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Chen M, Venturi V, Munier CML. Dissecting the Protective Effect of CD8 + T Cells in Response to SARS-CoV-2 mRNA Vaccination and the Potential Link with Lymph Node CD8 + T Cells. BIOLOGY 2023; 12:1035. [PMID: 37508464 PMCID: PMC10376827 DOI: 10.3390/biology12071035] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 05/24/2023] [Revised: 07/04/2023] [Accepted: 07/18/2023] [Indexed: 07/30/2023]
Abstract
SARS-CoV-2 vaccines have played a crucial role in effectively reducing COVID-19 disease severity, with a new generation of vaccines that use messenger RNA (mRNA) technology being administered globally. Neutralizing antibodies have featured as the heroes of vaccine-induced immunity. However, vaccine-elicited CD8+ T cells may have a significant impact on the early protective effects of the mRNA vaccine, which are evident 12 days after initial vaccination. Vaccine-induced CD8+ T cells have been shown to respond to multiple epitopes of SARS-CoV-2 and exhibit polyfunctionality in the periphery at the early stage, even when neutralizing antibodies are scarce. Furthermore, SARS-CoV-2 mRNA vaccines induce diverse subsets of memory CD8+ T cells that persist for more than six months following vaccination. However, the protective role of CD8+ T cells in response to the SARS-CoV-2 mRNA vaccines remains a topic of debate. In addition, our understanding of CD8+ T cells in response to vaccination in the lymph nodes, where they first encounter antigen, is still limited. This review delves into the current knowledge regarding the protective role of polyfunctional CD8+ T cells in controlling the virus, the response to SARS-CoV-2 mRNA vaccines, and the contribution to supporting B cell activity and promoting immune protection in the lymph nodes.
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Affiliation(s)
- Mengfei Chen
- The Kirby Institute, UNSW, Sydney, NSW 2052, Australia
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2
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Naneh O, Kozorog M, Merzel F, Gilbert R, Anderluh G. Surface plasmon resonance and microscale thermophoresis approaches for determining the affinity of perforin for calcium ions. Front Immunol 2023; 14:1181020. [PMID: 37545534 PMCID: PMC10400287 DOI: 10.3389/fimmu.2023.1181020] [Citation(s) in RCA: 1] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 03/06/2023] [Accepted: 06/16/2023] [Indexed: 08/08/2023] Open
Abstract
Perforin is a pore-forming protein that plays a crucial role in the immune system by clearing virus-infected or tumor cells. It is released from cytotoxic granules of immune cells and forms pores in targeted lipid membranes to deliver apoptosis-inducing granzymes. It is a very cytotoxic protein and is therefore adapted not to act in producing cells. Its activity is regulated by the requirement for calcium ions for optimal activity. However, the exact affinity of perforin for calcium ions has not yet been determined. We conducted a molecular dynamics simulation in the absence or presence of calcium ions that showed that binding of at least three calcium ions is required for stable perforin binding to the lipid membrane. Biophysical studies using surface plasmon resonance and microscale thermophoresis were then performed to estimate the binding affinities of native human and recombinant mouse perforin for calcium ions. Both approaches showed that mouse perforin has a several fold higher affinity for calcium ions than that of human perforin. This was attributed to a particular residue, tryptophan at position 488 in mouse perforin, which is replaced by arginine in human perforin. This represents an additional mechanism to control the activity of human perforin.
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Affiliation(s)
- Omar Naneh
- Department of Molecular Biology and Nanobiotechnology, National Institute of Chemistry, Ljubljana, Slovenia
| | - Mirijam Kozorog
- Department of Molecular Biology and Nanobiotechnology, National Institute of Chemistry, Ljubljana, Slovenia
| | - Franci Merzel
- Theory Department, National Institute of Chemistry, Ljubljana, Slovenia
| | - Robert Gilbert
- Division of Structural Biology, Wellcome Centre for Human Genetics, University of Oxford, Oxford, United Kingdom
| | - Gregor Anderluh
- Department of Molecular Biology and Nanobiotechnology, National Institute of Chemistry, Ljubljana, Slovenia
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3
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Horton MK, Shim JE, Wallace A, Graves JS, Aaen G, Greenberg B, Mar S, Wheeler Y, Weinstock-Guttman B, Waldman A, Schreiner T, Rodriguez M, Tillema JM, Chitnis T, Krupp L, Casper TC, Rensel M, Hart J, Quach HL, Quach DL, Schaefer C, Waubant E, Barcellos LF. Rare and low-frequency coding genetic variants contribute to pediatric-onset multiple sclerosis. Mult Scler 2023; 29:505-511. [PMID: 36755464 PMCID: PMC10149552 DOI: 10.1177/13524585221150736] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 02/10/2023]
Abstract
BACKGROUND Rare genetic variants are emerging as important contributors to the heritability of multiple sclerosis (MS). Whether rare variants also contribute to pediatric-onset multiple sclerosis (POMS) is unknown. OBJECTIVE To test whether genes harboring rare variants associated with adult-onset MS risk (PRF1, PRKRA, NLRP8, and HDAC7) and 52 major histocompatibility complex (MHC) genes are associated with POMS. METHODS We analyzed DNA samples from 330 POMS cases and 306 controls from the US Network of Pediatric MS Centers and Kaiser Permanente Northern California for which Illumina ExomeChip genotypes were available. Using the gene-based method "SKAT-O," we tested the association between candidate genes and POMS risk. RESULTS After correction for multiple comparisons, one adult-onset MS gene (PRF1, p = 2.70 × 10-3) and two MHC genes (BRD2, p = 5.89 × 10-5 and AGER, p = 7.96 × 10-5) were significantly associated with POMS. Results suggest these are independent of HLA-DRB1*1501. CONCLUSION Findings support a role for rare coding variants in POMS susceptibility. In particular, rare minor alleles within PRF1 were more common among individuals with POMS compared to controls while the opposite was true for rare variants within significant MHC genes, BRD2 and AGER. These genes would not have been identified by common variant studies, emphasizing the merits of investigating rare genetic variation in complex diseases.
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Affiliation(s)
- Mary K Horton
- Division of Epidemiology, School of Public Health, University of California, Berkeley, CA, USA/Center for Computational Biology, College of Engineering, University of California, Berkeley, CA, USA
| | - Joan E Shim
- Division of Epidemiology, School of Public Health, University of California, Berkeley, CA, USA
| | - Amelia Wallace
- Division of Epidemiology, School of Public Health, University of California, Berkeley, CA, USA/Department of Human Genetics, University of Utah, Salt Lake City, UT, USA
| | - Jennifer S Graves
- Department of Neurosciences, School of Medicine, University of California, San Diego, CA, USA/Department of Neurology, University of California, San Francisco, CA, USA
| | - Gregory Aaen
- Pediatric MS Center, Loma Linda University Children's Hospital, San Bernardino, CA, USA
| | - Benjamin Greenberg
- Department of Neurology, University of Texas Southwestern, Dallas, TX, USA
| | - Soe Mar
- Pediatric-Onset Demyelinating Diseases and Autoimmune Encephalitis Center, St. Louis Children's Hospital, Washington University School of Medicine, St. Louis, MO, USA
| | - Yolanda Wheeler
- Alabama Center for Pediatric-Onset Demyelinating Disease, Children's Hospital of Alabama, Birmingham, AL, USA
| | | | - Amy Waldman
- Division of Neurology, Children's Hospital of Philadelphia, Philadelphia, PA, USA
| | - Teri Schreiner
- Children's Hospital Colorado, University of Colorado, Denver, CO, USA
| | - Moses Rodriguez
- Mayo Clinic's Pediatric Multiple Sclerosis Center, Rochester, MN, USA
| | | | - Tanuja Chitnis
- Partners Pediatric Multiple Sclerosis Center, Massachusetts General Hospital for Children, Boston, MA, USA
| | - Lauren Krupp
- Lourie Center for Pediatric Multiple Sclerosis, Stony Brook Children's Hospital, Stony Brook, NY, USA
| | - T Charles Casper
- Department of Pediatrics, University of Utah School of Medicine, Salt Lake City, UT, USA
| | - Mary Rensel
- Mellen Center, Cleveland Clinic, Cleveland, OH, USA
| | - Janace Hart
- Regional Pediatric MS Center, Neurology, University of California, San Francisco, CA, USA
| | - Hong L Quach
- Division of Epidemiology, School of Public Health, University of California, Berkeley, CA, USA/Center for Computational Biology, College of Engineering, University of California, Berkeley, CA, USA
| | - Diana L Quach
- Division of Epidemiology, School of Public Health, University of California, Berkeley, CA, USA/Center for Computational Biology, College of Engineering, University of California, Berkeley, CA, USA
| | | | - Emmanuelle Waubant
- Department of Neurology, University of California, San Francisco, CA, USA
| | - Lisa F Barcellos
- Division of Epidemiology, School of Public Health, University of California, Berkeley, CA, USA/Center for Computational Biology, College of Engineering, University of California, Berkeley, CA, USA/Kaiser Permanente Division of Research, Oakland, CA, USA
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4
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Senior MJT, Monico C, Weatherill EE, Gilbert RJ, Heuck AP, Wallace MI. Single-molecule tracking of perfringolysin O assembly and membrane insertion uncoupling. FEBS J 2023; 290:428-441. [PMID: 35989549 PMCID: PMC10086847 DOI: 10.1111/febs.16596] [Citation(s) in RCA: 1] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 04/01/2022] [Revised: 06/22/2022] [Accepted: 08/15/2022] [Indexed: 02/05/2023]
Abstract
We exploit single-molecule tracking and optical single channel recording in droplet interface bilayers to resolve the assembly pathway and pore formation of the archetypical cholesterol-dependent cytolysin nanopore, Perfringolysin O. We follow the stoichiometry and diffusion of Perfringolysin O complexes during assembly with 60 ms temporal resolution and 20 nm spatial precision. Our results suggest individual nascent complexes can insert into the lipid membrane where they continue active assembly. Overall, these data support a model of stepwise irreversible assembly dominated by monomer addition, but with infrequent assembly from larger partial complexes.
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Affiliation(s)
- Michael J T Senior
- Chemistry Research Laboratory, Department of Chemistry, University of Oxford, UK
| | - Carina Monico
- Chemistry Research Laboratory, Department of Chemistry, University of Oxford, UK.,Department of Chemistry, King's College London, UK
| | - Eve E Weatherill
- Chemistry Research Laboratory, Department of Chemistry, University of Oxford, UK.,Department of Chemistry, King's College London, UK
| | - Robert J Gilbert
- Division of Structural Biology, Wellcome Centre for Human Genetics, University of Oxford, UK
| | - Alejandro P Heuck
- Departments of Biochemistry and Molecular Biology, University of Massachusetts, Amherst, MA, USA
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Lei T, Shen M, Deng X, Shi Y, Peng Y, Wang H, Chen T. Genomic characteristics of two breast malignant phyllodes tumors during pregnancy and lactation identified through whole-exome sequencing. Orphanet J Rare Dis 2022; 17:382. [PMID: 36271373 PMCID: PMC9587670 DOI: 10.1186/s13023-022-02537-w] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 04/26/2022] [Revised: 09/19/2022] [Accepted: 10/04/2022] [Indexed: 11/29/2022] Open
Abstract
Background The genomic landscape of breast malignant phyllodes tumors (PTs) is not well defined, especially pregnancy-related malignant PTs. To clarify this topic, whole-exome next-generation sequencing (NGS) was performed on tumor samples and paired normal breast tissues from two pregnancy-related malignant PTs, followed by a functional analysis of the genetic alterations. Methods DNA from malignant PT samples and matched normal breast tissues of both patients were subjected to molecular profiling. NGS of the whole-exome was performed in a commercial molecular pathology laboratory. Predictive tools were used to estimate genetic variation in somatic and germline genes. Results In total, 29 somatic genomic alterations and 18 germline alterations were found in both patients. In Patient 1, 12 aberrations were identified in the tumor tissue, and 9 alterations were identified in matched normal breast tissue. One pathogenic variant in tumor suppressor genes (TP53) was detected in patient 1. In Patient 2, 18 and 10 variants were found in the tumor and matched normal breast tissue, respectively. In Patient 2, pathogenic alterations were identified in two tumor suppressor genes (PTEN and TP53). PTEN and TP53 may be potential drug targets. The functional predictive tools showed that genes of unknown significance for PTs, including FCHO1 in Patient 1, and LRP12 and PKM in Patient 2, were pathogenic. Several genes, including FCHO1, LRP12 and PKM, were shown for the first time to be altered in malignant PTs. A potentially pathogenic germline variant in PRF1, was detected in Patient 1. Conclusion Our study first demonstrated somatic and germline gene alterations in two malignant PTs during pregnancy and lactation. These two PTs shared major genetic events, including TP53 mutation, which commonly occurs in malignant PTs; additionally, we identified two potential genes for targeted therapy, TP53 and PTEN. One germline mutation in PRF1 was also detected. These results provide clues regarding tumor pathogenesis and precision therapy development. Supplementary Information The online version contains supplementary material available at 10.1186/s13023-022-02537-w.
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Affiliation(s)
- Tinge Lei
- Department of Pathology, The Third Affiliated Hospital of Soochow University, 213003, Changzhou, Jiangsu, P.R. China
| | - Mengjia Shen
- Department of Pathology, West China Hospital, Sichuan University, No. 37, Guo Xue Xiang, 610041, Chengdu, Sichuan, China
| | - Xu Deng
- Department of Pathology, The Third Affiliated Hospital of Soochow University, 213003, Changzhou, Jiangsu, P.R. China
| | - Yongqiang Shi
- Department of Pathology, The Third Affiliated Hospital of Soochow University, 213003, Changzhou, Jiangsu, P.R. China
| | - Yan Peng
- Department of Pathology, The Third Affiliated Hospital of Soochow University, 213003, Changzhou, Jiangsu, P.R. China
| | - Hui Wang
- Department of Pathology, The Third Affiliated Hospital of Soochow University, 213003, Changzhou, Jiangsu, P.R. China
| | - Tongbing Chen
- Department of Pathology, The Third Affiliated Hospital of Soochow University, 213003, Changzhou, Jiangsu, P.R. China.
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Jiao F, Dehez F, Ni T, Yu X, Dittman JS, Gilbert R, Chipot C, Scheuring S. Perforin-2 clockwise hand-over-hand pre-pore to pore transition mechanism. Nat Commun 2022; 13:5039. [PMID: 36028507 PMCID: PMC9418332 DOI: 10.1038/s41467-022-32757-4] [Citation(s) in RCA: 7] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 03/23/2022] [Accepted: 08/16/2022] [Indexed: 11/26/2022] Open
Abstract
Perforin-2 (PFN2, MPEG1) is a pore-forming protein that acts as a first line of defense in the mammalian immune system, rapidly killing engulfed microbes within the phagolysosome in macrophages. PFN2 self-assembles into hexadecameric pre-pore rings that transition upon acidification into pores damaging target cell membranes. Here, using high-speed atomic force microscopy (HS-AFM) imaging and line-scanning and molecular dynamics simulation, we elucidate PFN2 pre-pore to pore transition pathways and dynamics. Upon acidification, the pre-pore rings (pre-pore-I) display frequent, 1.8 s-1, ring-opening dynamics that eventually, 0.2 s-1, initiate transition into an intermediate, short-lived, ~75 ms, pre-pore-II state, inducing a clockwise pre-pore-I to pre-pore-II propagation. Concomitantly, the first pre-pore-II subunit, undergoes a major conformational change to the pore state that propagates also clockwise at a rate ~15 s-1. Thus, the pre-pore to pore transition is a clockwise hand-over-hand mechanism that is accomplished within ~1.3 s. Our findings suggest a clockwise mechanism of membrane insertion that with variations may be general for the MACPF/CDC superfamily.
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Affiliation(s)
- Fang Jiao
- Department of Anesthesiology, Weill Cornell Medicine, New York City, NY, USA.
- Department of Physiology and Biophysics, Weill Cornell Medicine, New York City, NY, USA.
- Laboratory of Soft Matter Physics, Institute of Physics, Chinese Academy of Sciences, Beijing, China.
| | - François Dehez
- Laboratoire International Associé, Centre National de la Recherche Scientifique et University of Illinois at Urbana-Champaign, Unité Mixte de Recherche no 7019, Université de Lorraine, Vandœuvre-lès-Nancy cedex, France
| | - Tao Ni
- Division of Structural Biology, Wellcome Centre for Human Genetics, University of Oxford, Roosevelt Drive, Oxford, UK
| | - Xiulian Yu
- Division of Structural Biology, Wellcome Centre for Human Genetics, University of Oxford, Roosevelt Drive, Oxford, UK
- Calleva Research Centre for Evolution and Human Sciences, Magdalen College, University of Oxford, Oxford, UK
| | - Jeremy S Dittman
- Department of Biochemistry, Weill Cornell Medicine, New York, NY, USA
| | - Robert Gilbert
- Division of Structural Biology, Wellcome Centre for Human Genetics, University of Oxford, Roosevelt Drive, Oxford, UK
- Calleva Research Centre for Evolution and Human Sciences, Magdalen College, University of Oxford, Oxford, UK
| | - Christophe Chipot
- Laboratoire International Associé, Centre National de la Recherche Scientifique et University of Illinois at Urbana-Champaign, Unité Mixte de Recherche no 7019, Université de Lorraine, Vandœuvre-lès-Nancy cedex, France
- Department of Physics, University of Illinois at Urbana-Champaign, Urbana, IL, USA
| | - Simon Scheuring
- Department of Anesthesiology, Weill Cornell Medicine, New York City, NY, USA.
- Department of Physiology and Biophysics, Weill Cornell Medicine, New York City, NY, USA.
- Kavli Institute at Cornell for Nanoscale Science, Cornell University, Ithaca, New York, USA.
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7
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Mari SA, Pluhackova K, Pipercevic J, Leipner M, Hiller S, Engel A, Müller DJ. Gasdermin-A3 pore formation propagates along variable pathways. Nat Commun 2022; 13:2609. [PMID: 35545613 PMCID: PMC9095878 DOI: 10.1038/s41467-022-30232-8] [Citation(s) in RCA: 18] [Impact Index Per Article: 9.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 05/05/2021] [Accepted: 04/22/2022] [Indexed: 12/31/2022] Open
Abstract
Gasdermins are main effectors of pyroptosis, an inflammatory form of cell death. Released by proteolysis, the N-terminal gasdermin domain assembles large oligomers to punch lytic pores into the cell membrane. While the endpoint of this reaction, the fully formed pore, has been well characterized, the assembly and pore-forming mechanisms remain largely unknown. To resolve these mechanisms, we characterize mouse gasdermin-A3 by high-resolution time-lapse atomic force microscopy. We find that gasdermin-A3 oligomers assemble on the membrane surface where they remain attached and mobile. Once inserted into the membrane gasdermin-A3 grows variable oligomeric stoichiometries and shapes, each able to open transmembrane pores. Molecular dynamics simulations resolve how the membrane-inserted amphiphilic β-hairpins and the structurally adapting hydrophilic head domains stabilize variable oligomeric conformations and open the pore. The results show that without a vertical collapse gasdermin pore formation propagates along a set of multiple parallel but connected reaction pathways to ensure a robust cellular response.
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Affiliation(s)
- Stefania A Mari
- Department of Biosystems Science and Engineering, Eidgenössische Technische Hochschule (ETH) Zurich, 4058, Basel, Switzerland
| | - Kristyna Pluhackova
- Department of Biosystems Science and Engineering, Eidgenössische Technische Hochschule (ETH) Zurich, 4058, Basel, Switzerland.
| | | | - Matthew Leipner
- Department of Biosystems Science and Engineering, Eidgenössische Technische Hochschule (ETH) Zurich, 4058, Basel, Switzerland
| | | | - Andreas Engel
- Department of Biosystems Science and Engineering, Eidgenössische Technische Hochschule (ETH) Zurich, 4058, Basel, Switzerland
| | - Daniel J Müller
- Department of Biosystems Science and Engineering, Eidgenössische Technische Hochschule (ETH) Zurich, 4058, Basel, Switzerland.
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Ivanova ME, Lukoyanova N, Malhotra S, Topf M, Trapani JA, Voskoboinik I, Saibil HR. The pore conformation of lymphocyte perforin. SCIENCE ADVANCES 2022; 8:eabk3147. [PMID: 35148176 PMCID: PMC8836823 DOI: 10.1126/sciadv.abk3147] [Citation(s) in RCA: 11] [Impact Index Per Article: 5.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 07/08/2021] [Accepted: 12/17/2021] [Indexed: 05/05/2023]
Abstract
Perforin is a pore-forming protein that facilitates rapid killing of pathogen-infected or cancerous cells by the immune system. Perforin is released from cytotoxic lymphocytes, together with proapoptotic granzymes, to bind to a target cell membrane where it oligomerizes and forms pores. The pores allow granzyme entry, which rapidly triggers the apoptotic death of the target cell. Here, we present a 4-Å resolution cryo-electron microscopy structure of the perforin pore, revealing previously unidentified inter- and intramolecular interactions stabilizing the assembly. During pore formation, the helix-turn-helix motif moves away from the bend in the central β sheet to form an intermolecular contact. Cryo-electron tomography shows that prepores form on the membrane surface with minimal conformational changes. Our findings suggest the sequence of conformational changes underlying oligomerization and membrane insertion, and explain how several pathogenic mutations affect function.
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Affiliation(s)
- Marina E. Ivanova
- Institute of Structural and Molecular Biology, Birkbeck, University of London, Malet St, London WC1E 7HX, UK
- Imperial College London, Hammersmith Campus, Du Cane Road, London W12 0NN, UK
| | - Natalya Lukoyanova
- Institute of Structural and Molecular Biology, Birkbeck, University of London, Malet St, London WC1E 7HX, UK
| | - Sony Malhotra
- Institute of Structural and Molecular Biology, Birkbeck, University of London, Malet St, London WC1E 7HX, UK
- Scientific Computing Department, Science and Technology Facilities Council, Rutherford Appleton Laboratory, Fermi Ave, Harwell, Didcot OX11 0QX, UK
| | - Maya Topf
- Institute of Structural and Molecular Biology, Birkbeck, University of London, Malet St, London WC1E 7HX, UK
- Centre for Structural Systems Biology, Leibniz-Institut für Experimentelle Virologie and Universitätsklinikum Hamburg-Eppendorf (UKE), Hamburg, Germany
| | - Joseph A. Trapani
- Peter MacCallum Cancer Centre, 305 Grattan St, Melbourne, VIC 3000, Australia
| | - Ilia Voskoboinik
- Peter MacCallum Cancer Centre, 305 Grattan St, Melbourne, VIC 3000, Australia
| | - Helen R. Saibil
- Institute of Structural and Molecular Biology, Birkbeck, University of London, Malet St, London WC1E 7HX, UK
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Garcia-Pelaez J, Barbosa-Matos R, São José C, Sousa S, Gullo I, Hoogerbrugge N, Carneiro F, Oliveira C. Gastric cancer genetic predisposition and clinical presentations: Established heritable causes and potential candidate genes. Eur J Med Genet 2021; 65:104401. [PMID: 34871783 DOI: 10.1016/j.ejmg.2021.104401] [Citation(s) in RCA: 2] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 05/01/2021] [Revised: 11/10/2021] [Accepted: 11/28/2021] [Indexed: 12/12/2022]
Abstract
Tumour risk syndromes (TRS) are characterized by an increased risk of early-onset cancers in a familial context. High cancer risk is mostly driven by loss-of-function variants in a single cancer-associated gene. Presently, predisposition to diffuse gastric cancer (DGC) is explained by CDH1 and CTNNA1 pathogenic and likely pathogenic variants (P/LP), causing Hereditary Diffuse Gastric Cancer (HDGC); while APC promoter 1B single nucleotide variants predispose to Gastric Adenocarcinoma and Proximal Polyposis of the Stomach (GAPPS). Familial Intestinal Gastric Cancer (FIGC), recognized as a GC-predisposing disease, remains understudied and genetically unsolved. GC can also occur in the spectrum of other TRS. Identification of heritable causes allows defining diagnostic testing criteria, helps to clinically classify GC families into the appropriate TRS, and allows performing pre-symptomatic testing identifying at-risk individuals for downstream surveillance, risk reduction and/or treatment. However, most of HDGC, some GAPPS, and most FIGC patients/families remain unsolved, expecting a heritable factor to be discovered. The missing heritability in GC-associated tumour risk syndromes (GC-TRS) is likely explained not by a single major gene, but by a diversity of genes, some, predisposing to other TRS. This would gain support if GC-enriched small families or apparently isolated early-onset GC cases were hiding a family history compatible with another TRS. Herein, we revisited current knowledge on GC-TRS, and searched in the literature for individuals/families bearing P/LP variants predisposing for other TRS, but whose probands display a clinical presentation and/or family history also fitting GC-TRS criteria. We found 27 families with family history compatible with HDGC or FIGC, harbouring 28 P/LP variants in 16 TRS-associated genes, mainly associated with DNA repair. PALB2 or BRCA2 were the most frequently mutated candidate genes in individuals with family history compatible with HDGC and FIGC, respectively. Consolidation of PALB2 and BRCA2 as HDGC- or FIGC-associated genes, respectively, holds promise and worth additional research. This analysis further highlighted the influence, that proband's choice and small or unreported family history have, for a correct TRS diagnosis, genetic screening, and disease management. In this review, we provide a rational for identification of particularly relevant candidate genes in GC-TRS.
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Affiliation(s)
- José Garcia-Pelaez
- i3S - Instituto de Investigação e Inovação em Saúde, Porto, Portugal; IPATIMUP - Instituto de Patologia e Imunologia Molecular da Universidade do Porto, Porto, Portugal; Doctoral Programme in Biomedicine, Faculty of Medicine, University of Porto, Porto, Portugal
| | - Rita Barbosa-Matos
- i3S - Instituto de Investigação e Inovação em Saúde, Porto, Portugal; IPATIMUP - Instituto de Patologia e Imunologia Molecular da Universidade do Porto, Porto, Portugal; International Doctoral Programme in Molecular and Cellular Biotechnology Applied to Health Sciences from Institute of Biomedical Sciences Abel Salazar (ICBAS), University of Porto, Porto, Portugal
| | - Celina São José
- i3S - Instituto de Investigação e Inovação em Saúde, Porto, Portugal; IPATIMUP - Instituto de Patologia e Imunologia Molecular da Universidade do Porto, Porto, Portugal; Doctoral Programme in Biomedicine, Faculty of Medicine, University of Porto, Porto, Portugal
| | - Sónia Sousa
- i3S - Instituto de Investigação e Inovação em Saúde, Porto, Portugal; IPATIMUP - Instituto de Patologia e Imunologia Molecular da Universidade do Porto, Porto, Portugal
| | - Irene Gullo
- i3S - Instituto de Investigação e Inovação em Saúde, Porto, Portugal; IPATIMUP - Instituto de Patologia e Imunologia Molecular da Universidade do Porto, Porto, Portugal; FMUP - Faculty of Medicine of the University of Porto, Porto, Portugal; Centro Hospitalar e Universitário S. João, Porto, Portugal
| | - Nicoline Hoogerbrugge
- Department of Human Genetics, Radboud University Medical Center, Radboud Institute for Molecular Life Sciences, Nijmegen, the Netherlands
| | - Fátima Carneiro
- i3S - Instituto de Investigação e Inovação em Saúde, Porto, Portugal; IPATIMUP - Instituto de Patologia e Imunologia Molecular da Universidade do Porto, Porto, Portugal; FMUP - Faculty of Medicine of the University of Porto, Porto, Portugal; Centro Hospitalar e Universitário S. João, Porto, Portugal
| | - Carla Oliveira
- i3S - Instituto de Investigação e Inovação em Saúde, Porto, Portugal; IPATIMUP - Instituto de Patologia e Imunologia Molecular da Universidade do Porto, Porto, Portugal; FMUP - Faculty of Medicine of the University of Porto, Porto, Portugal.
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Kulma M, Anderluh G. Beyond pore formation: reorganization of the plasma membrane induced by pore-forming proteins. Cell Mol Life Sci 2021; 78:6229-6249. [PMID: 34387717 PMCID: PMC11073440 DOI: 10.1007/s00018-021-03914-7] [Citation(s) in RCA: 6] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 03/16/2021] [Revised: 07/09/2021] [Accepted: 08/03/2021] [Indexed: 12/23/2022]
Abstract
Pore-forming proteins (PFPs) are a heterogeneous group of proteins that are expressed and secreted by a wide range of organisms. PFPs are produced as soluble monomers that bind to a receptor molecule in the host cell membrane. They then assemble into oligomers that are incorporated into the lipid membrane to form transmembrane pores. Such pore formation alters the permeability of the plasma membrane and is one of the most common mechanisms used by PFPs to destroy target cells. Interestingly, PFPs can also indirectly manipulate diverse cellular functions. In recent years, increasing evidence indicates that the interaction of PFPs with lipid membranes is not only limited to pore-induced membrane permeabilization but is also strongly associated with extensive plasma membrane reorganization. This includes lateral rearrangement and deformation of the lipid membrane, which can lead to the disruption of target cell function and finally death. Conversely, these modifications also constitute an essential component of the membrane repair system that protects cells from the lethal consequences of pore formation. Here, we provide an overview of the current knowledge on the changes in lipid membrane organization caused by PFPs from different organisms.
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Affiliation(s)
- Magdalena Kulma
- Department of Molecular Biology and Nanobiotechnology, National Institute of Chemistry, Hajdrihova 19, 1001, Ljubljana, Slovenia.
| | - Gregor Anderluh
- Department of Molecular Biology and Nanobiotechnology, National Institute of Chemistry, Hajdrihova 19, 1001, Ljubljana, Slovenia
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11
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Mondal AK, Chattopadhyay K. Structures and functions of the membrane-damaging pore-forming proteins. ADVANCES IN PROTEIN CHEMISTRY AND STRUCTURAL BIOLOGY 2021; 128:241-288. [PMID: 35034720 DOI: 10.1016/bs.apcsb.2021.07.001] [Citation(s) in RCA: 4] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 06/14/2023]
Abstract
Pore-forming proteins (PFPs) of the diverse life forms have emerged as the potent cell-killing entities owing to their specialized membrane-damaging properties. PFPs have the unique ability to perforate the plasma membranes of their target cells, and they exert this functionality by creating oligomeric pores in the membrane lipid bilayer. Pathogenic bacteria employ PFPs as toxins to execute their virulence mechanisms, whereas in the higher vertebrates PFPs are deployed as the part of the immune system and to generate inflammatory responses. PFPs are the unique dimorphic proteins that are generally synthesized as water-soluble molecules, and transform into membrane-inserted oligomeric pore assemblies upon interacting with the target membranes. In spite of sharing very little sequence similarity, PFPs from diverse organisms display incredible structural similarity. Yet, at the same time, structure-function mechanisms of the PFPs document remarkable versatility. Such notions establish PFPs as the fascinating model system to explore variety of unsolved issues pertaining to the structure-function paradigm of the proteins that interact and act in the membrane environment. In this article, we discuss our current understanding regarding the structural basis of the pore-forming functions of the diverse class of PFPs. We attempt to highlight the similarities and differences in their structures, membrane pore-formation mechanisms, and their implications for the various biological processes, ranging from the bacterial virulence mechanisms to the inflammatory immune response generation in the higher animals.
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Affiliation(s)
- Anish Kumar Mondal
- Department of Biological Sciences, Indian Institute of Science Education and Research Mohali, Mohali, Punjab, India
| | - Kausik Chattopadhyay
- Department of Biological Sciences, Indian Institute of Science Education and Research Mohali, Mohali, Punjab, India.
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12
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Nelson MA, Ngamcherdtrakul W, Luoh SW, Yantasee W. Prognostic and therapeutic role of tumor-infiltrating lymphocyte subtypes in breast cancer. Cancer Metastasis Rev 2021; 40:519-536. [PMID: 33963482 PMCID: PMC8424653 DOI: 10.1007/s10555-021-09968-0] [Citation(s) in RCA: 57] [Impact Index Per Article: 19.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Submit a Manuscript] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 12/09/2020] [Accepted: 04/21/2021] [Indexed: 02/06/2023]
Abstract
Increased levels of total tumor-infiltrating lymphocytes (TILs) are generally associated with good prognosis in several breast cancer subtypes. Subtypes of TILs impact both tumor cells and immune cells in a variety of different ways, leading to either a pro-tumor or antitumor effect. Tumor-infiltrating CD8+ T cells and natural killer (NK) cells perform as effector cells against tumor cells and are associated with better clinical outcome. Immunotherapy approaches that improve the antitumor activity and proliferation of CD8+ T and NK cells include PD-1/PD-L1 blockade, CAR T cell therapy, or ex vivo-stimulated NK cells. A subset of CD8+ T cells, tissue-resident memory T cells, has also recently been associated with good prognosis in breast cancer patients, and has potential to serve as a predictive biomarker and therapeutic target. Tumor-infiltrating B cells also secrete apoptosis-inducing IgG antibodies and can act as antigen-presenting cells to prime CD4+ and CD8+ T cells. On the other hand, regulatory T and regulatory B cells modulate the immune response from CD8+ T cells and NK cells by secreting immunosuppressive cytokines and inhibiting maturation of antigen-presenting cells (APCs). These regulatory cells are typically associated with poor prognosis, therefore rendering suppression of their regulatory function a key immunotherapeutic strategy.
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Affiliation(s)
| | | | - Shiuh-Wen Luoh
- VA Portland Health Care System, Knight Cancer Institute, Oregon Health and Science University, Portland, OR, USA
| | - Wassana Yantasee
- PDX Pharmaceuticals, Inc., Portland, OR, USA.
- Department of Biomedical Engineering, Oregon Health and Science University, Portland, OR, USA.
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13
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Xu J, Yang N, Xie T, Yang G, Chang L, Yan D, Li T. Summary and comparison of the perforin in teleosts and mammals: A review. Scand J Immunol 2021; 94:e13047. [PMID: 33914954 DOI: 10.1111/sji.13047] [Citation(s) in RCA: 3] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 11/05/2020] [Revised: 04/14/2021] [Accepted: 04/23/2021] [Indexed: 12/18/2022]
Abstract
Perforin, a pore-forming glycoprotein, has been demonstrated to play key roles in clearing virus-infected cells and tumour cells due to its ability of forming 'pores' on the cell membranes. Additionally, perforin is also found to be associated with human diseases such as tumours, virus infections, immune rejection and some autoimmune diseases. Until now, plenty of perforin genes have been identified in vertebrates, especially the mammals and teleost fish. Conversely, vertebrate homologue of perforin gene was not identified in the invertebrates. Although recently there have been several reviews focusing on perforin and granzymes in mammals, no one highlighted the current advances of perforin in the other vertebrates. Here, in addition to mammalian perforin, the structure, evolution, tissue distribution and function of perforin in bony fish are summarized, respectively, which will allow us to gain more insights into the perforin in lower animals and the evolution of this important pore-forming protein across vertebrates.
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Affiliation(s)
- Jiahui Xu
- School of Agriculture, Ludong University, Yantai, China
| | - Ning Yang
- School of Agriculture, Ludong University, Yantai, China
| | - Ting Xie
- School of Agriculture, Ludong University, Yantai, China
| | - Guiwen Yang
- Shandong Provincial Key Laboratory of Animal Resistance Biology, College of Life Sciences, Shandong Normal University, Jinan, China
| | - Linrui Chang
- School of Agriculture, Ludong University, Yantai, China
| | - Dongchun Yan
- School of Agriculture, Ludong University, Yantai, China
| | - Ting Li
- School of Agriculture, Ludong University, Yantai, China
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14
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Gilbert RJC. Electron microscopy as a critical tool in the determination of pore forming mechanisms in proteins. Methods Enzymol 2021; 649:71-102. [PMID: 33712203 DOI: 10.1016/bs.mie.2021.01.034] [Citation(s) in RCA: 4] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/15/2022]
Abstract
Electron microscopy has consistently played an important role in the description of pore-forming protein systems. The discovery of pore-forming proteins has depended on visualization of the structural pores formed by their oligomeric protein complexes, and as electron microscopy has advanced technologically so has the degree of insight it has been able to give. This review considers a large number of published studies of pore-forming complexes in prepore and pore states determined using single-particle cryo-electron microscopy. Sample isolation and preparation, imaging and image analysis, structure determination and optimization of results are all discussed alongside challenges which pore-forming proteins particularly present. The review also considers the use made of cryo-electron tomography to study pores within their membrane environment and which will prove an increasingly important approach for the future.
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Affiliation(s)
- Robert J C Gilbert
- Division of Structural Biology, Wellcome Centre for Human Genetics, University of Oxford, Oxford, United Kingdom.
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15
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Aden S, Snoj T, Anderluh G. The use of giant unilamellar vesicles to study functional properties of pore-forming toxins. Methods Enzymol 2021; 649:219-251. [PMID: 33712188 DOI: 10.1016/bs.mie.2021.01.016] [Citation(s) in RCA: 2] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/28/2022]
Abstract
Pore-forming toxins (PFTs) act upon lipid membranes and appropriate model systems are of great importance in researching these proteins. Giant unilamellar vesicles (GUVs) are an excellent model membrane system to study interactions between lipids and proteins. Their main advantage is the size comparable to cells, which means that GUVs can be observed directly under the light microscope. Many PFTs properties can be studied by using GUVs, such as binding specificity, membrane reorganization upon protein binding and oligomerization, pore properties and mechanism of pore formation. GUVs also represent a good model for biotechnological approaches, e.g., in applications in synthetic biology and medicine. Each research area has its own demands for GUVs properties, so several different approaches for GUVs preparations have been developed and will be discussed in this chapter.
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Affiliation(s)
- Saša Aden
- Department for Molecular Biology and Nanobiotechnology, National Institute of Chemistry, Ljubljana, Slovenia
| | - Tina Snoj
- Department for Molecular Biology and Nanobiotechnology, National Institute of Chemistry, Ljubljana, Slovenia
| | - Gregor Anderluh
- Department for Molecular Biology and Nanobiotechnology, National Institute of Chemistry, Ljubljana, Slovenia.
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16
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Li Y, Li G, Zhang J, Wu X, Chen X. The Dual Roles of Human γδ T Cells: Anti-Tumor or Tumor-Promoting. Front Immunol 2021; 11:619954. [PMID: 33664732 PMCID: PMC7921733 DOI: 10.3389/fimmu.2020.619954] [Citation(s) in RCA: 40] [Impact Index Per Article: 13.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 10/21/2020] [Accepted: 12/29/2020] [Indexed: 12/24/2022] Open
Abstract
γδ T cells are the unique T cell subgroup with their T cell receptors composed of γ chain and δ chain. Unlike αβ T cells, γδ T cells are non-MHC-restricted in recognizing tumor antigens, and therefore defined as innate immune cells. Activated γδ T cells can promote the anti-tumor function of adaptive immune cells. They are considered as a bridge between adaptive immunity and innate immunity. However, several other studies have shown that γδ T cells can also promote tumor progression by inhibiting anti-tumor response. Therefore, γδ T cells may have both anti-tumor and tumor-promoting effects. In order to clarify this contradiction, in this review, we summarized the functions of the main subsets of human γδ T cells in how they exhibit their respective anti-tumor or pro-tumor effects in cancer. Then, we reviewed recent γδ T cell-based anti-tumor immunotherapy. Finally, we summarized the existing problems and prospect of this immunotherapy.
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Affiliation(s)
- Yang Li
- School of Chinese Materia Medica, Tianjin University of Traditional Chinese Medicine, Tianjin, China
| | - Gen Li
- School of Chinese Materia Medica, Tianjin University of Traditional Chinese Medicine, Tianjin, China
| | - Jian Zhang
- School of Chinese Materia Medica, Tianjin University of Traditional Chinese Medicine, Tianjin, China
| | - Xiaoli Wu
- School of Life Sciences, Tian Jin University, Tian Jin, China
| | - Xi Chen
- College of Pharmaceutical Engineering of Traditional Chinese Medicine, Tianjin University of Traditional Chinese Medicine, Tianjin, China
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17
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Abstract
Pore forming proteins are released as water-soluble monomers that form-mostly oligomeric-pores in target membranes. Our understanding of such pore formation relies in part on the direct visualization of their assemblies on and in the membrane. Here, we discuss the application of atomic force microscopy (AFM) to visualize and understand membrane pore formation, illustrated specifically by studies of proteins of the MACPF/CDC superfamily on supported lipid bilayers. Besides detailed protocols, we also point out common imaging artefacts and strategies to avoid them, and briefly outline how AFM can be effectively used in conjunction with other methods.
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Affiliation(s)
- Adrian W Hodel
- Killer Cell Biology Laboratory, Peter MacCallum Cancer Centre, Melbourne, VIC, Australia
| | - Katharine Hammond
- National Physical Laboratory, Teddington, United Kingdom; London Centre for Nanotechnology, University College London, London, United Kingdom; Department of Physics & Astronomy, University College London, London, United Kingdom
| | - Bart W Hoogenboom
- London Centre for Nanotechnology, University College London, London, United Kingdom; Department of Physics & Astronomy, University College London, London, United Kingdom.
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18
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Pore-forming proteins: From defense factors to endogenous executors of cell death. Chem Phys Lipids 2020; 234:105026. [PMID: 33309552 DOI: 10.1016/j.chemphyslip.2020.105026] [Citation(s) in RCA: 15] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 07/22/2020] [Revised: 12/07/2020] [Accepted: 12/07/2020] [Indexed: 02/06/2023]
Abstract
Pore-forming proteins (PFPs) and small antimicrobial peptides (AMPs) represent a large family of molecules with the common ability to punch holes in cell membranes to alter their permeability. They play a fundamental role as infectious bacteria's defensive tools against host's immune system and as executors of endogenous machineries of regulated cell death in eukaryotic cells. Despite being highly divergent in primary sequence and 3D structure, specific folds of pore-forming domains have been conserved. In fact, pore formation is considered an ancient mechanism that takes place through a general multistep process involving: membrane partitioning and insertion, oligomerization and pore formation. However, different PFPs and AMPs assemble and form pores following different mechanisms that could end up either in the formation of protein-lined or protein-lipid pores. In this review, we analyze the current findings in the mechanism of action of different PFPs and AMPs that support a wide role of membrane pore formation in nature. We also provide the newest insights into the development of state-of-art techniques that have facilitated the characterization of membrane pores. To understand the physiological role of these peptides/proteins or develop clinical applications, it is essential to uncover the molecular mechanism of how they perforate membranes.
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19
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Functional and Structural Variation among Sticholysins, Pore-Forming Proteins from the Sea Anemone Stichodactyla helianthus. Int J Mol Sci 2020; 21:ijms21238915. [PMID: 33255441 PMCID: PMC7727798 DOI: 10.3390/ijms21238915] [Citation(s) in RCA: 6] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 10/19/2020] [Revised: 11/19/2020] [Accepted: 11/20/2020] [Indexed: 12/15/2022] Open
Abstract
Venoms constitute complex mixtures of many different molecules arising from evolution in processes driven by continuous prey-predator interactions. One of the most common compounds in these venomous cocktails are pore-forming proteins, a family of toxins whose activity relies on the disruption of the plasmatic membranes by forming pores. The venom of sea anemones, belonging to the oldest lineage of venomous animals, contains a large amount of a characteristic group of pore-forming proteins known as actinoporins. They bind specifically to sphingomyelin-containing membranes and suffer a conformational metamorphosis that drives them to make pores. This event usually leads cells to death by osmotic shock. Sticholysins are the actinoporins produced by Stichodactyla helianthus. Three different isotoxins are known: Sticholysins I, II, and III. They share very similar amino acid sequence and three-dimensional structure but display different behavior in terms of lytic activity and ability to interact with cholesterol, an important lipid component of vertebrate membranes. In addition, sticholysins can act in synergy when exerting their toxin action. The subtle, but important, molecular nuances that explain their different behavior are described and discussed throughout the text. Improving our knowledge about sticholysins behavior is important for eventually developing them into biotechnological tools.
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20
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Biolato AM, Filali L, Wurzer H, Hoffmann C, Gargiulo E, Valitutti S, Thomas C. Actin remodeling and vesicular trafficking at the tumor cell side of the immunological synapse direct evasion from cytotoxic lymphocytes. INTERNATIONAL REVIEW OF CELL AND MOLECULAR BIOLOGY 2020; 356:99-130. [PMID: 33066877 DOI: 10.1016/bs.ircmb.2020.07.001] [Citation(s) in RCA: 9] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 02/07/2023]
Affiliation(s)
- Andrea Michela Biolato
- Cytoskeleton and Cancer Progression, Department of Oncology, Luxembourg Institute of Health, Luxembourg City, Luxembourg; Faculty of Science, Technology and Medicine, University of Luxembourg, Esch-sur-Alzette, Luxembourg
| | - Liza Filali
- Cancer Research Center of Toulouse, INSERM, Toulouse, France
| | - Hannah Wurzer
- Cytoskeleton and Cancer Progression, Department of Oncology, Luxembourg Institute of Health, Luxembourg City, Luxembourg; Faculty of Science, Technology and Medicine, University of Luxembourg, Esch-sur-Alzette, Luxembourg
| | - Céline Hoffmann
- Cytoskeleton and Cancer Progression, Department of Oncology, Luxembourg Institute of Health, Luxembourg City, Luxembourg
| | - Ernesto Gargiulo
- Tumor-Stroma Interactions, Department of Oncology, Luxembourg Institute of Health, Luxembourg City, Luxembourg
| | - Salvatore Valitutti
- Cancer Research Center of Toulouse, INSERM, Toulouse, France; Department of Pathology, Institut Universitaire du Cancer-Oncopole, Toulouse, France.
| | - Clément Thomas
- Cytoskeleton and Cancer Progression, Department of Oncology, Luxembourg Institute of Health, Luxembourg City, Luxembourg.
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21
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Hernández-Castañeda MA, Happ K, Cattalani F, Wallimann A, Blanchard M, Fellay I, Scolari B, Lannes N, Mbagwu S, Fellay B, Filgueira L, Mantel PY, Walch M. γδ T Cells Kill Plasmodium falciparum in a Granzyme- and Granulysin-Dependent Mechanism during the Late Blood Stage. THE JOURNAL OF IMMUNOLOGY 2020; 204:1798-1809. [PMID: 32066596 DOI: 10.4049/jimmunol.1900725] [Citation(s) in RCA: 23] [Impact Index Per Article: 5.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 06/26/2019] [Accepted: 01/15/2020] [Indexed: 12/14/2022]
Abstract
Plasmodium spp., the causative agent of malaria, have a complex life cycle. The exponential growth of the parasites during the blood stage is responsible for almost all malaria-associated morbidity and mortality. Therefore, tight immune control of the intraerythrocytic replication of the parasite is essential to prevent clinical malaria. Despite evidence that the particular lymphocyte subset of γδ T cells contributes to protective immunity during the blood stage in naive hosts, their precise inhibitory mechanisms remain unclear. Using human PBMCs, we confirmed in this study that γδ T cells specifically and massively expanded upon activation with Plasmodium falciparum culture supernatant. We also demonstrate that these activated cells gain cytolytic potential by upregulating cytotoxic effector proteins and IFN-γ. The killer cells bound to infected RBCs and killed intracellular P. falciparum via the transfer of the granzymes, which was mediated by granulysin in a stage-specific manner. Several vital plasmodial proteins were efficiently destroyed by granzyme B, suggesting proteolytic degradation of these proteins as essential in the lymphocyte-mediated death pathway. Overall, these data establish a granzyme- and granulysin-mediated innate immune mechanism exerted by γδ T cells to kill late-stage blood-residing P. falciparum.
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Affiliation(s)
- Maria Andrea Hernández-Castañeda
- Anatomy Unit, Department of Oncology, Microbiology and Immunology, Faculty of Science and Medicine, University of Fribourg, 1700 Fribourg, Switzerland; and
| | - Katharina Happ
- Anatomy Unit, Department of Oncology, Microbiology and Immunology, Faculty of Science and Medicine, University of Fribourg, 1700 Fribourg, Switzerland; and
| | - Filippo Cattalani
- Anatomy Unit, Department of Oncology, Microbiology and Immunology, Faculty of Science and Medicine, University of Fribourg, 1700 Fribourg, Switzerland; and
| | - Alexandra Wallimann
- Anatomy Unit, Department of Oncology, Microbiology and Immunology, Faculty of Science and Medicine, University of Fribourg, 1700 Fribourg, Switzerland; and
| | - Marianne Blanchard
- Anatomy Unit, Department of Oncology, Microbiology and Immunology, Faculty of Science and Medicine, University of Fribourg, 1700 Fribourg, Switzerland; and
| | - Isabelle Fellay
- Anatomy Unit, Department of Oncology, Microbiology and Immunology, Faculty of Science and Medicine, University of Fribourg, 1700 Fribourg, Switzerland; and
| | - Brigitte Scolari
- Anatomy Unit, Department of Oncology, Microbiology and Immunology, Faculty of Science and Medicine, University of Fribourg, 1700 Fribourg, Switzerland; and
| | - Nils Lannes
- Anatomy Unit, Department of Oncology, Microbiology and Immunology, Faculty of Science and Medicine, University of Fribourg, 1700 Fribourg, Switzerland; and
| | - Smart Mbagwu
- Anatomy Unit, Department of Oncology, Microbiology and Immunology, Faculty of Science and Medicine, University of Fribourg, 1700 Fribourg, Switzerland; and
| | - Benoît Fellay
- Cantonal Hospital of Fribourg, 1752 Villars-sur-Glâne, Switzerland
| | - Luis Filgueira
- Anatomy Unit, Department of Oncology, Microbiology and Immunology, Faculty of Science and Medicine, University of Fribourg, 1700 Fribourg, Switzerland; and
| | - Pierre-Yves Mantel
- Anatomy Unit, Department of Oncology, Microbiology and Immunology, Faculty of Science and Medicine, University of Fribourg, 1700 Fribourg, Switzerland; and
| | - Michael Walch
- Anatomy Unit, Department of Oncology, Microbiology and Immunology, Faculty of Science and Medicine, University of Fribourg, 1700 Fribourg, Switzerland; and
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22
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Ni T, Jiao F, Yu X, Aden S, Ginger L, Williams SI, Bai F, Pražák V, Karia D, Stansfeld P, Zhang P, Munson G, Anderluh G, Scheuring S, Gilbert RJC. Structure and mechanism of bactericidal mammalian perforin-2, an ancient agent of innate immunity. SCIENCE ADVANCES 2020; 6:eaax8286. [PMID: 32064340 PMCID: PMC6989145 DOI: 10.1126/sciadv.aax8286] [Citation(s) in RCA: 43] [Impact Index Per Article: 10.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 04/26/2019] [Accepted: 11/21/2019] [Indexed: 05/21/2023]
Abstract
Perforin-2 (MPEG1) is thought to enable the killing of invading microbes engulfed by macrophages and other phagocytes, forming pores in their membranes. Loss of perforin-2 renders individual phagocytes and whole organisms significantly more susceptible to bacterial pathogens. Here, we reveal the mechanism of perforin-2 activation and activity using atomic structures of pre-pore and pore assemblies, high-speed atomic force microscopy, and functional assays. Perforin-2 forms a pre-pore assembly in which its pore-forming domain points in the opposite direction to its membrane-targeting domain. Acidification then triggers pore formation, via a 180° conformational change. This novel and unexpected mechanism prevents premature bactericidal attack and may have played a key role in the evolution of all perforin family proteins.
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Affiliation(s)
- Tao Ni
- Division of Structural Biology, Wellcome Centre for Human Genetics, University of Oxford, Roosevelt Drive, Oxford OX3 7BN, UK
| | - Fang Jiao
- Department of Anesthesiology, Weill Cornell Medical College, 1300 York Ave., New York, NY 10065, USA
| | - Xiulian Yu
- Division of Structural Biology, Wellcome Centre for Human Genetics, University of Oxford, Roosevelt Drive, Oxford OX3 7BN, UK
- Calleva Research Centre for Evolution and Human Sciences, Magdalen College, University of Oxford, Oxford OX1 4AU, UK
| | - Saša Aden
- Department of Molecular Biology and Nanobiotechnology, National Institute of Chemistry, Hajdrihova 19, 1000 Ljubljana, Slovenia
| | - Lucy Ginger
- Division of Structural Biology, Wellcome Centre for Human Genetics, University of Oxford, Roosevelt Drive, Oxford OX3 7BN, UK
| | - Sophie I. Williams
- Division of Structural Biology, Wellcome Centre for Human Genetics, University of Oxford, Roosevelt Drive, Oxford OX3 7BN, UK
- Department of Biochemistry, University of Oxford, South Parks Road, Oxford OX1 3QU, UK
| | - Fangfang Bai
- Department of Microbiology and Immunology, University of Miami Miller School of Medicine, Miami, FL 33136, USA
| | - Vojtěch Pražák
- Division of Structural Biology, Wellcome Centre for Human Genetics, University of Oxford, Roosevelt Drive, Oxford OX3 7BN, UK
| | - Dimple Karia
- Division of Structural Biology, Wellcome Centre for Human Genetics, University of Oxford, Roosevelt Drive, Oxford OX3 7BN, UK
| | - Phillip Stansfeld
- Department of Biochemistry, University of Oxford, South Parks Road, Oxford OX1 3QU, UK
| | - Peijun Zhang
- Division of Structural Biology, Wellcome Centre for Human Genetics, University of Oxford, Roosevelt Drive, Oxford OX3 7BN, UK
| | - George Munson
- Department of Microbiology and Immunology, University of Miami Miller School of Medicine, Miami, FL 33136, USA
| | - Gregor Anderluh
- Department of Molecular Biology and Nanobiotechnology, National Institute of Chemistry, Hajdrihova 19, 1000 Ljubljana, Slovenia
| | - Simon Scheuring
- Department of Anesthesiology, Weill Cornell Medical College, 1300 York Ave., New York, NY 10065, USA
- Department of Physiology and Biophysics, Weill Cornell Medical College, 1300 York Ave., New York, NY 10065, USA
- Corresponding author. (S.S.); (R.J.C.G.)
| | - Robert J. C. Gilbert
- Division of Structural Biology, Wellcome Centre for Human Genetics, University of Oxford, Roosevelt Drive, Oxford OX3 7BN, UK
- Calleva Research Centre for Evolution and Human Sciences, Magdalen College, University of Oxford, Oxford OX1 4AU, UK
- Corresponding author. (S.S.); (R.J.C.G.)
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23
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Abstract
Perforin is an indispensable effector protein of primary cytotoxic lymphocytes (CTL or NK cells) that typically defend the host against virus infection, or gene-modified (chimeric antigen receptor-CAR) anticancer T cells. Perforin's pore-forming activity is necessary for the delivery of proapoptotic serine proteases, granzymes, into the cytosol of infected or cancerous target cells. The complete loss of perforin function is detrimental for the function of cytotoxic lymphocytes, and leads to fatal immune dysregulation in infants and predisposes the carriers of hypomorphic perforin mutations to various chronic inflammatory sequelae and blood cancers. Here, we describe several optimized and validated functional assays using purified effector proteins and cytotoxic lymphocytes that enable detailed analysis of perforin-mediated target cell death pathways.
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24
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Saigo N, Izumi K, Kawano R. Electrophysiological Analysis of Antimicrobial Peptides in Diverse Species. ACS OMEGA 2019; 4:13124-13130. [PMID: 31460440 PMCID: PMC6705042 DOI: 10.1021/acsomega.9b01033] [Citation(s) in RCA: 13] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 04/11/2019] [Accepted: 07/24/2019] [Indexed: 05/25/2023]
Abstract
This study describes a technical platform that allows us to measure the pore-forming activity of antimicrobial peptides (AMPs) in the lipid bilayer and estimate antimicrobial activity. We selected six different AMPs of diverse species from urochordata to vertebrata and measured the channel current signals using a microfabricated lipid bilayer system. As a result of the electrophysiological measurements, we were able to estimate the pore-forming activity and roughly predict the antimicrobial activity although there was not a strong correlation between the pore-forming activity and the variety of species. Our method will be a unique tool for analyzing a wide variety of diverse AMPs.
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Affiliation(s)
- Naoki Saigo
- Department of Biotechnology and Life Science, Tokyo University of Agriculture and Technology, Tokyo 184-8588, Japan
| | - Kayano Izumi
- Department of Biotechnology and Life Science, Tokyo University of Agriculture and Technology, Tokyo 184-8588, Japan
| | - Ryuji Kawano
- Department of Biotechnology and Life Science, Tokyo University of Agriculture and Technology, Tokyo 184-8588, Japan
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25
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The Role of Lipid Interactions in Simulations of the α-Hemolysin Ion-Channel-Forming Toxin. Biophys J 2018; 115:1720-1730. [PMID: 30287110 DOI: 10.1016/j.bpj.2018.09.009] [Citation(s) in RCA: 9] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 02/05/2018] [Revised: 09/04/2018] [Accepted: 09/07/2018] [Indexed: 01/25/2023] Open
Abstract
Molecular dynamics simulations were performed to describe the function of the ion-channel-forming toxin α-hemolysin (αHL) in lipid membranes that were composed of either 1,2-diphytanoyl-sn-glycero-3-phospho-choline or 1-palmitoyl-2-oleoyl-sn-glycero-3-phospho-choline. The simulations highlight the importance of lipid type in maintaining αHL structure and function, enabling direct comparison to experiments for biosensing applications. We determined that although the two lipids studied are similar in structure, 1,2-diphytanoyl-sn-glycero-3-phospho-choline membranes better match the hydrophobic thickness of αHL compared to 1-palmitoyl-2-oleoyl-sn-glycero-3-phospho-choline membranes. This hydrophobic match is essential to maintaining proper alignment of β-sheet loops at the trans entrance of αHL, which, when disrupted, creates an additional constriction to ion flow that decreases the channel current below experimental values and creates greater variability in channel conductance. Agreement with experiments was further improved with sufficient lipid membrane equilibration and allowed the discrimination of subtle αHL conduction states with lipid type. Finally, we explore the effects of truncating the extramembrane cap of αHL and its role in maintaining proper alignment of αHL in the membrane and channel conductance. Our results demonstrate the essential role of lipid type and lipid-protein interactions in simulations of αHL and will considerably improve the interpretation of experimental data.
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26
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Kozorog M, Sani M, Separovic F, Anderluh G. Listeriolysin O Binding Affects Cholesterol and Phospholipid Acyl Chain Dynamics in Fluid Cholesterol‐Rich Bilayers. Chemistry 2018; 24:14220-14225. [DOI: 10.1002/chem.201802575] [Citation(s) in RCA: 8] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 05/22/2018] [Indexed: 01/26/2023]
Affiliation(s)
- Mirijam Kozorog
- Department of Molecular Biology and NanobiotechnologyNational Institute of Chemistry Hajdrihova 19 1000 Ljubljana Slovenia
| | - Marc‐Antoine Sani
- School of ChemistryBio21 InstituteThe University of Melbourne VIC 3010 Australia
| | - Frances Separovic
- School of ChemistryBio21 InstituteThe University of Melbourne VIC 3010 Australia
| | - Gregor Anderluh
- Department of Molecular Biology and NanobiotechnologyNational Institute of Chemistry Hajdrihova 19 1000 Ljubljana Slovenia
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27
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Spicer BA, Conroy PJ, Law RH, Voskoboinik I, Whisstock JC. Perforin—A key (shaped) weapon in the immunological arsenal. Semin Cell Dev Biol 2017; 72:117-123. [DOI: 10.1016/j.semcdb.2017.07.033] [Citation(s) in RCA: 21] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 02/22/2017] [Revised: 07/05/2017] [Accepted: 07/21/2017] [Indexed: 12/31/2022]
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28
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Watanabe H, Gubbiotti A, Chinappi M, Takai N, Tanaka K, Tsumoto K, Kawano R. Analysis of Pore Formation and Protein Translocation Using Large Biological Nanopores. Anal Chem 2017; 89:11269-11277. [DOI: 10.1021/acs.analchem.7b01550] [Citation(s) in RCA: 29] [Impact Index Per Article: 4.1] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 01/04/2023]
Affiliation(s)
- Hirokazu Watanabe
- Department
of Biotechnology and Life Science, Tokyo University of Agriculture and Technology, 2-24-16 Naka-cho, Koganei, Tokyo 184-8588, Japan
| | - Alberto Gubbiotti
- Department
of Mechanical and Aerospace Engineering, Sapienza University of Rome, Via Eudossiana 18, Rome 00184, Italy
| | - Mauro Chinappi
- Department
of Industrial Engineering, University of Rome Tor Vergata, Via
del Politecnico 1, Rome 00133, Italy
| | - Natsumi Takai
- Department
of Biotechnology and Life Science, Tokyo University of Agriculture and Technology, 2-24-16 Naka-cho, Koganei, Tokyo 184-8588, Japan
| | - Koji Tanaka
- Department
of Chemistry and Biotechnology, School of Engineering, The University of Tokyo, Bunkyo-ku, Tokyo 113-8656, Japan
| | - Kouhei Tsumoto
- Department
of Chemistry and Biotechnology, School of Engineering, The University of Tokyo, Bunkyo-ku, Tokyo 113-8656, Japan
| | - Ryuji Kawano
- Department
of Biotechnology and Life Science, Tokyo University of Agriculture and Technology, 2-24-16 Naka-cho, Koganei, Tokyo 184-8588, Japan
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29
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Leung C, Hodel AW, Brennan AJ, Lukoyanova N, Tran S, House CM, Kondos SC, Whisstock JC, Dunstone MA, Trapani JA, Voskoboinik I, Saibil HR, Hoogenboom BW. Real-time visualization of perforin nanopore assembly. NATURE NANOTECHNOLOGY 2017; 12:467-473. [PMID: 28166206 DOI: 10.1038/nnano.2016.303] [Citation(s) in RCA: 69] [Impact Index Per Article: 9.9] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 06/01/2016] [Accepted: 12/29/2016] [Indexed: 06/06/2023]
Abstract
Perforin is a key protein of the vertebrate immune system. Secreted by cytotoxic lymphocytes as soluble monomers, perforin can self-assemble into oligomeric pores of 10-20 nm inner diameter in the membranes of virus-infected and cancerous cells. These large pores facilitate the entry of pro-apoptotic granzymes, thereby rapidly killing the target cell. To elucidate the pathways of perforin pore assembly, we carried out real-time atomic force microscopy and electron microscopy studies. Our experiments reveal that the pore assembly proceeds via a membrane-bound prepore intermediate state, typically consisting of up to approximately eight loosely but irreversibly assembled monomeric subunits. These short oligomers convert to more closely packed membrane nanopore assemblies, which can subsequently recruit additional prepore oligomers to grow the pore size.
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Affiliation(s)
- Carl Leung
- London Centre for Nanotechnology, University College London, London WC1H 0AH, UK
- Department of Crystallography/Biological Sciences, Institute of Structural and Molecular Biology, Birkbeck College, London WC1E 7HX, UK
| | - Adrian W Hodel
- London Centre for Nanotechnology, University College London, London WC1H 0AH, UK
- Institute of Structural and Molecular Biology, University College London, London WC1E 6BT, UK
| | - Amelia J Brennan
- Killer Cell Biology Laboratory, Peter MacCallum Cancer Centre, East Melbourne, Victoria 3000, Australia
| | - Natalya Lukoyanova
- Department of Crystallography/Biological Sciences, Institute of Structural and Molecular Biology, Birkbeck College, London WC1E 7HX, UK
| | - Sharon Tran
- Killer Cell Biology Laboratory, Peter MacCallum Cancer Centre, East Melbourne, Victoria 3000, Australia
| | - Colin M House
- Cancer Cell Death Laboratory, Peter MacCallum Cancer Centre, East Melbourne, Victoria 3000, Australia
| | - Stephanie C Kondos
- Department of Biochemistry and Molecular Biology, Monash University, Melbourne, Victoria 3800, Australia
| | - James C Whisstock
- Department of Biochemistry and Molecular Biology, Monash University, Melbourne, Victoria 3800, Australia
- The ARC Centre of Excellence in Advanced Molecular Imaging, Monash University, Melbourne, Victoria 3800, Australia
| | - Michelle A Dunstone
- Department of Biochemistry and Molecular Biology, Monash University, Melbourne, Victoria 3800, Australia
- The ARC Centre of Excellence in Advanced Molecular Imaging, Monash University, Melbourne, Victoria 3800, Australia
- Department of Microbiology, Monash University, Melbourne, Victoria 3800, Australia
| | - Joseph A Trapani
- Cancer Cell Death Laboratory, Peter MacCallum Cancer Centre, East Melbourne, Victoria 3000, Australia
- Sir Peter MacCallum Department of Oncology, University of Melbourne, Melbourne, Victoria 3010, Australia
| | - Ilia Voskoboinik
- Killer Cell Biology Laboratory, Peter MacCallum Cancer Centre, East Melbourne, Victoria 3000, Australia
- Sir Peter MacCallum Department of Oncology, University of Melbourne, Melbourne, Victoria 3010, Australia
| | - Helen R Saibil
- Department of Crystallography/Biological Sciences, Institute of Structural and Molecular Biology, Birkbeck College, London WC1E 7HX, UK
| | - Bart W Hoogenboom
- London Centre for Nanotechnology, University College London, London WC1H 0AH, UK
- Institute of Structural and Molecular Biology, University College London, London WC1E 6BT, UK
- Department of Physics and Astronomy, University College London, London WC1E 6BT, UK
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30
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Pozhitkov AE, Neme R, Domazet-Lošo T, Leroux BG, Soni S, Tautz D, Noble PA. Tracing the dynamics of gene transcripts after organismal death. Open Biol 2017; 7:160267. [PMID: 28123054 PMCID: PMC5303275 DOI: 10.1098/rsob.160267] [Citation(s) in RCA: 54] [Impact Index Per Article: 7.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 09/24/2016] [Accepted: 12/12/2016] [Indexed: 12/13/2022] Open
Abstract
In life, genetic and epigenetic networks precisely coordinate the expression of genes-but in death, it is not known if gene expression diminishes gradually or abruptly stops or if specific genes and pathways are involved. We studied this by identifying mRNA transcripts that apparently increase in relative abundance after death, assessing their functions, and comparing their abundance profiles through postmortem time in two species, mouse and zebrafish. We found mRNA transcript profiles of 1063 genes became significantly more abundant after death of healthy adult animals in a time series spanning up to 96 h postmortem. Ordination plots revealed non-random patterns in the profiles by time. While most of these transcript levels increased within 0.5 h postmortem, some increased only at 24 and 48 h postmortem. Functional characterization of the most abundant transcripts revealed the following categories: stress, immunity, inflammation, apoptosis, transport, development, epigenetic regulation and cancer. The data suggest a step-wise shutdown occurs in organismal death that is manifested by the apparent increase of certain transcripts with various abundance maxima and durations.
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Affiliation(s)
- Alex E Pozhitkov
- Department of Oral Health Sciences, University of Washington, PO Box 357444, Seattle, WA 98195, USA
- Max Planck Institute for Evolutionary Biology, August-Thienemann-Strasse 2, 24306 Ploen, Germany
| | - Rafik Neme
- Max Planck Institute for Evolutionary Biology, August-Thienemann-Strasse 2, 24306 Ploen, Germany
| | - Tomislav Domazet-Lošo
- Laboratory of Evolutionary Genetics, Division of Molecular Biology, Ruđer Bošković Institute, 10002 Zagreb, Croatia
- Catholic University of Croatia, Ilica 242, Zagreb, Croatia
| | - Brian G Leroux
- Department of Oral Health Sciences, University of Washington, PO Box 357444, Seattle, WA 98195, USA
| | - Shivani Soni
- Department of Biological Sciences, Alabama State University, Montgomery, AL 36101-0271, USA
| | - Diethard Tautz
- Max Planck Institute for Evolutionary Biology, August-Thienemann-Strasse 2, 24306 Ploen, Germany
| | - Peter A Noble
- Department of Periodontics, University of Washington, PO Box 357444, Seattle, WA 98195, USA
- Department of Biological Sciences, Alabama State University, Montgomery, AL 36101-0271, USA
- PhD Program in Microbiology, Alabama State University, Montgomery, AL 36101-0271, USA
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31
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Kanduc D, Shoenfeld Y. From HBV to HPV: Designing vaccines for extensive and intensive vaccination campaigns worldwide. Autoimmun Rev 2016; 15:1054-1061. [DOI: 10.1016/j.autrev.2016.07.030] [Citation(s) in RCA: 30] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 07/09/2016] [Accepted: 07/12/2016] [Indexed: 12/12/2022]
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32
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Ni T, Harlos K, Gilbert R. Structure of astrotactin-2: a conserved vertebrate-specific and perforin-like membrane protein involved in neuronal development. Open Biol 2016; 6:rsob.160053. [PMID: 27249642 PMCID: PMC4892435 DOI: 10.1098/rsob.160053] [Citation(s) in RCA: 25] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.1] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 03/03/2016] [Accepted: 04/07/2016] [Indexed: 11/30/2022] Open
Abstract
The vertebrate-specific proteins astrotactin-1 and 2 (ASTN-1 and ASTN-2) are integral membrane perforin-like proteins known to play critical roles in neurodevelopment, while ASTN-2 has been linked to the planar cell polarity pathway in hair cells. Genetic variations associated with them are linked to a variety of neurodevelopmental disorders and other neurological pathologies, including an advanced onset of Alzheimer's disease. Here we present the structure of the majority endosomal region of ASTN-2, showing it to consist of a unique combination of polypeptide folds: a perforin-like domain, a minimal epidermal growth factor-like module, a unique form of fibronectin type III domain and an annexin-like domain. The perforin-like domain differs from that of other members of the membrane attack complex-perforin (MACPF) protein family in ways that suggest ASTN-2 does not form pores. Structural and biophysical data show that ASTN-2 (but not ASTN-1) binds inositol triphosphates, suggesting a mechanism for membrane recognition or secondary messenger regulation of its activity. The annexin-like domain is closest in fold to repeat three of human annexin V and similarly binds calcium, and yet shares no sequence homology with it. Overall, our structure provides the first atomic-resolution description of a MACPF protein involved in development, while highlighting distinctive features of ASTN-2 responsible for its activity.
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Affiliation(s)
- Tao Ni
- Division of Structural Biology, Wellcome Trust Centre for Human Genetics, University of Oxford, Roosevelt Drive, Oxford OX3 7BN, UK
| | - Karl Harlos
- Division of Structural Biology, Wellcome Trust Centre for Human Genetics, University of Oxford, Roosevelt Drive, Oxford OX3 7BN, UK
| | - Robert Gilbert
- Division of Structural Biology, Wellcome Trust Centre for Human Genetics, University of Oxford, Roosevelt Drive, Oxford OX3 7BN, UK
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33
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Gilbert RJC, Sonnen AFP. Measuring kinetic drivers of pneumolysin pore structure. EUROPEAN BIOPHYSICS JOURNAL: EBJ 2016; 45:365-76. [PMID: 26906727 PMCID: PMC4823331 DOI: 10.1007/s00249-015-1106-x] [Citation(s) in RCA: 15] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.9] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 10/07/2015] [Revised: 12/01/2015] [Accepted: 12/07/2015] [Indexed: 11/03/2022]
Abstract
Most membrane attack complex-perforin/cholesterol-dependent cytolysin (MACPF/CDC) proteins are thought to form pores in target membranes by assembling into pre-pore oligomers before undergoing a pre-pore to pore transition. Assembly during pore formation is into both full rings of subunits and incomplete rings (arcs). The balance between arcs and full rings is determined by a mechanism dependent on protein concentration in which arc pores arise due to kinetic trapping of the pre-pore forms by the depletion of free protein subunits during oligomerization. Here we describe the use of a kinetic assay to study pore formation in red blood cells by the MACPF/CDC pneumolysin from Streptococcus pneumoniae. We show that cell lysis displays two kinds of dependence on protein concentration. At lower concentrations, it is dependent on the pre-pore to pore transition of arc oligomers, which we show to be a cooperative process. At higher concentrations, it is dependent on the amount of pneumolysin bound to the membrane and reflects the affinity of the protein for its receptor, cholesterol. A lag occurs before cell lysis begins; this is dependent on oligomerization of pneumolysin. Kinetic dissection of cell lysis by pneumolysin demonstrates the capacity of MACPF/CDCs to generate pore-forming oligomeric structures of variable size with, most likely, different functional roles in biology.
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Affiliation(s)
- Robert J C Gilbert
- Division of Structural Biology, Wellcome Trust Centre for Human Genetics, University of Oxford, Roosevelt Drive, Oxford, OX3 7BN, UK.
| | - Andreas F-P Sonnen
- European Molecular Biology Laboratory, Structural and Computational Biology Unit, Meyerhofstraße 1, 69117, Heidelberg, Germany
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34
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Whitlock JM, Hartzell HC. A Pore Idea: the ion conduction pathway of TMEM16/ANO proteins is composed partly of lipid. Pflugers Arch 2016; 468:455-73. [PMID: 26739711 PMCID: PMC4751199 DOI: 10.1007/s00424-015-1777-2] [Citation(s) in RCA: 53] [Impact Index Per Article: 6.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 10/29/2015] [Revised: 12/14/2015] [Accepted: 12/16/2015] [Indexed: 01/04/2023]
Abstract
Since their first descriptions, ion channels have been conceived as proteinaceous conduits that facilitate the passage of ionic cargo between segregated environments. This concept is reinforced by crystallographic structures of cation channels depicting ion conductance pathways completely lined by protein. Although lipids are sometimes present in fenestrations near the pore or may be involved in channel gating, there is little or no evidence that lipids inhabit the ion conduction pathway. Indeed, the presence of lipid acyl chains in the conductance pathway would curse the design of the channel's aqueous pore. Here, we make a speculative proposal that anion channels in the TMEM16/ANO superfamily have ion conductance pathways composed partly of lipids. Our reasoning is based on the idea that TMEM16 ion channels evolved from a kind of lipid transporter that scrambles lipids between leaflets of the membrane bilayer and the modeled structural similarity between TMEM16 lipid scramblases and TMEM16 anion channels. This novel view of the TMEM16 pore offers explanation for the biophysical and pharmacological oddness of TMEM16A. We build upon the recent X-ray structure of nhTMEM16 and develop models of both TMEM16 ion channels and lipid scramblases to bolster our proposal. It is our hope that this model of the TMEM16 pore will foster innovative investigation into TMEM16 function.
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Affiliation(s)
- Jarred M Whitlock
- Department of Cell Biology, Emory University School of Medicine, Atlanta, GA, 30322, USA
| | - H Criss Hartzell
- Department of Cell Biology, Emory University School of Medicine, Atlanta, GA, 30322, USA.
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35
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Lukoyanova N, Hoogenboom BW, Saibil HR. The membrane attack complex, perforin and cholesterol-dependent cytolysin superfamily of pore-forming proteins. J Cell Sci 2016; 129:2125-33. [DOI: 10.1242/jcs.182741] [Citation(s) in RCA: 39] [Impact Index Per Article: 4.9] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/22/2022] Open
Abstract
ABSTRACT
The membrane attack complex and perforin proteins (MACPFs) and bacterial cholesterol-dependent cytolysins (CDCs) are two branches of a large and diverse superfamily of pore-forming proteins that function in immunity and pathogenesis. During pore formation, soluble monomers assemble into large transmembrane pores through conformational transitions that involve extrusion and refolding of two α-helical regions into transmembrane β-hairpins. These transitions entail a dramatic refolding of the protein structure, and the resulting assemblies create large holes in cellular membranes, but they do not use any external source of energy. Structures of the membrane-bound assemblies are required to mechanistically understand and modulate these processes. In this Commentary, we discuss recent advances in the understanding of assembly mechanisms and molecular details of the conformational changes that occur during MACPF and CDC pore formation.
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Affiliation(s)
- Natalya Lukoyanova
- Department of Crystallography/Biological Sciences, Institute of Structural and Molecular Biology, Birkbeck College, London WC1E 7HX, UK
| | - Bart W. Hoogenboom
- London Centre for Nanotechnology, University College London, London WC1H 0AH, UK
- Department of Physics and Astronomy, University College London, London WC1E 6BT, UK
| | - Helen R. Saibil
- Department of Crystallography/Biological Sciences, Institute of Structural and Molecular Biology, Birkbeck College, London WC1E 7HX, UK
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36
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Abstract
Pore forming toxins (PFTs) evolved to permeate the plasma membrane of target cells. This is achieved in a multistep mechanism that usually involves binding of soluble protein monomer to the lipid membrane, oligomerization at the plane of the membrane, and insertion of part of the polypeptide chain across the lipid membrane to form a conductive channel. Introduced pores allow uncontrolled transport of solutes across the membrane, inflicting damage to the target cell. PFTs are usually studied from the perspective of structure-function relationships, often neglecting the important role of the bulk membrane properties on the PFT mechanism of action. In this Account, we discuss how membrane lateral heterogeneity, thickness, and fluidity influence the pore forming process of PFTs. In general, lipid molecules are more accessible for binding in fluid membranes due to steric reasons. When PFT specifically binds ordered domains, it usually recognizes a specific lipid distribution pattern, like sphingomyelin (SM) clusters or SM/cholesterol complexes, and not individual lipid species. Lipid domains were also suggested to act as an additional concentration platform facilitating PFT oligomerization, but this is yet to be shown. The last stage in PFT action is the insertion of the transmembrane segment across the membranes to build the transmembrane pore walls. Conformational changes are a spontaneous process, and sufficient free energy has to be available for efficient membrane penetration. Therefore, fluid bilayers are permeabilized more readily in comparison to highly ordered and thicker liquid ordered lipid phase (Lo). Energetically more costly insertion into the Lo phase can be driven by the hydrophobic mismatch between the thinner liquid disordered phase (Ld) and large protein complexes, which are unable to tilt like single transmembrane segments. In the case of proteolipid pores, membrane properties can directly modulate pore size, stability, and even selectivity. Finally, events associated with pore formation can modulate properties of the lipid membrane and affect its organization. Model membranes do not necessarily reproduce the physicochemical properties of the native cellular membrane, and caution is needed when transferring results from model to native lipid membranes. In this context, the utilization of novel approaches that enable studying PFTs on living cells at a single molecule level should reveal complex protein-lipid membrane interactions in greater detail.
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Affiliation(s)
- Nejc Rojko
- Laboratory
for Molecular Biology and Nanobiotechnology, National Institute of Chemistry, Hajdrihova 19, 1000 Ljubljana, Slovenia
| | - Gregor Anderluh
- Laboratory
for Molecular Biology and Nanobiotechnology, National Institute of Chemistry, Hajdrihova 19, 1000 Ljubljana, Slovenia
- Department
of Biology, Biotechnical Faculty, University of Ljubljana, Jamnikarjeva
101, 1000 Ljubljana, Slovenia
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37
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Gilbert RJC. Protein-lipid interactions and non-lamellar lipidic structures in membrane pore formation and membrane fusion. BIOCHIMICA ET BIOPHYSICA ACTA-BIOMEMBRANES 2015; 1858:487-99. [PMID: 26654785 DOI: 10.1016/j.bbamem.2015.11.026] [Citation(s) in RCA: 47] [Impact Index Per Article: 5.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 08/15/2015] [Revised: 10/23/2015] [Accepted: 11/30/2015] [Indexed: 12/27/2022]
Abstract
Pore-forming proteins and peptides act on their targeted lipid bilayer membranes to increase permeability. This approach to the modulation of biological function is relevant to a great number of living processes, including; infection, parasitism, immunity, apoptosis, development and neurodegeneration. While some pore-forming proteins/peptides assemble into rings of subunits to generate discrete, well-defined pore-forming structures, an increasing number is recognised to form pores via mechanisms which co-opt membrane lipids themselves. Among these, membrane attack complex-perforin/cholesterol-dependent cytolysin (MACPF/CDC) family proteins, Bax/colicin family proteins and actinoporins are especially prominent and among the mechanisms believed to apply are the formation of non-lamellar (semi-toroidal or toroidal) lipidic structures. In this review I focus on the ways in which lipids contribute to pore formation and contrast this with the ways in which lipids are co-opted also in membrane fusion and fission events. A variety of mechanisms for pore formation that involve lipids exists, but they consistently result in stable hybrid proteolipidic structures. These structures are stabilised by mechanisms in which pore-forming proteins modify the innate capacity of lipid membranes to respond to their environment, changing shape and/or phase and binding individual lipid molecules directly. In contrast, and despite the diversity in fusion protein types, mechanisms for membrane fusion are rather similar to each other, mapping out a pathway from pairs of separated compartments to fully confluent fused membranes. Fusion proteins generate metastable structures along the way which, like long-lived proteolipidic pore-forming complexes, rely on the basic physical properties of lipid bilayers. Membrane fission involves similar intermediates, in the reverse order. I conclude by considering the possibility that at least some pore-forming and fusion proteins are evolutionarily related homologues. This article is part of a Special Issue entitled: Pore-Forming Toxins edited by Mauro Dalla Serra and Franco Gambale.
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Affiliation(s)
- Robert J C Gilbert
- Division of Structural Biology, Wellcome Trust Centre for Human Genetics, University of Oxford, Roosevelt Drive, Oxford OX3 7BN, UK.
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38
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Reboul CF, Whisstock JC, Dunstone MA. Giant MACPF/CDC pore forming toxins: A class of their own. BIOCHIMICA ET BIOPHYSICA ACTA-BIOMEMBRANES 2015; 1858:475-86. [PMID: 26607011 DOI: 10.1016/j.bbamem.2015.11.017] [Citation(s) in RCA: 41] [Impact Index Per Article: 4.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 07/01/2015] [Revised: 11/16/2015] [Accepted: 11/17/2015] [Indexed: 01/08/2023]
Abstract
Pore Forming Toxins (PFTs) represent a key mechanism for permitting the passage of proteins and small molecules across the lipid membrane. These proteins are typically produced as soluble monomers that self-assemble into ring-like oligomeric structures on the membrane surface. Following such assembly PFTs undergo a remarkable conformational change to insert into the lipid membrane. While many different protein families have independently evolved such ability, members of the Membrane Attack Complex PerForin/Cholesterol Dependent Cytolysin (MACPF/CDC) superfamily form distinctive giant β-barrel pores comprised of up to 50 monomers and up to 300Å in diameter. In this review we focus on recent advances in understanding the structure of these giant MACPF/CDC pores as well as the underlying molecular mechanisms leading to their formation. Commonalities and evolved variations of the pore forming mechanism across the superfamily are discussed. This article is part of a Special Issue entitled: Pore-Forming Toxins edited by Mauro Dalla Serra and Franco Gambale.
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Affiliation(s)
- Cyril F Reboul
- Department of Biochemistry and Molecular Biology, Monash University, Melbourne, Australia; Australian Research Council Centre of Excellence in Advanced Molecular Imaging, Monash University, Melbourne, Australia
| | - James C Whisstock
- Department of Biochemistry and Molecular Biology, Monash University, Melbourne, Australia; Australian Research Council Centre of Excellence in Advanced Molecular Imaging, Monash University, Melbourne, Australia
| | - Michelle A Dunstone
- Department of Biochemistry and Molecular Biology, Monash University, Melbourne, Australia; Australian Research Council Centre of Excellence in Advanced Molecular Imaging, Monash University, Melbourne, Australia; Department of Microbiology, Monash University, Melbourne, Australia
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39
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Stewart SE, Bird CH, Tabor RF, D'Angelo ME, Piantavigna S, Whisstock JC, Trapani JA, Martin LL, Bird PI. Analysis of Perforin Assembly by Quartz Crystal Microbalance Reveals a Role for Cholesterol and Calcium-independent Membrane Binding. J Biol Chem 2015; 290:31101-12. [PMID: 26542805 DOI: 10.1074/jbc.m115.683078] [Citation(s) in RCA: 4] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 08/01/2015] [Indexed: 12/26/2022] Open
Abstract
Perforin is an essential component in the cytotoxic lymphocyte-mediated cell death pathway. The traditional view holds that perforin monomers assemble into pores in the target cell membrane via a calcium-dependent process and facilitate translocation of cytotoxic proteases into the cytoplasm to induce apoptosis. Although many studies have examined the structure and role of perforin, the mechanics of pore assembly and granzyme delivery remain unclear. Here we have employed quartz crystal microbalance with dissipation monitoring (QCM-D) to investigate binding and assembly of perforin on lipid membranes, and show that perforin monomers bind to the membrane in a cooperative manner. We also found that cholesterol influences perforin binding and activity on intact cells and model membranes. Finally, contrary to current thinking, perforin efficiently binds membranes in the absence of calcium. When calcium is added to perforin already on the membrane, the QCM-D response changes significantly, indicating that perforin becomes membranolytic only after calcium binding.
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Affiliation(s)
| | | | | | | | | | - James C Whisstock
- From the Department of Biochemistry and Molecular Biology, Australian Research Council (ARC) Centre of Excellence in Advanced Molecular Imaging, Monash University, Clayton, Victoria 3800 and
| | - Joseph A Trapani
- the Cancer Cell Death Laboratory, Cancer Immunology Program, Peter MacCallum Cancer Centre, St Andrew's Place, East Melbourne, Victoria 3002, Australia
| | | | - Phillip I Bird
- From the Department of Biochemistry and Molecular Biology,
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40
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Naneh O, Zavec AB, Pahovnik D, Žagar E, Gilbert RJ, Križaj I, Anderluh G. An optimized protocol for expression and purification of murine perforin in insect cells. J Immunol Methods 2015. [DOI: 10.1016/j.jim.2015.07.007] [Citation(s) in RCA: 2] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 10/23/2022]
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41
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Salinas DG. Flux theory for Poisson distributed pores with Gaussian permeability. Channels (Austin) 2015; 10:111-8. [PMID: 26488853 DOI: 10.1080/19336950.2015.1100778] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 10/22/2022] Open
Abstract
The mean of the solute flux through membrane pores depends on the random distribution and permeability of the pores. Mathematical models including such randomness factors make it possible to obtain statistical parameters for pore characterization. Here, assuming that pores follow a Poisson distribution in the lipid phase and that their permeabilities follow a Gaussian distribution, a mathematical model for solute dynamics is obtained by applying a general result from a previous work regarding any number of different kinds of randomly distributed pores. The new proposed theory is studied using experimental parameters obtained elsewhere, and a method for finding the mean single pore flux rate from liposome flux assays is suggested. This method is useful for pores without requiring studies by patch-clamp in single cells or single-channel recordings. However, it does not apply in the case of ion-selective channels, in which a more complex flux law combining the concentration and electrical gradient is required.
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Affiliation(s)
- Dino G Salinas
- a Centro de Investigación Biomédica, Facultad de Medicina , Universidad Diego Portales , Santiago , Chile
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42
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Cosentino K, Ros U, García-Sáez AJ. Assembling the puzzle: Oligomerization of α-pore forming proteins in membranes. BIOCHIMICA ET BIOPHYSICA ACTA-BIOMEMBRANES 2015; 1858:457-466. [PMID: 26375417 DOI: 10.1016/j.bbamem.2015.09.013] [Citation(s) in RCA: 48] [Impact Index Per Article: 5.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 06/30/2015] [Revised: 08/26/2015] [Accepted: 09/09/2015] [Indexed: 12/21/2022]
Abstract
Pore forming proteins (PFPs) share the ability of creating pores that allow the passage of ions, proteins or other constituents through a wide variety of target membranes, ranging from bacteria to humans. They often cause cell death, as pore formation disrupts the membrane permeability barrier required for maintaining cell homeostasis. The organization into supramolecular complexes or oligomers that pierce the membrane is a common feature of PFPs. However, the molecular pathway of self-assembly and pore opening remains unclear. Here, we review the most recent discoveries in the mechanism of membrane oligomerization and pore formation of a subset of PFPs, the α-PFPs, whose pore-forming domains are formed by helical segments. Only now we are starting to grasp the molecular details of their function, mainly thanks to the introduction of single molecule microscopy and nanoscopy techniques. This article is part of a Special Issue entitled: Pore-forming toxins edited by Mauro Dalla Serra and Franco Gambale.
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Affiliation(s)
- Katia Cosentino
- Interfaculty Institute of Biochemistry (IFIB), University of Tübingen, Tübingen, Germany.,Max-Planck Institute for Intelligent Systems, Stuttgart, Germany
| | - Uris Ros
- Interfaculty Institute of Biochemistry (IFIB), University of Tübingen, Tübingen, Germany.,Max-Planck Institute for Intelligent Systems, Stuttgart, Germany.,Center for Protein Studies, Havana University, Havana, Cuba
| | - Ana J García-Sáez
- Interfaculty Institute of Biochemistry (IFIB), University of Tübingen, Tübingen, Germany.,Max-Planck Institute for Intelligent Systems, Stuttgart, Germany
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43
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Podobnik M, Marchioretto M, Zanetti M, Bavdek A, Kisovec M, Cajnko MM, Lunelli L, Dalla Serra M, Anderluh G. Plasticity of listeriolysin O pores and its regulation by pH and unique histidine [corrected]. Sci Rep 2015; 5:9623. [PMID: 25854672 PMCID: PMC5381700 DOI: 10.1038/srep09623] [Citation(s) in RCA: 62] [Impact Index Per Article: 6.9] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 12/19/2014] [Accepted: 03/12/2015] [Indexed: 12/12/2022] Open
Abstract
Pore formation of cellular membranes is an ancient mechanism of bacterial pathogenesis that allows efficient damaging of target cells. Several mechanisms have been described, however, relatively little is known about the assembly and properties of pores. Listeriolysin O (LLO) is a pH-regulated cholesterol-dependent cytolysin from the intracellular pathogen Listeria monocytogenes, which forms transmembrane β-barrel pores. Here we report that the assembly of LLO pores is rapid and efficient irrespective of pH. While pore diameters at the membrane surface are comparable at either pH 5.5 or 7.4, the distribution of pore conductances is significantly pH-dependent. This is directed by the unique residue H311, which is also important for the conformational stability of the LLO monomer and the rate of pore formation. The functional pores exhibit variations in height profiles and can reconfigure significantly by merging to other full pores or arcs. Our results indicate significant plasticity of large β-barrel pores, controlled by environmental cues like pH.
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Affiliation(s)
- Marjetka Podobnik
- Laboratory for Molecular Biology and Nanobiotechnology, National Institute of Chemistry, Hajdrihova 19, 1000 Ljubljana, Slovenia
| | - Marta Marchioretto
- Istituto di Biofisica, Consiglio Nazionale delle Ricerche &Fondazione Bruno Kessler, via alla Cascata 56/C, 38123 Trento, Italy
| | - Manuela Zanetti
- Istituto di Biofisica, Consiglio Nazionale delle Ricerche &Fondazione Bruno Kessler, via alla Cascata 56/C, 38123 Trento, Italy
| | - Andrej Bavdek
- Department of Biology, Biotechnical Faculty, University of Ljubljana, Večna pot 111, 1000 Ljubljana, Slovenia
| | - Matic Kisovec
- Laboratory for Molecular Biology and Nanobiotechnology, National Institute of Chemistry, Hajdrihova 19, 1000 Ljubljana, Slovenia
| | - Miša Mojca Cajnko
- Laboratory for Molecular Biology and Nanobiotechnology, National Institute of Chemistry, Hajdrihova 19, 1000 Ljubljana, Slovenia
| | - Lorenzo Lunelli
- Istituto di Biofisica, Consiglio Nazionale delle Ricerche &Fondazione Bruno Kessler, via alla Cascata 56/C, 38123 Trento, Italy
| | - Mauro Dalla Serra
- Istituto di Biofisica, Consiglio Nazionale delle Ricerche &Fondazione Bruno Kessler, via alla Cascata 56/C, 38123 Trento, Italy
| | - Gregor Anderluh
- 1] Laboratory for Molecular Biology and Nanobiotechnology, National Institute of Chemistry, Hajdrihova 19, 1000 Ljubljana, Slovenia [2] Department of Biology, Biotechnical Faculty, University of Ljubljana, Večna pot 111, 1000 Ljubljana, Slovenia
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44
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Gilbert RJ, Serra MD, Froelich CJ, Wallace MI, Anderluh G. Membrane pore formation at protein–lipid interfaces. Trends Biochem Sci 2014; 39:510-6. [DOI: 10.1016/j.tibs.2014.09.002] [Citation(s) in RCA: 125] [Impact Index Per Article: 12.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 07/24/2014] [Revised: 09/13/2014] [Accepted: 09/15/2014] [Indexed: 11/15/2022]
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Gaber MA, Maraee AH, Alsheraky DR, Azeem MHA. Immunohistochemical expression of perforin in lichen planus lesions. Ultrastruct Pathol 2014; 38:413-9. [PMID: 25269012 DOI: 10.3109/01913123.2014.960541] [Citation(s) in RCA: 1] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.1] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/27/2022]
Abstract
BACKGROUND Lichen planus (LP) is a chronic inflammatory papulosquamous skin disease characterized by epidermal basal cell damage and a particular band-like infiltrate predominantly of T cells in the upper dermis. It is characterized by the formation of colloid bodies representing apoptotic keratinocytes. The apoptotic process mediated by CD8+ cytotoxic T lymphocytes and natural killer cells mainly involves two distinct pathways: the perforin/granzyme pathway and the Fas/FasL pathway. So far, little is known regarding the role of perforin-mediated apoptosis in LP. AIM Is to study the expression and distribution of perforin in the epidermis and dermis of lesional LP skin. MATERIALS AND METHODS Skin biopsy specimens from lesional skin of 31 patients with LP and 10 healthy persons were analyzed by immunohistochemistry. RESULTS Significant accumulation of perforin + cells was found in both epidermis and dermis of LP lesions compared with healthy skin. Perforin expression was significantly upregulated in the epidermis of LP lesions. CONCLUSION Accumulation of perforin + cells in the epidermis of LP lesions suggest a potential role of perforin in the apoptosis of basal keratinocytes.
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Affiliation(s)
- Mohamed Abdelwahed Gaber
- Department of Dermatology and Andrology, Faculty of Medicine, Menoufia University , Shebeen-Elkoum , Egypt
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Samaka RM, Gaber MA, Metwe NA. Perforin expression in plaque psoriasis: an immunohistochemical study. Ultrastruct Pathol 2014; 39:110-20. [PMID: 25222509 DOI: 10.3109/01913123.2014.952471] [Citation(s) in RCA: 1] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.1] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/13/2022]
Abstract
Psoriasis (PsO) is T-cell-mediated disease resulting from aberrant activation of both innate and adaptive immunity. Perforin is a multi-domain, pore-forming protein. It is located within the cytoplasm of CD 8 cytotoxic T cells (CTLs) and natural killer cells (NK). The aim of this study was to evaluate the immunohistochemical (IHC) expression of perforin in lesional and perilesional skin of chronic plaque psoriatic patient and correlate its expression with the standard clinico-pathological variables. This prospective case-control study was conducted on 50 PsO patients and 30 age- and gender-matched healthy subjects as a control group. There were high-significant differences between lesional and perilesional skin of plaque PsO patients as regards to IHC perforin status and localization (p < 0.001 for both). There was a high-significant difference between positive and negative perforin cases as regards to psoriasis area severity index (PASI) (p < 0.000). There were significant differences between mild and moderate-to-severe intensity of IHC perforin expression as regards to triggering factors and PASI (p = 0.02 and 0.03, respectively). Localization of IHC perforin positive lymphocytes in both epidermis and dermis was significantly associated with higher degree of acanthosis and higher degree of inflammatory infiltrates in comparison with positive cells located in dermis (p = 0.001 for both). Perforin might have a putative signaling in early and late plaque PsO. Plaque psoriatic patients with positive perforin expression could be a candidate for a future target therapy to stop the proposed scenario and achieve a therapeutic response.
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Perforin oligomers form arcs in cellular membranes: a locus for intracellular delivery of granzymes. Cell Death Differ 2014; 22:74-85. [PMID: 25146929 DOI: 10.1038/cdd.2014.110] [Citation(s) in RCA: 55] [Impact Index Per Article: 5.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 03/28/2014] [Revised: 07/01/2014] [Accepted: 07/03/2014] [Indexed: 01/28/2023] Open
Abstract
Perforin-mediated cytotoxicity is an essential host defense, in which defects contribute to tumor development and pathogenic disorders including autoimmunity and autoinflammation. How perforin (PFN) facilitates intracellular delivery of pro-apoptotic and inflammatory granzymes across the bilayer of targets remains unresolved. Here we show that cellular susceptibility to granzyme B (GzmB) correlates with rapid PFN-induced phosphatidylserine externalization, suggesting that pores are formed at a protein-lipid interface by incomplete membrane oligomers (or arcs). Supporting a role for these oligomers in protease delivery, an anti-PFN antibody (pf-80) suppresses necrosis but increases phosphatidylserine flip-flop and GzmB-induced apoptosis. As shown by atomic force microscopy on planar bilayers and deep-etch electron microscopy on mammalian cells, pf-80 increases the proportion of arcs which correlates with the presence of smaller electrical conductances, while large cylindrical pores decline. PFN appears to form arc structures on target membranes that serve as minimally disrupting conduits for GzmB translocation. The role of these arcs in PFN-mediated pathology warrants evaluation where they may serve as novel therapeutic targets.
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48
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Abstract
Pneumolysin is a member of the cholesterol-dependent cytolysin (CDC) family of pore-forming proteins that are produced as water-soluble monomers or dimers, bind to target membranes and oligomerize into large ring-shaped assemblies comprising approximately 40 subunits and approximately 30 nm across. This pre-pore assembly then refolds to punch a large hole in the lipid bilayer. However, in addition to forming large pores, pneumolysin and other CDCs form smaller lesions characterized by low electrical conductance. Owing to the observation of arc-like (rather than full-ring) oligomers by electron microscopy, it has been hypothesized that smaller oligomers explain smaller functional pores. To investigate whether this is the case, we performed cryo-electron tomography of pneumolysin oligomers on model lipid membranes. We then used sub-tomogram classification and averaging to determine representative membrane-bound low-resolution structures and identified pre-pores versus pores by the presence of membrane within the oligomeric curve. We found pre-pore and pore forms of both complete (ring) and incomplete (arc) oligomers and conclude that arc-shaped oligomeric assemblies of pneumolysin can form pores. As the CDCs are evolutionarily related to the membrane attack complex/perforin family of proteins, which also form variably sized pores, our findings are of relevance to that class of proteins as well.
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Affiliation(s)
- Andreas F-P Sonnen
- Division of Structural Biology, Wellcome Trust Centre for Human Genetics, University of Oxford, Roosevelt Drive, Oxford OX3 7BN, UK
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49
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Leippe M. Pore-forming toxins from pathogenic amoebae. Appl Microbiol Biotechnol 2014; 98:4347-53. [PMID: 24676751 DOI: 10.1007/s00253-014-5673-z] [Citation(s) in RCA: 10] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 02/05/2014] [Revised: 03/05/2014] [Accepted: 03/06/2014] [Indexed: 11/30/2022]
Abstract
Some amoeboid protozoans are facultative or obligate parasites in humans and bear an enormous cytotoxic potential that can result in severe destruction of host tissues and fatal diseases. Pathogenic amoebae produce soluble pore-forming polypeptides that bind to prokaryotic and eukaryotic target cell membranes and generate pores upon insertion and oligomerization. This review summerizes the current knowledge of such small protein toxins from amoebae, compares them with related proteins from other species, focuses on their three-dimensional structures, and gives insights into divergent activation mechanisms. The potential use of pore-forming toxins in biotechnology will be briefly outlined.
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Affiliation(s)
- Matthias Leippe
- Zoological Institute, Zoophysiology, University of Kiel, Olshausenstrasse 40, 24098, Kiel, Germany,
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50
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Stewart SE, Kondos SC, Matthews AY, D'Angelo ME, Dunstone MA, Whisstock JC, Trapani JA, Bird PI. The perforin pore facilitates the delivery of cationic cargos. J Biol Chem 2014; 289:9172-81. [PMID: 24558045 DOI: 10.1074/jbc.m113.544890] [Citation(s) in RCA: 27] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/31/2022] Open
Abstract
Cytotoxic lymphocytes eliminate virally infected or neoplastic cells through the action of cytotoxic proteases (granzymes). The pore-forming protein perforin is essential for delivery of granzymes into the cytoplasm of target cells; however the mechanism of this delivery is incompletely understood. Perforin contains a membrane attack complex/perforin (MACPF) domain and oligomerizes to form an aqueous pore in the plasma membrane; therefore the simplest (and best supported) model suggests that granzymes passively diffuse through the perforin pore into the cytoplasm of the target cell. Here we demonstrate that perforin preferentially delivers cationic molecules while anionic and neutral cargoes are delivered inefficiently. Furthermore, another distantly related pore-forming MACPF protein, pleurotolysin (from the oyster mushroom), also favors the delivery of cationic molecules, and efficiently delivers human granzyme B. We propose that this facilitated diffusion is due to conserved features of oligomerized MACPF proteins, which may include an anionic lumen.
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