Intramembrane proton binding site linked to activation of bacterial pentameric ion channel

Correlating biological activity to thermo-structural analysis of the interaction of CTX with synthetic models of macrophage membranes

The important pharmacological actions of Crotoxin (CTX) on macrophages, the main toxin in the venom of Crotalus durissus terrificus, and its important participation in the control of different pathophysiological processes, have been demonstrated. The biological activities performed by macrophages are related to signaling mediated by receptors expressed on the membrane surface of these cells or opening and closing of ion channels, generation of membrane curvature and pore formation. In the present work, the interaction of the CTX complex with the cell membrane of macrophages is studied, both using biological cells and synthetic lipid membranes to monitor structural alterations induced by the protein. Here we show that CTX can penetrate THP-1 cells and induce pores only in anionic lipid model membranes, suggesting that a possible access pathway for CTX to the cell is via lipids with anionic polar heads. Considering that the selectivity of the lipid composition varies in different tissues and organs of the human body, the thermostructural studies presented here are extremely important to open new investigations on the biological activities of CTX in different biological systems.

Elephants in the Dark: Insights and Incongruities in Pentameric Ligand-gated Ion Channel Models

The superfamily of pentameric ligand-gated ion channels (pLGICs) comprises key players in electrochemical signal transduction across evolution, including historic model systems for receptor allostery and targets for drug development. Accordingly, structural studies of these channels have steadily increased, and now approach 250 depositions in the protein data bank. This review contextualizes currently available structures in the pLGIC family, focusing on morphology, ligand binding, and gating in three model subfamilies: the prokaryotic channel GLIC, the cation-selective nicotinic acetylcholine receptor, and the anion-selective glycine receptor. Common themes include the challenging process of capturing and annotating channels in distinct functional states; partially conserved gating mechanisms, including remodeling at the extracellular/transmembrane-domain interface; and diversity beyond the protein level, arising from posttranslational modifications, ligands, lipids, and signaling partners. Interpreting pLGIC structures can be compared to describing an elephant in the dark, relying on touch alone to comprehend the many parts of a monumental beast: each structure represents a snapshot in time under specific experimental conditions, which must be integrated with further structure, function, and simulations data to build a comprehensive model, and understand how one channel may fundamentally differ from another.

An allosteric link connecting the lipid-protein interface to the gating of the nicotinic acetylcholine receptor

The mechanisms underlying lipid-sensing by membrane proteins is of considerable biological importance. A unifying mechanistic question is how a change in structure at the lipid-protein interface is translated through the transmembrane domain to influence structures critical to protein function. Gating of the nicotinic acetylcholine receptor (nAChR) is sensitive to its lipid environment. To understand how changes at the lipid-protein interface influence gating, we examined how a mutation at position 418 on the lipid-facing surface of the outer most M4 transmembrane α-helix alters the energetic couplings between M4 and the remainder of the transmembrane domain. Human muscle nAChR is sensitive to mutations at position 418, with the Cys-to-Trp mutation resulting in a 16-fold potentiation in function that leads to a congenital myasthenic syndrome. Energetic coupling between M4 and the Cys-loop, a key structure implicated in gating, do not change with C418W. Instead, Trp418 and an adjacent residue couple energetically with residues on the M1 transmembrane α-helix, leading to a reorientation of M1 that stabilizes the open state. We thus identify an allosteric link connecting the lipid-protein interface of the nAChR to altered channel function.

Aromatic Residues in the Fourth Transmembrane-Spanning Helix M4 Are Important for GABAρ Receptor Function

GABAρ receptors are a subfamily of the GABA_A receptor family of pentameric ligand-gated ion channels (pLGICs). Each of the five subunits has four transmembrane α-helices (M1-M4), with M4 most distant from the central pore. Aromatic residues in this M4 helix are important for receptor assembly in pLGICs and also may interact with adjacent lipids and/or residues in neighboring α-helices and the extracellular domain to modify or enable channel gating. This study examines the role of M4 receptor aromatic residues in the GABAρ receptor transmembrane domain using site-directed mutagenesis and subsequent expression in HEK293 cells, probing functional parameters using a fluorescent membrane-potential-sensitive dye. The data indicate that many of the aromatic residues in M4 play a role in receptor function, as substitution with other residues can ablate and/or modify functional parameters. Modeling showed that these residues likely interact with residues in the adjacent M1 and M3 α-helices and/or residues in the Cys-loop in the extracellular domain. We suggest that many of these aromatic interactions contribute to an "aromatic zipper", which allows interactions between M4 and the rest of the receptor that are essential for function. Thus, the data support other studies showing that M4 does not play a passive role in "protecting" the other transmembrane helices from the lipid bilayer but is actively involved in the function of the protein.

Full mutational mapping of titratable residues helps to identify proton-sensors involved in the control of channel gating in the Gloeobacter violaceus pentameric ligand-gated ion channel

The Gloeobacter violaceus ligand-gated ion channel (GLIC) has been extensively studied by X-ray crystallography and other biophysical techniques. This provided key insights into the general gating mechanism of pentameric ligand-gated ion channel (pLGIC) signal transduction. However, the GLIC is activated by lowering the pH and the location of its putative proton activation site(s) still remain(s) unknown. To this end, every Asp, Glu, and His residue was mutated individually or in combination and investigated by electrophysiology. In addition to the mutational analysis, key mutations were structurally resolved to address whether particular residues contribute to proton sensing, or alternatively to GLIC-gating, independently of the side chain protonation. The data show that multiple residues located below the orthosteric site, notably E26, D32, E35, and D122 in the lower part of the extracellular domain (ECD), along with E222, H235, E243, and H277 in the transmembrane domain (TMD), alter GLIC activation. D122 and H235 were found to also alter GLIC expression. E35 is identified as a key proton-sensing residue, whereby neutralization of its side chain carboxylate stabilizes the active state. Thus, proton activation occurs allosterically to the orthosteric site, at the level of multiple loci with a key contribution of the coupling interface between the ECD and TMD.

Pentameric ligand-gated ion channels are an important class of receptors that are involved in many neurological diseases. They have been extensively studied but a full understanding of their mechanism of action has yet to be achieved. In an effort to bypass obstacles in the research of human receptors, bacterial versions have been used to characterize the family’s structure-function relationship. One key bacterial receptor, known as GLIC, has lead the way in structural resolution of various mechanistic states along the gating pathway, yet its activation by protons is significantly less understood than its human counterparts. To define the site(s) involved in proton gating, we systematically mutated all titratable residues near the pH₅₀ of activation: Asp, Glu, and His. We determined that a previously established His residue in the transmembrane domain is structurally important but likely plays little or no role in proton gating. We instead found that proton activation is a complex multiple loci mechanism, with the key contribution stemming from the coupling interface between the extracellular and transmembrane domain, with E35 acting as a key proton-sensing residue.

A chimeric prokaryotic-eukaryotic pentameric ligand gated ion channel reveals interactions between the extracellular and transmembrane domains shape neurosteroid modulation

Pentameric ligand-gated ion channels (pLGICs) are the targets of several clinical and endogenous allosteric modulators including anesthetics and neurosteroids. Molecular mechanisms underlying allosteric drug modulation are poorly understood. Here, we constructed a chimeric pLGIC by fusing the extracellular domain (ECD) of the proton-activated, cation-selective bacterial channel GLIC to the transmembrane domain (TMD) of the human ρ1 chloride-selective GABAAR, and tested the hypothesis that drug actions are regulated locally in the domain that houses its binding site. The chimeric channels were proton-gated and chloride-selective demonstrating the GLIC ECD was functionally coupled to the GABAρ TMD. Channels were blocked by picrotoxin and inhibited by pentobarbital, etomidate and propofol. The point mutation, ρ TMD W328M, conferred positive modulation and direct gating by pentobarbital. The data suggest that the structural machinery mediating general anesthetic modulation resides in the TMD. Proton-activation and neurosteroid modulation of the GLIC-ρ chimeric channels, however, did not simply mimic their respective actions on GLIC and GABAρ revealing that across domain interactions between the ECD and TMD play important roles in determining their actions. Proton-induced current responses were biphasic suggesting that the chimeric channels contain an additional proton sensor. Neurosteroid modulation of the GLIC-ρ chimeric channels by the stereoisomers, 5α-THDOC and 5β-THDOC, were swapped compared to their actions on GABAρ indicating that positive versus negative neurosteroid modulation is not encoded solely in the TMD nor by neurosteroid isomer structure but is dependent on specific interdomain connections between the ECD and TMD. Our data reveal a new mechanism for shaping neurosteroid modulation.

Emerging Molecular Mechanisms of Signal Transduction in Pentameric Ligand-Gated Ion Channels

Nicotinic acetylcholine, serotonin type 3, γ-amminobutyric acid type A, and glycine receptors are major players of human neuronal communication. They belong to the family of pentameric ligand-gated ion channels, sharing a highly conserved modular 3D structure. Recently, high-resolution structures of both open- and closed-pore conformations have been solved for a bacterial, an invertebrate, and a vertebrate receptor in this family. These data suggest that a common gating mechanism occurs, coupling neurotransmitter binding to pore opening, but they also pinpoint significant differences among subtypes. In this Review, we summarize the structural and functional data in light of these gating models and speculate about their mechanistic consequences on ion permeation, pathological mutations, as well as functional regulation by orthosteric and allosteric effectors.

String method solution of the gating pathways for a pentameric ligand-gated ion channel

Pentameric ligand-gated ion channels control synaptic neurotransmission by converting chemical signals into electrical signals. Agonist binding leads to rapid signal transduction via an allosteric mechanism, where global protein conformational changes open a pore across the nerve cell membrane. We use all-atom molecular dynamics with a swarm-based string method to solve for the minimum free-energy gating pathways of the proton-activated bacterial GLIC channel. We describe stable wetted/open and dewetted/closed states, and uncover conformational changes in the agonist-binding extracellular domain, ion-conducting transmembrane domain, and gating interface that control communication between these domains. Transition analysis is used to compute free-energy surfaces that suggest allosteric pathways; stabilization with pH; and intermediates, including states that facilitate channel closing in the presence of an agonist. We describe a switching mechanism that senses proton binding by marked reorganization of subunit interface, altering the packing of β-sheets to induce changes that lead to asynchronous pore-lining M2 helix movements. These results provide molecular details of GLIC gating and insight into the allosteric mechanisms for the superfamily of pentameric ligand-gated channels.

The Proton Responsiveness in the Extracellular Domain of GLIC Differs in the Presence of the ELIC Transmembrane Domain

Prokaryotic homologues of Cys-loop receptors have proven to be useful in understanding their eukaryotic counterparts, but even the best studied of these, Gloeobacter ligand-gated ion channel (GLIC), is still not yet fully understood. GLIC is activated by protons with a pH₅₀ between 5 and 6, implicating a histidine residue in its activation, but although a histidine residue (His11') in the pore-forming α-helix (M2) is known to be involved in gating, the His in the extracellular domain (ECD), His127, is not. Nevertheless, there is evidence from a GLIC-glycine chimera for a proton sensitive residue or region in the GLIC extracellular domain. Here we create a novel chimeric receptor with the ECD of GLIC and the transmembrane domain of ELIC (GELIC). Expression of this receptor in oocytes reveals proton activation, although the pH₅₀ (6.7) differs from that of GLIC (5.4). Exploration of protonatable residues in the ECD reveals that the pK_as of five Asp residues (31, 49, 91, 136, and 178) differ between the open and closed states of GLIC. Substitution of these residues with Ala or Asn shows somewhat similar effects for GLIC and GELIC in Asp91 mutants, but different effects for the others. Overall, the data suggest that protonation of residues in the ECD is a requirement for channel opening in GELIC but plays only a minor role in GLIC, where gating may be largely driven via protonation of the His residue in its pore.

Pentameric ligand-gated ion channels exhibit distinct transmembrane domain archetypes for folding/expression and function

Although transmembrane helix-helix interactions must be strong enough to drive folding, they must still permit the inter-helix movements associated with conformational change. Interactions between the outermost M4 and adjacent M1 and M3 α-helices of pentameric ligand-gated ion channels have been implicated in folding and function. Here, we evaluate the role of different physical interactions at this interface in the function of two prokaryotic homologs, GLIC and ELIC. Strikingly, disruption of most interactions in GLIC lead to either a reduction or a complete loss of expression and/or function, while analogous disruptions in ELIC often lead to gains in function. Structural comparisons suggest that GLIC and ELIC represent distinct transmembrane domain archetypes. One archetype, exemplified by GLIC, the glycine and GABA receptors and the glutamate activated chloride channel, has extensive aromatic contacts that govern M4-M1/M3 interactions and that are essential for expression and function. The other archetype, exemplified by ELIC and both the nicotinic acetylcholine and serotonin receptors, has relatively few aromatic contacts that are detrimental to function. These archetypes likely have evolved different mechanisms to balance the need for strong M4 "binding" to M1/M3 to promote folding/expression, and the need for weaker interactions that allow for greater conformational flexibility.

Crystal structure and dynamics of a lipid-induced potential desensitized-state of a pentameric ligand-gated channel

Desensitization in pentameric ligand-gated ion channels plays an important role in regulating neuronal excitability. Here, we show that docosahexaenoic acid (DHA), a key ω−3 polyunsaturated fatty acid in synaptic membranes, enhances the agonist-induced transition to the desensitized state in the prokaryotic channel GLIC. We determined a 3.25 Å crystal structure of the GLIC-DHA complex in a potentially desensitized conformation. The DHA molecule is bound at the channel-periphery near the M4 helix and exerts a long-range allosteric effect on the pore across domain-interfaces. In this previously unobserved conformation, the extracellular-half of the pore-lining M2 is splayed open, reminiscent of the open conformation, while the intracellular-half is constricted, leading to a loss of both water and permeant ions. These findings, in combination with spin-labeling/EPR spectroscopic measurements in reconstituted-membranes, provide novel mechanistic details of desensitization in pentameric channels.

DOI:http://dx.doi.org/10.7554/eLife.23886.001

The nerve cells (or neurons) in the brain communicate with each other by releasing chemicals called neurotransmitters that bind to ion channels on neighboring neurons. This ultimately causes ions to flow in or out of the receiving neuron through these ion channels; this ion flow determines how the neuron responds.

One family of ion channels that is found at the junction between neurons, and between neurons and muscle fibers, is known as the pentameric ligand-gated ion channels (or pLGICs). These channels act as ‘gates’ that open to allow ions through them when a neurotransmitter binds to the channel. In addition to the open ‘active’ state, the channels can take on two different ‘inactive’ states that do not allow ions to pass through the channel: a closed (resting) state and a desensitized state (that is still bound to the neurotransmitter). Understanding how channels switch between these states is important for designing drugs that correct problems that cause the channels to work incorrectly.

Problems that affect the desensitized state have been linked to neurological disorders such as epilepsy. Medically important molecules such as anesthetics and alcohols are thought to affect desensitization, and drugs that target desensitized ion channels may present ways of treating neurological disorders with fewer side effects.

Docosahexaenoic acid (DHA) is an abundant lipid molecule that is present in the membranes of neurons. It is one of the key ingredients in fish oil supplements and is thought to enhance learning and memory. DHA affects the desensitization of pLGICs but it is not clear exactly how it does so.

Basak et al. now show that DHA affects a bacterial pLGIC in the same way as it affects human channels – by enhancing desensitization. Using a technique called X-ray crystallography to analyze the channel while bound to DHA revealed a previously unobserved channel structure. The DHA molecule binds to a site at the edge of the channel and causes a change in its structure that leaves the upper part of the channel open while the lower part is constricted. Basak et al. predict that molecules such as anesthetics target this desensitized state.

The next step will be to obtain the structures of bacterial and human pLGIC channels in a natural membrane environment. This will allow us to better understand the changes in structure that the channels go through as they transmit signals between neurons, and so help in the development of new treatments for neurological disorders.

DOI:http://dx.doi.org/10.7554/eLife.23886.002

Functional characterization of two prokaryotic pentameric ligand-gated ion channel chimeras - role of the GLIC transmembrane domain in proton sensing

With the long-term goal of using a chimeric approach to dissect the distinct lipid sensitivities and thermal stabilities of the pentameric ligand-gated ion channels (pLGIC), GLIC and ELIC, we constructed chimeras by cross-combining their extracellular (ECD) and transmembrane (TMD) domains. As expected, the chimera formed between GLIC-ECD and ELIC-TMD (GE) responded to protons, the agonist for GLIC, but not cysteamine, the agonist for ELIC, although GE exhibited a 25-fold decrease in proton-sensitivity relative to wild type. The chimera formed between ELIC-ECD and the GLIC-TMD (EG) was usually toxic, unless it contained a pore-lining Ile9'Ala gain-of-function mutation. No significant improvements in expression/toxicity were observed with extensive loop substitutions at the ECD/TMD interface. Surprisingly, oocytes expressing EG-I9'A responded to both the ELIC agonist, cysteamine and the GLIC agonist, protons - the latter at pH values ≤4.0. The cysteamine- and proton-induced currents in EG-I9'A were inhibited by the GLIC TMD pore blocker, amantadine. The cysteamine-induced response of EG-I9'A was also inhibited by protons at pH values down to 4.5, but potentiated at lower pH values. Proton-induced gating at low pH was not abolished by mutation of an intramembrane histidine residue previously implicated in GLIC TMD function. We show that the TMD plays a major role governing the thermal stability of a pLGIC, and identify three distinct mechanisms by which agonists and protons influence the gating of the EG chimera. A structural basis for the impaired function of GE is suggested.

Crotonic Acid Blocks the Gloeobacter Ligand-Gated Ion Channel (GLIC) via the Extracellular Domain

Cys-loop receptors play important roles in signal transduction in multicellular organisms, but similar proteins exist in prokaryotes, the best studied of which is the Gloeobacter ligand-gated ion channel (GLIC). GLIC is activated by protons with 50% activation (pH₅₀) at pH 5.5, and while a histidine residue in its pore-forming α-helix (M2) is known to be involved in gating, there is also evidence of a proton-sensitive region in the extracellular domain. However, this proton-sensitive region does not appear to be located in the region of GLIC equivalent to the agonist binding site in related proteins. Here we explore functional effects of a range of compounds that could bind to this site and show that some GABA analogues, the most potent of which is crotonic acid, inhibit GLIC function. Mutagenesis and docking studies suggest crotonic acid can bind to this region of the protein and, when bound, can allosterically inhibit GLIC function. These data therefore suggest that there is a transduction pathway from the orthosteric binding site to the pore in GLIC, as exists in related eukaryotic ligand-gated ion channels, and thus provide further evidence that this prokaryotic receptor is a good model for understanding this family of proteins.

A chimeric prokaryotic pentameric ligand-gated channel reveals distinct pathways of activation

Recent high resolution structures of several pentameric ligand-gated ion channels have provided unprecedented details of their molecular architecture. However, the conformational dynamics and structural rearrangements that underlie gating and allosteric modulation remain poorly understood. We used a combination of electrophysiology, double electron-electron resonance (DEER) spectroscopy, and x-ray crystallography to investigate activation mechanisms in a novel functional chimera with the extracellular domain (ECD) of amine-gated Erwinia chrysanthemi ligand-gated ion channel, which is activated by primary amines, and the transmembrane domain of Gloeobacter violaceus ligand-gated ion channel, which is activated by protons. We found that the chimera was independently gated by primary amines and by protons. The crystal structure of the chimera in its resting state, at pH 7.0 and in the absence of primary amines, revealed a closed-pore conformation and an ECD that is twisted with respect to the transmembrane region. Amine- and pH-induced conformational changes measured by DEER spectroscopy showed that the chimera exhibits a dual mode of gating that preserves the distinct conformational changes of the parent channels. Collectively, our findings shed light on both conserved and divergent features of gating mechanisms in this class of channels, and will facilitate the design of better allosteric modulators.

Signal Transduction at the Domain Interface of Prokaryotic Pentameric Ligand-Gated Ion Channels

Pentameric ligand-gated ion channels are activated by the binding of agonists to a site distant from the ion conduction path. These membrane proteins consist of distinct ligand-binding and pore domains that interact via an extended interface. Here, we have investigated the role of residues at this interface for channel activation to define critical interactions that couple conformational changes between the two structural units. By characterizing point mutants of the prokaryotic channels ELIC and GLIC by electrophysiology, X-ray crystallography and isothermal titration calorimetry, we have identified conserved residues that, upon mutation, apparently prevent activation but not ligand binding. The positions of nonactivating mutants cluster at a loop within the extracellular domain connecting β-strands 6 and 7 and at a loop joining the pore-forming helix M2 with M3 where they contribute to a densely packed core of the protein. An ionic interaction in the extracellular domain between the turn connecting β-strands 1 and 2 and a residue at the end of β-strand 10 stabilizes a state of the receptor with high affinity for agonists, whereas contacts of this turn to a conserved proline residue in the M2-M3 loop appear to be less important than previously anticipated. When mapping residues with strong functional phenotype on different channel structures, mutual distances are closer in conducting than in nonconducting conformations, consistent with a potential role of contacts in the stabilization of the open state. Our study has revealed a pattern of interactions that are crucial for the relay of conformational changes from the extracellular domain to the pore region of prokaryotic pentameric ligand-gated ion channels. Due to the strong conservation of the interface, these results are relevant for the entire family.

Copper and protons directly activate the zinc-activated channel

The zinc-activated channel (ZAC) is a cationic ion channel belonging to the superfamily of Cys-loop receptors, which consists of pentameric ligand-gated ion channels. ZAC is the least understood member of this family so in the present study we sought to characterize the properties of this channel further. We demonstrate that not only zinc (Zn(2+)) but also copper (Cu(2+)) and protons (H(+)) are agonists of ZAC, displaying potencies and efficacies in the rank orders of H(+)>Cu(2+)>Zn(2+) and H(+)>Zn(2+)>Cu(2+), respectively. The responses elicited by Zn(2+), Cu(2+) and H(+) through ZAC are all characterized by low degrees of desensitization. In contrast, currents evoked by high concentrations of the three agonists comprise distinctly different activation and decay components, with transitions to and from an open state being significantly faster for H(+) than for the two metal ions. The permeabilities of ZAC for Na(+) and K(+) relative to Cs(+) are indistinguishable, whereas replacing all of extracellular Na(+) and K(+) with the divalent cations Ca(2+) or Mg(2+) results in complete elimination of Zn(2+)-activated currents at both negative and positive holding potentials. This indicates that ZAC is non-selectively permeable to monovalent cations, whereas Ca(2+) and Mg(2+) inhibit the channel. In conclusion, this is the first report of a Cys-loop receptor being gated by Zn(2+), Cu(2+) and H(+). ZAC could be an important mediator of some of the wide range of physiological functions regulated by or involving Zn(2+), Cu(2+) and H(+).

Role of the Fourth Transmembrane α Helix in the Allosteric Modulation of Pentameric Ligand-Gated Ion Channels

The gating of pentameric ligand-gated ion channels is sensitive to a variety of allosteric modulators that act on structures peripheral to those involved in the allosteric pathway leading from the agonist site to the channel gate. One such structure, the lipid-exposed transmembrane α helix, M4, is the target of lipids, neurosteroids, and disease-causing mutations. Here we show that M4 interactions with the adjacent transmembrane α helices, M1 and M3, modulate pLGIC function. Enhanced M4 interactions promote channel function while ineffective interactions reduce channel function. The interface chemistry governs the intrinsic strength of M4-M1/M3 inter-helical interactions, both influencing channel gating and imparting distinct susceptibilities to the potentiating effects of a lipid-facing M4 congenital myasthenic syndrome mutation. Through aromatic substitutions, functional studies, and molecular dynamics simulations, we elucidate a mechanism by which M4 modulates channel function.

The M4 Transmembrane α-Helix Contributes Differently to Both the Maturation and Function of Two Prokaryotic Pentameric Ligand-gated Ion Channels

The role of the outermost transmembrane α-helix in both the maturation and function of the prokaryotic pentameric ligand-gated ion channels, GLIC and ELIC, was examined by Ala scanning mutagenesis, deletion mutations, and mutant cycle analyses. Ala mutations at the M4-M1/M3 interface lead to loss-of-function phenotypes in GLIC, with the largest negative effects occurring near the M4 C terminus. In particular, two aromatic residues at the M4 C terminus form a network of π-π and/or cation-π interactions with residues on M3 and the β6-β7 loop that is essential for both maturation and function. M4-M1/M3 interactions appear to be optimized in GLIC with even subtle structural changes at this interface leading to detrimental effects. In contrast, mutations along the M4-M1/M3 interface of ELIC typically lead to gain-of-function phenotypes, suggesting that these interactions in ELIC are not optimized for channel function. In addition, no cluster of interacting residues involving the M4 C terminus, M3, and the β6-β7 loop was found, suggesting that the M4 C terminus plays little role in ELIC maturation or function. This study shows that M4 makes distinct contributions to the maturation and gating of these two closely related homologs, suggesting that GLIC and ELIC exhibit divergent features of channel function.

Mechanism of activation of the prokaryotic channel ELIC by propylamine: a single-channel study

Prokaryotic channels, such as Erwinia chrysanthemi ligand-gated ion channel (ELIC) and Gloeobacter violaceus ligand-gated ion channel, give key structural information for the pentameric ligand-gated ion channel family, which includes nicotinic acetylcholine receptors. ELIC, a cationic channel from E. chrysanthemi, is particularly suitable for single-channel recording because of its high conductance. Here, we report on the kinetic properties of ELIC channels expressed in human embryonic kidney 293 cells. Single-channel currents elicited by the full agonist propylamine (0.5-50 mM) in outside-out patches at -60 mV were analyzed by direct maximum likelihood fitting of kinetic schemes to the idealized data. Several mechanisms were tested, and their adequacy was judged by comparing the predictions of the best fit obtained with the observable features of the experimental data. These included open-/shut-time distributions and the time course of macroscopic propylamine-activated currents elicited by fast theta-tube applications (50-600 ms, 1-50 mM, -100 mV). Related eukaryotic channels, such as glycine and nicotinic receptors, when fully liganded open with high efficacy to a single open state, reached via a preopening intermediate. The simplest adequate description of their activation, the "Flip" model, assumes a concerted transition to a single intermediate state at high agonist concentration. In contrast, ELIC open-time distributions at saturating propylamine showed multiple components. Thus, more than one open state must be accessible to the fully liganded channel. The "Primed" model allows opening from multiple fully liganded intermediates. The best fits of this type of model showed that ELIC maximum open probability (99%) is reached when at least two and probably three molecules of agonist have bound to the channel. The overall efficacy with which the fully liganded channel opens was ∼ 102 (∼ 20 for α1β glycine channels). The microscopic affinity for the agonist increased as the channel activated, from 7 mM for the resting state to 0.15 mM for the partially activated intermediate state.

Ethanol Modulation is Quantitatively Determined by the Transmembrane Domain of Human α1 Glycine Receptors

BACKGROUND

Mutagenesis and labeling studies have identified amino acids from the human α1 glycine receptor (GlyR) extracellular, transmembrane (TM), and intracellular domains in mediating ethanol (EtOH) potentiation. However, limited high-resolution structural data for physiologically relevant receptors in this Cys-loop receptor superfamily have made pinpointing the critical amino acids difficult. Homologous ion channels from lower organisms provide conserved models for structural and functional properties of Cys-loop receptors. We previously demonstrated that a single amino acid variant of the Gloeobacter violaceus ligand-gated ion channel (GLIC) produced EtOH and anesthetic sensitivity similar to that of GlyRs and provided crystallographic evidence for EtOH binding to GLIC.

METHODS

We directly compared EtOH modulation of the α1 GlyR and GLIC to a chimera containing the TM domain from human α1 GlyRs and the ligand-binding domain of GLIC using 2-electrode voltage-clamp electrophysiology of receptors expressed in Xenopus laevis oocytes.

RESULTS

EtOH potentiated α1 GlyRs in a concentration-dependent manner in the presence of zinc-chelating agents, but did not potentiate GLIC at pharmacologically relevant concentrations. The GLIC/GlyR chimera recapitulated the EtOH potentiation of GlyRs, without apparent sensitivity to zinc chelation. For chimera expression in oocytes, it was essential to suppress leakage current by adding 50 μM picrotoxin to the media, a technique that may have applications in expression of other ion channels.

CONCLUSIONS

Our results are consistent with a TM mechanism of EtOH modulation in Cys-loop receptors. This work highlights the relevance of bacterial homologs as valuable model systems for studying ion channel function of human receptors and demonstrates the modularity of these channels across species.

Probing residues in the pore-forming (M2) domain of the Cys-loop receptor homologue GLIC reveals some unusual features

Cys-loop receptors play important roles in signal transduction. The Gloeobacter ligand-gated ion channel (GLIC) pore binds similar compounds to Cys-loop receptor pores, but has the advantage of known structures in open and closed states. GLIC is activated by protons with a pEC50 of 5.4, and has a histidine residue (His 11') in its pore-forming α-helix (M2) which is involved in gating. Here we explore the role of this His and other M2 residues using two-electrode voltage clamp of mutant receptors expressed in oocytes. We show that 11'His is very sensitive to substitution; replacement with a range of amino acids ablates function. Similarly altering its location in M2 to the 8', 9', 10', 12', 13' or 14' positions ablated function. Most substitutions of Ser6' or Ile9' were also non-functional, although not Ile9'Leu and Ile9'Val. Unexpectedly, an Ile9'His substitution was constitutively active at pH 7, but closed as [H+] increased, with a pIC50 of 5.8. Substitution at 2', 5' and 7' had little effect on pEC50. Overall the data show Ser6' and His11' are critical for the function of the receptor, and thus distinguish the roles of these M2 residues from those of Cys-loop receptors, where substitutions are mostly well tolerated. These data suggest modellers should be aware of these atypical features when using the GLIC pore as a model for Cys-loop receptor pores.

Structural requirements in the transmembrane domain of GLIC revealed by incorporation of noncanonical histidine analogs

The cyanobacterial pentameric ligand-gated ion channel GLIC, a homolog of the Cys-loop receptor superfamily, has provided useful structural and functional information about its eukaryotic counterparts. X-ray diffraction data and site-directed mutagenesis have previously implicated a transmembrane histidine residue (His234) as essential for channel function. Here, we investigated the role of His234 via synthesis and incorporation of histidine analogs and α-hydroxy acids using in vivo nonsense suppression. Receptors were expressed heterologously in Xenopus laevis oocytes, and whole-cell voltage-clamp electrophysiology was used to monitor channel activity. We show that an interhelix hydrogen bond involving His234 is important for stabilization of the open state, and that the shape and basicity of its side chain are highly sensitive to perturbations. In contrast, our data show that two other His residues are not involved in the acid-sensing mechanism.

Intramembrane aromatic interactions influence the lipid sensitivities of pentameric ligand-gated ion channels

Although the Torpedo nicotinic acetylcholine receptor (nAChR) reconstituted into phosphatidylcholine (PC) membranes lacking cholesterol and anionic lipids adopts a conformation where agonist binding is uncoupled from channel gating, the underlying mechanism remains to be defined. Here, we examine the mechanism behind lipid-dependent uncoupling by comparing the propensities of two prokaryotic homologs, Gloebacter and Erwinia ligand-gated ion channel (GLIC and ELIC, respectively), to adopt a similar uncoupled conformation. Membrane-reconstituted GLIC and ELIC both exhibit folded structures in the minimal PC membranes that stabilize an uncoupled nAChR. GLIC, with a large number of aromatic interactions at the interface between the outermost transmembrane α-helix, M4, and the adjacent transmembrane α-helices, M1 and M3, retains the ability to flux cations in this uncoupling PC membrane environment. In contrast, ELIC, with a level of aromatic interactions intermediate between that of the nAChR and GLIC, does not undergo agonist-induced channel gating, although it does not exhibit the expected biophysical characteristics of the uncoupled state. Engineering new aromatic interactions at the M4-M1/M3 interface to promote effective M4 interactions with M1/M3, however, increases the stability of the transmembrane domain to restore channel function. Our data provide direct evidence that M4 interactions with M1/M3 are modulated during lipid sensing. Aromatic residues strengthen M4 interactions with M1/M3 to reduce the sensitivities of pentameric ligand-gated ion channels to their surrounding membrane environment.

Gating of pentameric ligand-gated ion channels: structural insights and ambiguities

Pentameric ligand-gated ion channels (pLGICs) mediate fast synaptic communication by converting chemical signals into an electrical response. Recently solved agonist-bound and agonist-free structures greatly extend our understanding of these complex molecular machines. A key challenge to a full description of function, however, is the ability to unequivocally relate determined structures to the canonical resting, open, and desensitized states. Here, we review current understanding of pLGIC structure, with a focus on the conformational changes underlying channel gating. We compare available structural information and review the evidence supporting the assignment of each structure to a particular conformational state. We discuss multiple factors that may complicate the interpretation of crystal structures, highlighting the potential influence of lipids and detergents. We contend that further advances in the structural biology of pLGICs will require deeper insight into the nature of pLGIC-lipid interactions.

Propofol modulation of α1 glycine receptors does not require a structural transition at adjacent subunits that is crucial to agonist-induced activation

Pentameric glycine receptors (GlyRs) couple agonist binding to activation of an intrinsic ion channel. Substitution of the R271 residue impairs agonist-induced activation and is associated with the human disease hyperekplexia. On the basis of a homology model of the α1 GlyR, we substituted residues in the vicinity of R271 with cysteines, generating R271C, Q226C, and D284C single-mutant GlyRs and R271C/Q226C and R271C/D284C double-mutant GlyRs. We then examined the impact of interactions between these positions on receptor activation by glycine and modulation by the anesthetic propofol, as measured by electrophysiological experiments. Upon expression in Xenopus laevis oocytes, D284C-containing receptors were nonfunctional, despite biochemical evidence of successful cell surface expression. At R271C/Q226C GlyRs, glycine-activated whole-cell currents were increased 3-fold in the presence of the thiol reductant dithiothreitol, whereas the ability of propofol to enhance glycine-activated currents was not affected by dithiothreitol. Biochemical experiments showed that mutant R271C/Q226C subunits form covalently linked pentamers, showing that intersubunit disulfide cross-links are formed. These data indicate that intersubunit disulfide links in the transmembrane domain prevent a structural transition that is crucial to agonist-induced activation of GlyRs but not to modulation by the anesthetic propofol and implicate D284 in the functional integrity of GlyRs.

Inter-residue coupling contributes to high-affinity subtype-selective binding of α-bungarotoxin to nicotinic receptors

The crystal structure of a pentameric α7 ligand-binding domain chimaera with bound α-btx (α-bungarotoxin) showed that of the five conserved aromatic residues in α7, only Tyr¹⁸⁴ in loop C of the ligand-binding site was required for high-affinity binding. To determine whether the contribution of Tyr¹⁸⁴ depends on local residues, we generated mutations in an α7/5HT(3A) (5-hydroxytryptamine type 3A) receptor chimaera, individually and in pairs, and measured ¹²⁵I-labelled α-btx binding. The results show that mutations of individual residues near Tyr¹⁸⁴ do not affect α-btx affinity, but pairwise mutations decrease affinity in an energetically coupled manner. Kinetic measurements show that the affinity decreases arise through increases in the α-btx dissociation rate with little change in the association rate. Replacing loop C in α7 with loop C from the α-btx-insensitive α2 or α3 subunits abolishes high-affinity α-btx binding, but preserves acetylcholine-elicited single channel currents. However, in both the α2 and α3 construct, mutating either residue that flanks Tyr¹⁸⁴ to its α7 counterpart restores high-affinity α-btx binding. Analogously, in α7, mutating both residues that flank Tyr¹⁸⁴ to the α2 or α3 counterparts abolishes high-affinity α-btx binding. Thus interaction between Tyr¹⁸⁴ and local residues contributes to high-affinity subtype-selective α-btx binding.

Gating of the proton-gated ion channel from Gloeobacter violaceus at pH 4 as revealed by X-ray crystallography

Cryoelectron microscopy and X-ray crystallography have recently been used to generate structural models that likely represent the unliganded closed-channel conformation and the fully liganded open-channel conformation of different members of the nicotinic-receptor superfamily. To characterize the structure of the closed-channel conformation in its liganded state, we identified a number of positions in the loop between transmembrane segments 2 (M2) and 3 (M3) of a proton-gated ortholog from the bacterium Gloeobacter violaceus (GLIC) where mutations to alanine reduce the liganded-gating equilibrium constant, and solved the crystal structures of two such mutants (T25'A and Y27'A) at pH ~4.0. At the level of backbone atoms, the liganded closed-channel model presented here differs from the liganded open-channel structure of GLIC in the pre-M1 linker, the M3-M4 loop, and much more prominently, in the extracellular half of the pore lining, where the more pronounced tilt of the closed-channel M2 α-helices toward the pore's long axis narrows the permeation pathway. On the other hand, no differences between the liganded closed-channel and open-channel models could be detected at the level of the extracellular domain, where conformational changes are expected to underlie the low-to-high proton-affinity switch that drives gating of proton-bound channels. Thus, the liganded closed-channel model is nearly indistinguishable from the recently described "locally closed" structure. However, because cross-linking strategies (which could have stabilized unstable conformations) and mutations involving ionizable side chains (which could have affected proton-gated channel activation) were purposely avoided, we favor the notion that this structure represents one of the end states of liganded gating rather than an unstable intermediate.

Structural sensitivity of a prokaryotic pentameric ligand-gated ion channel to its membrane environment

Although the activity of the nicotinic acetylcholine receptor (nAChR) is exquisitely sensitive to its membrane environment, the underlying mechanisms remain poorly defined. The homologous prokaryotic pentameric ligand-gated ion channel, Gloebacter ligand-gated ion channel (GLIC), represents an excellent model for probing the molecular basis of nAChR sensitivity because of its high structural homology, relative ease of expression, and amenability to crystallographic analysis. We show here that membrane-reconstituted GLIC exhibits structural and biophysical properties similar to those of the membrane-reconstituted nAChR, although GLIC is substantially more thermally stable. GLIC, however, does not possess the same exquisite lipid sensitivity. In particular, GLIC does not exhibit the same propensity to adopt an uncoupled conformation where agonist binding is uncoupled from channel gating. Structural comparisons provide insight into the chemical features that may predispose the nAChR to the formation of an uncoupled state.

GABA binding to an insect GABA receptor: a molecular dynamics and mutagenesis study

RDL receptors are GABA-activated inhibitory Cys-loop receptors found throughout the insect CNS. They are a key target for insecticides. Here, we characterize the GABA binding site in RDL receptors using computational and electrophysiological techniques. A homology model of the extracellular domain of RDL was generated and GABA docked into the binding site. Molecular dynamics simulations predicted critical GABA binding interactions with aromatic residues F206, Y254, and Y109 and hydrophilic residues E204, S176, R111, R166, S176, and T251. These residues were mutated, expressed in Xenopus oocytes, and their functions assessed using electrophysiology. The data support the binding mechanism provided by the simulations, which predict that GABA forms many interactions with binding site residues, the most significant of which are cation-π interactions with F206 and Y254, H-bonds with E204, S205, R111, S176, T251, and ionic interactions with R111 and E204. These findings clarify the roles of a range of residues in binding GABA in the RDL receptor, and also show that molecular dynamics simulations are a useful tool to identify specific interactions in Cys-loop receptors.

Conformational transitions underlying pore opening and desensitization in membrane-embedded Gloeobacter violaceus ligand-gated ion channel (GLIC)

Direct structural insight into the mechanisms underlying activation and desensitization remain unavailable for the pentameric ligand-gated channel family. Here, we report the structural rearrangements underlying gating transitions in membrane-embedded GLIC, a prokaryotic homologue, using site-directed spin labeling and electron paramagnetic resonance (EPR) spectroscopy. We particularly probed the conformation of pore-lining second transmembrane segment (M2) under conditions that favor the closed and the ligand-bound desensitized states. The spin label mobility, intersubunit spin-spin proximity, and the solvent-accessibility parameters in the two states clearly delineate the underlying protein motions within M2. Our results show that during activation the extracellular hydrophobic region undergoes major changes involving an outward translational movement, away from the pore axis, leading to an increase in the pore diameter, whereas the lower end of M2 remains relatively immobile. Most notably, during desensitization, the intervening polar residues in the middle of M2 move closer to form a solvent-occluded barrier and thereby reveal the location of a distinct desensitization gate. In comparison with the crystal structure of GLIC, the structural dynamics of the channel in a membrane environment suggest a more loosely packed conformation with water-accessible intrasubunit vestibules penetrating from the extracellular end all the way to the middle of M2 in the closed state. These regions have been implicated to play a major role in alcohol and drug modulation. Overall, these findings represent a key step toward understanding the fundamentals of gating mechanisms in this class of channels.

A locally closed conformation of a bacterial pentameric proton-gated ion channel

Pentameric ligand-gated ion channels mediate signal transduction through conformational transitions between closed-pore and open-pore states. To stabilize a closed conformation of GLIC, a bacterial proton-gated homolog from Gloeobacter violaceus whose open structure is known, we separately generated either four cross-links or two single mutations. We found all six mutants to be in the same 'locally closed' conformation using X-ray crystallography, sharing most of the features of the open form but showing a locally closed pore as a result of a concerted bending of all of its M2 helices. The mutants adopt several variant conformations of the M2-M3 loop, and in all cases an interacting lipid that is observed in the open form disappears. A single cross-linked mutant is functional, according to electrophysiology, and the locally closed structure of this mutant indicates that it has an increased flexibility. Further cross-linking, accessibility and molecular dynamics data suggest that the locally closed form is a functionally relevant conformation that occurs during allosteric gating transitions.

Molecular mechanisms of Cys-loop ion channel receptor modulation by ivermectin

Ivermectin is an anthelmintic drug that works by inhibiting neuronal activity and muscular contractility in arthropods and nematodes. It works by activating glutamate-gated chloride channels (GluClRs) at nanomolar concentrations. These receptors, found exclusively in invertebrates, belong to the pentameric Cys-loop receptor family of ligand-gated ion channels (LGICs). Higher (micromolar) concentrations of ivermectin also activate or modulate vertebrate Cys-loop receptors, including the excitatory nicotinic and the inhibitory GABA type-A and glycine receptors (GlyRs). An X-ray crystal structure of ivermectin complexed with the C. elegans α GluClR demonstrated that ivermectin binds to the transmembrane domain in a cleft at the interface of adjacent subunits. It also identified three hydrogen bonds thought to attach ivermectin to its site. Site-directed mutagenesis and voltage-clamp electrophysiology have also been employed to probe the binding site for ivermectin in α1 GlyRs. These have raised doubts as to whether the hydrogen bonds are essential for high ivermectin potency. Due to its lipophilic nature, it is likely that ivermectin accumulates in the membrane and binds reversibly (i.e., weakly) to its site. Several lines of evidence suggest that ivermectin opens the channel pore via a structural change distinct from that induced by the neurotransmitter agonist. Conformational changes occurring at locations distant from the pore can be probed using voltage-clamp fluorometry (VCF), a technique which involves quantitating agonist-induced fluorescence changes from environmentally sensitive fluorophores covalently attached to receptor domains of interest. This technique has demonstrated that ivermectin induces a global conformational change that propagates from the transmembrane domain to the neurotransmitter binding site, thus suggesting a mechanism by which ivermectin potentiates neurotransmitter-gated currents. Together, this information provides new insights into the mechanisms of action of this important drug.

Desensitization mechanism in prokaryotic ligand-gated ion channel

Crystal structures of Gloeobacter violaceus ligand-gated ion channel (GLIC), a proton-gated prokaryotic homologue of pentameric ligand-gated ion channel (LGIC) from G. violaceus, have provided high-resolution models of the channel architecture and its role in selective ion conduction and drug binding. However, it is still unclear which functional states of the LGIC gating scheme these crystal structures represent. Much of this uncertainty arises from a lack of thorough understanding of the functional properties of these prokaryotic channels. To elucidate the molecular events that constitute gating, we have carried out an extensive characterization of GLIC function and dynamics in reconstituted proteoliposomes by patch clamp measurements and EPR spectroscopy. We find that GLIC channels show rapid activation upon jumps to acidic pH followed by a time-dependent loss of conductance because of desensitization. GLIC desensitization is strongly coupled to activation and is modulated by voltage, permeant ions, pore-blocking drugs, and membrane cholesterol. Many of these properties are parallel to functions observed in members of eukaryotic LGIC. Conformational changes in loop C, measured by site-directed spin labeling and EPR spectroscopy, reveal immobilization during desensitization analogous to changes in LGIC and acetylcholine binding protein. Together, our studies suggest conservation of mechanistic aspects of desensitization among LGICs of prokaryotic and eukaryotic origin.

The role of sulfatide lipid domains in the membrane pore-forming activity of cobra cardiotoxin

Cobra CTX A3, the major cardiotoxin (CTX) from Naja atra, is a cytotoxic, basic β-sheet polypeptide that is known to induce a transient membrane leakage of cardiomyocytes through a sulfatide-dependent CTX membrane pore formation and internalization mechanism. The molecular specificity of CTX A3-sulfatide interaction at atomic levels has also been shown by both nuclear magnetic resonance (NMR) and X-ray diffraction techniques to reveal a role of CTX-induced sulfatide conformational changes for CTX A3 binding and dimer formation. In this study, we investigate the role of sulfatide lipid domains in CTX pore formation by various biophysical methods, including fluorescence imaging and atomic force microscopy, and suggest an important role of liquid-disordered (ld) and solid-ordered (so) phase boundary in lipid domains to facilitate the process. Fluorescence spectroscopic studies on the kinetics of membrane leakage and CTX oligomerization further reveal that, although most CTXs can oligomerize on membranes, only a small fraction of CTXs oligomerizations form leakage pores. We therefore suggest that CTX binding at the boundary between the so and so/ld phase coexistence sulfatide lipid domains could form effective pores to significantly enhance the CTX-induced membrane leakage of sulfatide-containing phosphatidylcholine vesicles. The model is consistent with our earlier observations that CTX may penetrate and lyse the bilayers into small aggregates at a lipid/protein molar ratio of about 20 in the ripple P(β)' phase of phosphatidylcholine bilayers and suggest a novel mechanism for the synergistic action of cobra secretary phospholipase A2 and CTXs.