Rossetto
- Department of Biomedical Sciences, University of Padova, 35121, Italy
| | - Cesare Montecucco
- Department of Biomedical Sciences, University of Padova, 35121, Italy
| | - Mauro Zordan
- Department of Biology, University of Padova, 35121, Italy
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Pickett A. Re-engineering clostridial neurotoxins for the treatment of chronic pain: current status and future prospects. BioDrugs 2010; 24:173-82. [PMID: 20462283 DOI: 10.2165/11534510-000000000-00000] [Citation(s) in RCA: 17] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/02/2022]
Abstract
Clostridial neurotoxins from the botulinum neurotoxin (BoNT) family are protein complexes, derived from the bacterium Clostridium botulinum, which potently inhibit acetylcholine release and result in a reversible blockade of the neuromuscular junction. This feature led to the clinical development of BoNT-A for a number of neuromuscular disorders. BoNT-A toxins are commercially available as three different preparations: Dysport/Azzalure, Botox/Vistabel, and Xeomin/Bocouture. Although BoNT-A preparations have not yet been approved for the treatment of pain, a substantial body of preclinical and clinical evidence shows that BoNT-A is effective in treating a number of different types of pain. It is thought to exert an analgesic effect both via muscle-relaxant properties and also directly, via inhibition of nociceptive neuropeptides. This review explores the mechanistic basis of this analgesic effect, summarizing current knowledge of the structure-function relationship of BoNT and discussing effects on both motor and pain neurons. For a complete picture of the analgesic properties of BoNT-A, clinical evidence of efficacy in myofascial pain and neuropathic pain is considered in tandem with a mechanistic rationale for activity. Patients experiencing chronic pain are clear candidates for treatment with a modified clostridial endopeptidase that would provide enduring inhibition of neurotransmitter release. A strong preclinical evidence base underpins the concept that re-engineering of BoNT could be used to enhance the analgesic potential of this neurotoxin, and it is hoped that the first clinical studies examining re-engineered BoNT-A will confirm this potential.
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Affiliation(s)
- Andy Pickett
- Biologicals Science and Technology, Ipsen Biopharm Limited, Wrexham, UK.
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45
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Affiliation(s)
- Mauricio Montal
- Section of Neurobiology, Division of Biological Sciences, University of California San Diego, La Jolla, California 92093-0366;
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46
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Thyagarajan B, Potian JG, Garcia CC, Hognason K, Čapková K, Moe ST, Jacobson AR, Janda KD, McArdle JJ. Effects of hydroxamate metalloendoprotease inhibitors on botulinum neurotoxin A poisoned mouse neuromuscular junctions. Neuropharmacology 2010; 58:1189-98. [PMID: 20211192 PMCID: PMC2867082 DOI: 10.1016/j.neuropharm.2010.02.014] [Citation(s) in RCA: 13] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.9] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 01/26/2010] [Accepted: 02/17/2010] [Indexed: 11/16/2022]
Abstract
Currently the only therapy for botulinum neurotoxin A (BoNT/A) poisoning is antitoxin. Antidotes that are effective after BoNT/A has entered the motor nerve terminals would dramatically benefit BoNT/A therapy. Inhibition of proteolytic activity of BoNT/A light chain by metalloendoprotease inhibitors (MEIs) is under development. We tested the effects of MEIs on in vitro as well as in vivo BoNT/A poisoned mouse nerve-muscle preparations (NMPs). The K(i) for inhibition of BoNT/A metalloendoprotease was 0.40 and 0.36 muM, respectively, for 2,4-dichlorocinnamic acid hydroxamate (DCH) and its methyl derivative, ABS 130. Acute treatment of nerve-muscle preparations with 10 pM BoNT/A inhibited nerve-evoked muscle twitches, reduced mean quantal content, and induced failures of endplate currents (EPCs). Bath application of 10 muM DCH or 5 muM ABS 130 reduced failures, increased the quantal content of EPCs, and partially restored muscle twitches after a delay of 40-90 min. The restorative effects of DCH and ABS 130, as well as 3,4 diaminopyridine (DAP) on twitch tension were greater at 22 degrees C compared to 37 degrees C. Unlike DAP, neither DCH nor ABS 130 increased Ca(2+) levels in cholinergic Neuro 2a cells. Injection of MEIs into mouse hind limbs before or after BoNT/A injection neither prevented the toe spread reflex inhibition nor improved muscle functions. We suggest that hydroxamate MEIs partially restore neurotransmission of acutely BoNT/A poisoned nerve-muscle preparations in vitro in a temperature dependent manner without increasing the Ca(2+) levels within motor nerve endings.
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Affiliation(s)
- Baskaran Thyagarajan
- Department of Pharmacology and Physiology, UMDNJ – New Jersey Medical School, Newark, NJ 07103
| | - Joseph G. Potian
- Department of Pharmacology and Physiology, UMDNJ – New Jersey Medical School, Newark, NJ 07103
| | - Carmen C. Garcia
- Department of Pharmacology and Physiology, UMDNJ – New Jersey Medical School, Newark, NJ 07103
| | - Kormakur Hognason
- Department of Pharmacology and Physiology, UMDNJ – New Jersey Medical School, Newark, NJ 07103
| | - Kateřina Čapková
- Department of Chemistry, The Skaggs Institute for Chemical Biology and the Worm Institute of Research and Medicine (WIRM), The Scripps Research Institute, La Jolla, CA 92037
| | | | | | - Kim D. Janda
- Department of Chemistry, The Skaggs Institute for Chemical Biology and the Worm Institute of Research and Medicine (WIRM), The Scripps Research Institute, La Jolla, CA 92037
| | - Joseph J. McArdle
- Department of Pharmacology and Physiology, UMDNJ – New Jersey Medical School, Newark, NJ 07103
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47
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Popoff MR, Poulain B. Bacterial toxins and the nervous system: neurotoxins and multipotential toxins interacting with neuronal cells. Toxins (Basel) 2010; 2:683-737. [PMID: 22069606 PMCID: PMC3153206 DOI: 10.3390/toxins2040683] [Citation(s) in RCA: 72] [Impact Index Per Article: 5.1] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 02/21/2010] [Revised: 03/18/2010] [Accepted: 04/07/2010] [Indexed: 12/13/2022] Open
Abstract
Toxins are potent molecules used by various bacteria to interact with a host organism. Some of them specifically act on neuronal cells (clostridial neurotoxins) leading to characteristics neurological affections. But many other toxins are multifunctional and recognize a wider range of cell types including neuronal cells. Various enterotoxins interact with the enteric nervous system, for example by stimulating afferent neurons or inducing neurotransmitter release from enterochromaffin cells which result either in vomiting, in amplification of the diarrhea, or in intestinal inflammation process. Other toxins can pass the blood brain barrier and directly act on specific neurons.
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Affiliation(s)
- Michel R. Popoff
- Neurotransmission et Sécrétion Neuroendocrine, CNRS UPR 2356 IFR 37 - Neurosciences, Centre de Neurochimie, 5, rue Blaise Pascal, F-67084 STRASBOURG cedex, France;
- Author to whom correspondence should be addressed;
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48
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Toth SI, Smith LA, Ahmed SA. Extreme sensitivity of botulinum neurotoxin domains towards mild agitation. J Pharm Sci 2009; 98:3302-11. [PMID: 19226630 DOI: 10.1002/jps.21676] [Citation(s) in RCA: 15] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/07/2022]
Abstract
Botulinum neurotoxins (BoNTs) and their fragments are targets of therapeutic developments and are increasingly used as therapeutic, prophylactic, and research reagents. However, published data on their properties vary widely. In order to gain a better understanding of these variations, we initiated a systematic investigation of the stability parameters of catalytic light chains (Lc) as well as of cell surface binding domains (Hc) of the neurotoxin. When followed by CD spectroscopy, we noticed that the recombinant light chains of serotypes A (LcA), B, D, E, and G rapidly lost their secondary structures by mild stirring. Denaturation of LcA increased with stirring speed and temperature resulting in a catalytically inactive precipitate. Reducing agents or an anaerobic environment were ineffective in the denaturation. Under identical conditions, bovine serum albumin, ovalbumin, carboxypeptidase B, and of thermolysin, a structural and functional analogue of LcA, remained unchanged. Hc domains of serotype A, B, C, E, and F were also denatured by mild stirring. Adding the nonionic detergent Tween-20 to LcA completely prevented the denaturation. We speculate that the BoNT domains undergo surface denaturation due to rapid exposure of hydrophobic residues by mechanical agitation. This study has important implications for handling BoNT proteins used in therapeutic development.
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Affiliation(s)
- Stephen I Toth
- Department Molecular Biology, Integrated Toxicology Division, United States Army Medical Research Institute of Infectious Diseases, Fort Detrick, Maryland 21702, USA
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49
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Bozzi Y, Costantin L, Antonucci F, Caleo M. Action of botulinum neurotoxins in the central nervous system: Antiepileptic effects. Neurotox Res 2009; 9:197-203. [PMID: 16785118 DOI: 10.1007/bf03033939] [Citation(s) in RCA: 31] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.1] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/21/2022]
Abstract
Botulinum neurotoxins (BoNTs) are metalloproteases which act on nerve terminals and cause a long-lasting inhibition of neurotransmitter release. BoNTs act by cleaving core proteins of the neurotransmitter release machinery, namely the SNARE (soluble NSF-attachment receptors) proteins. The action of BoNTs in the peripheral nervous system (PNS) has been extensively documented, and knowledge gained in this field laid the foundations for the use of BoNTs in human disorders characterized by hyperfunction of peripheral nerve terminals. Much less is known about the action of BoNTs on the central nervous system (CNS). In vitro studies have demonstrated that BoNTs can affect the release of several neurotransmitters from central neurons. Recent studies have provided the first characterization of the effects of BoNT/E on CNS neurons in vivo. It has been shown that BoNT/E injected into the rat hippocampus inhibits glutamate release and blocks spike activity of pyramidal neurons. Intrahippocampal injection of BoNT/E resulted in significant inhibition of seizure activity in experimental models of epilepsy, suggesting a potential therapeutic use of BoNTs in the CNS.
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Affiliation(s)
- Y Bozzi
- Istituto di Neuroscienze del CNR, Pisa, Italy
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50
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Wang H, Iguchi N, Rong Q, Zhou M, Ogunkorode M, Inoue M, Pribitkin EA, Bachmanov AA, Margolskee RF, Pfeifer K, Huang L. Expression of the voltage-gated potassium channel KCNQ1 in mammalian taste bud cells and the effect of its null-mutation on taste preferences. J Comp Neurol 2009; 512:384-98. [PMID: 19006182 PMCID: PMC2734193 DOI: 10.1002/cne.21899] [Citation(s) in RCA: 30] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/10/2022]
Abstract
Vertebrate taste buds undergo continual cell turnover. To understand how the gustatory progenitor cells in the stratified lingual epithelium migrate and differentiate into different types of mature taste cells, we sought to identify genes that were selectively expressed in taste cells at different maturation stages. Here we report the expression of the voltage-gated potassium channel KCNQ1 in mammalian taste buds of mouse, rat, and human. Immunohistochemistry and nuclear staining showed that nearly all rodent and human taste cells express this channel. Double immunostaining with antibodies against type II and III taste cell markers validated the presence of KCNQ1 in these two types of cells. Co-localization studies with cytokeratin 14 indicated that KCNQ1 is also expressed in type IV basal precursor cells. Null mutation of the kcnq1 gene in mouse, however, did not alter the gross structure of taste buds or the expression of taste signaling molecules. Behavioral assays showed that the mutant mice display reduced preference to some umami substances, but not to any other taste compounds tested. Gustatory nerve recordings, however, were unable to detect any significant change in the integrated nerve responses of the mutant mice to umami stimuli. These results suggest that although it is expressed in nearly all taste bud cells, the function of KCNQ1 is not required for gross taste bud development or peripheral taste transduction pathways, and the reduced preference of kcnq1-null mice in the behavioral assays may be attributable to the deficiency in the central nervous system or other organs.
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Affiliation(s)
- Hong Wang
- Monell Chemical Senses Center, 3500 Market Street, Philadelphia, PA 19104, USA
| | - Naoko Iguchi
- Monell Chemical Senses Center, 3500 Market Street, Philadelphia, PA 19104, USA
| | - Qi Rong
- Laboratory of Mammalian Genes and Development, NICHD/NIH 9000, Rockville Pike, Bethesda, MD 20892, USA
| | - Minliang Zhou
- Monell Chemical Senses Center, 3500 Market Street, Philadelphia, PA 19104, USA
| | - Martina Ogunkorode
- Monell Chemical Senses Center, 3500 Market Street, Philadelphia, PA 19104, USA
| | - Masashi Inoue
- Department of Life Science, Tokyo University of Pharmacy and Life Science, 1432-1 Horinouchi, Hachioji, Tokyo, Japan
| | - Edmund A. Pribitkin
- Department of Otolaryngology-Head and Neck Surgery, Thomas Jefferson University, 925 Chestnut Street, Philadelphia, PA 19107, USA
| | | | - Robert F. Margolskee
- Department of Neuroscience, Mount Sinai School of Medicine, 1425 Madison Avenue, New York, NY 10029, USA
| | - Karl Pfeifer
- Laboratory of Mammalian Genes and Development, NICHD/NIH 9000, Rockville Pike, Bethesda, MD 20892, USA
| | - Liquan Huang
- Monell Chemical Senses Center, 3500 Market Street, Philadelphia, PA 19104, USA
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