Multilayer formation upon compression of surfactant monolayers depends on protein concentration as well as lipid composition. An atomic force microscopy study

Constrained drop surfactometry for studying adsorbed pulmonary surfactant at physiologically relevant high concentrations

Exogenous surfactant therapy has been used as a standard clinical intervention for treating premature newborns with respiratory distress syndrome. The phospholipid concentrations of exogenous surfactants used in clinical practice are consistently higher than 25 mg/mL; while it was estimated that the phospholipid concentration of endogenous surfactant is approximately in the range between 15 and 50 mg/mL. However, most in vitro biophysical simulations of pulmonary surfactants were only capable of studying surfactant concentrations up to 3 mg/mL, one order of magnitude lower than the physiologically relevant concentration. Using a new in vitro biophysical model, called constrained drop surfactometry, in conjunction with atomic force microscopy and other technological advances, we have investigated the biophysical properties, ultrastructure, and topography of the pulmonary surfactant film adsorbed from the subphase at physiologically relevant high surfactant concentrations of 10-35 mg/mL. It was found that the effect of surfactant concentration on the dynamic surface activity of the surfactant film was only important when the surface area of the surfactant film varied no more than 15%, mimicking normal tidal breathing. The adsorbed surfactant film depicts a multilayer conformation consisting of a layer-by-layer assembly of stacked bilayers with the height of the multilayers proportional to the surfactant concentration. Our experimental data suggest that the biophysical function of these multilayer structures formed after de novo adsorption is to act as a buffer zone to store surface-active materials ejected from the interfacial monolayer under extreme conditions such as deep breathing.NEW & NOTEWORTHY An in vitro biophysical model, called constrained drop surfactometry, was developed to study the biophysical properties, ultrastructure, and topography of the pulmonary surfactant film adsorbed from the subphase at physiologically relevant high surfactant concentrations of 10-35 mg/mL. These results suggest that the biophysical function of multilayers formed after de novo adsorption is to act as a buffer zone to store surface-active materials ejected from the interfacial monolayer under extreme conditions such as deep breathing.

The lung surfactant activity probed with molecular dynamics simulations

The surface of pulmonary alveolar subphase is covered with a mixture of lipids and proteins. This lung surfactant plays a crucial role in lung functioning. It shows a complex phase behavior which can be altered by the interaction with third molecules such as drugs or pollutants. For studying multicomponent biological systems, it is of interest to couple experimental approach with computational modelling yielding atomic-scale information. Simple two, three, or four-component model systems showed to be useful for getting more insight in the interaction between lipids, lipids and proteins or lipids and proteins with drugs and impurities. These systems were studied theoretically using molecular dynamic simulations and experimentally by means of the Langmuir technique. A better understanding of the structure and behavior of lung surfactants obtained from this research is relevant for developing new synthetic surfactants for efficient therapies, and may contribute to public health protection.

Budesonide associated with exogenous pulmonary surfactant in a novel formulation to improve the delivery to the lung

Lung delivery for glucocorticoids (GCs) is very low and depends on the system used. Exogenous pulmonary surfactant (EPS) is a promising tool to transporting GCs efficiently to the airways. We developed a new formulation of EPS with Budesonide (BUD) incorporated into EPS membranes (EPS-BUD) to improve lung delivery of BUD. We evaluated the biodistribution and pharmacokinetic of the transported BUD by intra-tracheal instillation of EPS-BUD in healthy rats. Aqueous suspension of Budesonide was used as control. Budesonide and its esters present in trachea, kidneys and lungs were determined by HPLC. The delivery of BUD in lung for EPS-BUD group was 75 % of total instilled and only 35 % for the control group. BUD was rapidly internalized in pneumocytes and a high proportion of Budesonide esters and persistent concentrations of active free BUD were found for up to 6 h after instillation. The new EPS-BUD formulation developed significantly improves the deposition and increases the permanence of BUD in lung.

Physiological fluid interfaces: Functional microenvironments, drug delivery targets, and first line of defense

Fluid interfaces, i.e. the boundary layer of two liquids or a liquid and a gas, play a vital role in physiological processes as diverse as visual perception, oral health and taste, lipid metabolism, and pulmonary breathing. These fluid interfaces exhibit a complex composition, structure, and rheology tailored to their individual physiological functions. Advances in interfacial thin film techniques have facilitated the analysis of such complex interfaces under physiologically relevant conditions. This allowed new insights on the origin of their physiological functionality, how deviations may cause disease, and has revealed new therapy strategies. Furthermore, the interactions of physiological fluid interfaces with exogenous substances is crucial for understanding certain disorders and exploiting drug delivery routes to or across fluid interfaces. Here, we provide an overview on fluid interfaces with physiological relevance, namely tear films, interfacial aspects of saliva, lipid droplet digestion and storage in the cell, and the functioning of lung surfactant. We elucidate their structure-function relationship, discuss diseases associated with interfacial composition, and describe therapies and drug delivery approaches targeted at fluid interfaces. STATEMENT OF SIGNIFICANCE: Fluid interfaces are inherent to all living organisms and play a vital role in various physiological processes. Examples are the eye tear film, saliva, lipid digestion & storage in cells, and pulmonary breathing. These fluid interfaces exhibit complex interfacial compositions and structures to meet their specific physiological function. We provide an overview on physiological fluid interfaces with a focus on interfacial phenomena. We elucidate their structure-function relationship, discuss diseases associated with interfacial composition, and describe novel therapies and drug delivery approaches targeted at fluid interfaces. This sets the scene for ocular, oral, or pulmonary surface engineering and drug delivery approaches.

Simulated Breathing: Application of Molecular Dynamics Simulations to Pulmonary Lung Surfactant

In this review, we delve into the topic of the pulmonary surfactant (PS) system, which is present in the respiratory system. The total composition of the PS has been presented and explored, from the types of cells involved in its synthesis and secretion, down to the specific building blocks used, such as the various lipid and protein components. The lipid and protein composition varies across species and between individuals, but ultimately produces a PS monolayer with the same role. As such, the composition has been investigated for the ways in which it imposes function and confers peculiar biophysical characteristics to the system as a whole. Moreover, a couple of theories/models that are associated with the functions of PS have been addressed. Finally, molecular dynamic (MD) simulations of pulmonary surfactant have been emphasized to not only showcase various group’s findings, but also to demonstrate the validity and importance that MD simulations can have in future research exploring the PS monolayer system.

Structural hallmarks of lung surfactant: Lipid-protein interactions, membrane structure and future challenges

Lung surfactant (LS) is an outstanding example of how a highly regulated and dynamic membrane-based system has evolved to sustain a wealth of structural reorganizations in order to accomplish its biophysical function, as it coats and stabilizes the respiratory air-liquid interface in the mammalian lung. The present review dissects the complexity of the structure-function relationships in LS through an updated description of the lipid-protein interactions and the membrane structures that sustain its synthesis, secretion, interfacial performance and recycling. We also revise the current models and the biophysical techniques employed to study the membranous architecture of LS. It is important to consider that the structure and functional properties of LS are often studied in bulk or under static conditions, in spite that surfactant function is strongly connected with a highly dynamic behaviour, sustained by very polymorphic structures and lipid-lipid, lipid-protein and protein-protein interactions that reorganize in precise spatio-temporal coordinates. We have tried to underline the evidences available of the existence of such structural dynamism in LS. A last important aspect is that the synthesis and assembly of LS is a strongly regulated intracellular process to ensure the establishment of the proper interactions driving LS surface activity, while protecting the integrity of other cell membranes. The use of simplified lipid models or partial natural materials purified from animal tissues could be too simplistic to understand the true molecular mechanisms defining surfactant function in vivo. In this line, we will bring into the attention of the reader the methodological challenges and the questions still open to understand the structure-function relationships of LS at its full biological relevance.

Atomic Force Microscopy Imaging of Adsorbed Pulmonary Surfactant Films

Pulmonary surfactant (PS) is a lipid-protein complex that adsorbs to the air-water surface of the lung as a thin film. Previous studies have suggested that the adsorbed PS film is composed of an interfacial monolayer, plus a functionally attached vesicular complex, called the surface-associated surfactant reservoir. However, direct visualization of the lateral structure and morphology of adsorbed PS films using atomic force microscopy (AFM) has been proven to be technically challenging. To date, all AFM studies of the PS film have relied on the model of Langmuir monolayers. Here, we showed the first, to our knowledge, AFM imaging of adsorbed PS films under physiologically relevant conditions using a novel, to our knowledge, experimental methodology called constrained drop surfactometry. In conjunction with a series of methodological innovations, including subphase replacement, in situ Langmuir-Blodgett transfer, and real-time surface tension control using closed-loop axisymmetric drop shape analysis, constrained drop surfactometry allowed the study of lateral structure and topography of animal-derived natural PS films at physiologically relevant low surface tensions. Our data suggested that a nucleation-growth model is responsible for the adsorption-induced squeeze-out of the PS film, which likely results in an interfacial monolayer enriched in dipalmitoylphosphatidylcholine with the attached multilayered surface-associated surfactant reservoir. These findings were further supported by frequency-dependent measurements of surface dilational rheology. Our study provides novel, to our knowledge, biophysical insights into the understanding of the mechanisms by which the PS film attains low surface tensions and stabilizes the alveolar surface.

Micropipette Technique Study of Natural and Synthetic Lung Surfactants at the Air-Water Interface: Presence of a SP-B Analog Peptide Promotes Membrane Aggregation, Formation of Tightly Stacked Lamellae, and Growth of Myelin Figures

The present study is a microscopic interfacial characterization of a series of lung surfactant materials performed with the micropipette technique. The advantages of this technique include the measurement of equilibrium and dynamic surface tensions while acquiring structural and dynamic information at microscopic air-water interfaces in real time and upon compression. Here, we characterized a series of animal-derived and synthetic lung surfactant formulations, including native surfactant obtained from porcine lungs (NS); the commercial Curosurf, Infasurf, and Survanta; and a synthetic Super Mini-B (SMB)-containing formulation. It was observed that the presence of the natural hydrophobic proteins and, more strikingly, the peptide SMB, promoted vesicle condensation as thick membrane stacks beneath the interface. Only in the presence of SMB, these stacks underwent spontaneous structural transformations, consisting of the nucleation and growth of microtubes and in some cases their subsequent coiling into helices. The dimensions of these tubes (2-15 μm diameter) and their linear (2-3 μm/s) and volumetric growth rates (20-30 μm³/s) were quantified, and no specific effects were found on them for increasing SMB concentrations from 0.1 to 4%. Nevertheless, a direct correlation between the number of tubes and SMB contents was found, suggesting that SMB molecules are the promoters of tube nucleation in these membranes. A detailed analysis of the tube formation process was performed following previous models for the growth of myelin figures, proposing a combined mechanism between dehydration-rehydration of the lipid bilayers and induction of mechanical defects by SMB that would act as nucleation sites for the tubes. The formation of tubes was also observed in Infasurf, and in NS only after subsequent expansion and compression but neither in the other clinical surfactants nor in protein-free preparations. Finally, the connection between this data and the observations from the lung surfactant literature concerning the widely reported "near-zero surface tension" for lung surfactant films and intact alveolar surfaces is also discussed.

Computer simulations of lung surfactant

Lung surfactant lines the gas-exchange interface in the lungs and reduces the surface tension, which is necessary for breathing. Lung surfactant consists mainly of lipids with a small amount of proteins and forms a monolayer at the air-water interface connected to bilayer reservoirs. Lung surfactant function involves transfer of material between the monolayer and bilayers during the breathing cycle. Lipids and proteins are organized laterally in the monolayer; selected species are possibly preferentially transferred to bilayers. The complex 3D structure of lung surfactant and the exact roles of lipid organization and proteins remain important goals for research. We review recent simulation studies on the properties of lipid monolayers, monolayers with phase coexistence, monolayer-bilayer transformations, lipid-protein interactions, and effects of nanoparticles on lung surfactant. This article is part of a Special Issue entitled: Biosimulations edited by Ilpo Vattulainen and Tomasz Róg.

Evolution, Development, and Function of the Pulmonary Surfactant System in Normal and Perturbed Environments

Surfactant lipids and proteins form a surface active film at the air-liquid interface of internal gas exchange organs, including swim bladders and lungs. The system is uniquely positioned to meet both the physical challenges associated with a dynamically changing internal air-liquid interface, and the environmental challenges associated with the foreign pathogens and particles to which the internal surface is exposed. Lungs range from simple, transparent, bag-like units to complex, multilobed, compartmentalized structures. Despite this anatomical variability, the surfactant system is remarkably conserved. Here, we discuss the evolutionary origin of the surfactant system, which likely predates lungs. We describe the evolution of surfactant structure and function in invertebrates and vertebrates. We focus on changes in lipid and protein composition and surfactant function from its antiadhesive and innate immune to its alveolar stability and structural integrity functions. We discuss the biochemical, hormonal, autonomic, and mechanical factors that regulate normal surfactant secretion in mature animals. We present an analysis of the ontogeny of surfactant development among the vertebrates and the contribution of different regulatory mechanisms that control this development. We also discuss environmental (oxygen), hormonal and biochemical (glucocorticoids and glucose) and pollutant (maternal smoking, alcohol, and common "recreational" drugs) effects that impact surfactant development. On the adult surfactant system, we focus on environmental variables including temperature, pressure, and hypoxia that have shaped its evolution and we discuss the resultant biochemical, biophysical, and cellular adaptations. Finally, we discuss the effect of major modern gaseous and particulate pollutants on the lung and surfactant system.

Composition, structure and mechanical properties define performance of pulmonary surfactant membranes and films

The respiratory surface in the mammalian lung is stabilized by pulmonary surfactant, a membrane-based system composed of multiple lipids and specific proteins, the primary function of which is to minimize the surface tension at the alveolar air-liquid interface, optimizing the mechanics of breathing and avoiding alveolar collapse, especially at the end of expiration. The goal of the present review is to summarize current knowledge regarding the structure, lipid-protein interactions and mechanical features of surfactant membranes and films and how these properties correlate with surfactant biological function inside the lungs. Surfactant mechanical properties can be severely compromised by different agents, which lead to surfactant inhibition and ultimately contributes to the development of pulmonary disorders and pathologies in newborns, children and adults. A detailed comprehension of the unique mechanical and rheological properties of surfactant layers is crucial for the diagnostics and treatment of lung diseases, either by analyzing the contribution of surfactant impairment to the pathophysiology or by improving the formulations in surfactant replacement therapies. Finally, a short review is also included on the most relevant experimental techniques currently employed to evaluate lung surfactant mechanics, rheology, and inhibition and reactivation processes.

Adaptations to hibernation in lung surfactant composition of 13-lined ground squirrels influence surfactant lipid phase segregation properties

Pulmonary surfactant lines the entire alveolar surface, serving primarily to reduce the surface tension at the air-liquid interface. Surfactant films adsorb as a monolayer interspersed with multilayers with surfactant lipids segregating into different phases or domains. Temperature variation, which influences lipid physical properties, affects both the lipid phase segregation and the surface activity of surfactants. In hibernating animals, such as 13-lined ground squirrels, which vary their body temperature, surfactant must be functional over a wide range of temperatures. We hypothesised that surfactant from the 13-lined ground squirrel, Ictidomys tridecemlineatus, would undergo appropriate lipid structural re-arrangements at air-water interfaces to generate phase separation, sufficient to attain the low surface tensions required to remain stable at both low and high body temperatures. Here, we examined pressure-area isotherms at 10, 25 and 37°C and found that surfactant films from both hibernating and summer-active squirrels reached their highest surface pressure on the Wilhelmy-Langmuir balance at 10°C. Epifluorescence microscopy demonstrated that films of hibernating squirrel surfactant display different lipid micro-domain organisation characteristics than surfactant from summer-active squirrels. These differences were also reflected at the nanoscale as determined by atomic force microscopy. Such re-arrangement of lipid domains in the relatively more fluid surfactant films of hibernating squirrels may contribute to overcoming collapse pressures and support low surface tension during the normal breathing cycle at low body temperatures.

Role of lipid ordered/disordered phase coexistence in pulmonary surfactant function

The respiratory epithelium has evolved to produce a complicated network of extracellular membranes that are essential for breathing and, ultimately, survival. Surfactant membranes form a stable monolayer at the air-liquid interface with bilayer structures attached to it. By reducing the surface tension at the air-liquid interface, surfactant stabilizes the lung against collapse and facilitates inflation. The special composition of surfactant membranes results in the coexistence of two distinct micrometer-sized ordered/disordered phases maintained up to physiological temperatures. Phase coexistence might facilitate monolayer folding to form three-dimensional structures during exhalation and hence allow the film to attain minimal surface tension. These folded structures may act as a membrane reserve and attenuate the increase in membrane tension during inspiration. The present review summarizes what is known of ordered/disordered lipid phase coexistence in lung surfactant, paying attention to the possible role played by domain boundaries in the monolayer-to-multilayer transition, and the correlations of biophysical inactivation of pulmonary surfactant with alterations in phase coexistence.

Structural modelling and dynamics of proteins for insights into drug interactions

Proteins are the workhorses of biomolecules and their function is affected by their structure and their structural rearrangements during ligand entry, ligand binding and protein-protein interactions. Hence, the knowledge of protein structure and, importantly, the dynamic behaviour of the structure are critical for understanding how the protein performs its function. The predictions of the structure and the dynamic behaviour can be performed by combinations of structure modelling and molecular dynamics simulations. The simulations also need to be sensitive to the constraints of the environment in which the protein resides. Standard computational methods now exist in this field to support the experimental effort of solving protein structures. This review presents a comprehensive overview of the basis of the calculations and the well-established computational methods used to generate and understand protein structure and function and the study of their dynamic behaviour with the reference to lung-related targets.

KL₄ peptide induces reversible collapse structures on multiple length scales in model lung surfactant

We investigated the effects of KL₄, a 21-residue amphipathic peptide approximating the overall ratio of positively charged to hydrophobic amino acids in surfactant protein B (SP-B), on the structure and collapse of dipalmitoylphosphatidylcholine and palmitoyl-oleoyl-phosphatidylglycerol monolayers. As reported in prior work on model lung surfactant phospholipid films containing SP-B and SP-B peptides, our experiments show that KL₄ improves surfactant film reversibility during repetitive interfacial cycling in association with the formation of reversible collapse structures on multiple length scales. Emphasis is on exploring a general mechanistic connection between peptide-induced nano- and microscale reversible collapse structures (silos and folds).

Compatible solutes: ectoine and hydroxyectoine improve functional nanostructures in artificial lung surfactants

Ectoine and hydroxyectoine belong to the family of compatible solutes and are among the most abundant osmolytes in nature. These compatible solutes protect biomolecules from extreme conditions and maintain their native function. In the present study, we have investigated the effect of ectoine and hydroxyectoine on the domain structures of artificial lung surfactant films consisting of dipalmitoylphosphatidylcholine (DPPC), dipalmitoylphosphatidylglycerol (DPPG) and the lung surfactant specific surfactant protein C (SP-C) in a molar ratio of 80:20:0.4. The pressure-area isotherms are found to be almost unchanged by both compatible solutes. The topology of the fluid domains shown by scanning force microscopy, which is thought to be responsible for the biophysical behavior under compression, however, is modified giving rise to the assumption that ectoine and hydroxyectoine are favorable for a proper lung surfactant function. This is further evidenced by the analysis of the insertion kinetics of lipid vesicles into the lipid-peptide monolayer, which is clearly enhanced in the presence of both compatible solutes. Thus, we could show that ectoine and hydroxyectoine enhance the function of lung surfactant in a simple model system, which might provide an additional rationale to inhalative therapy.

Lung surfactant protein SP-B promotes formation of bilayer reservoirs from monolayer and lipid transfer between the interface and subphase

We investigated the possible role of SP-B proteins in the function of lung surfactant. To this end, lipid monolayers at the air/water interface, bilayers in water, and transformations between them in the presence of SP-B were simulated. The proteins attached bilayers to monolayers, providing close proximity of the reservoirs with the interface. In the attached aggregates, SP-B mediated establishment of the lipid-lined connection similar to the hemifusion stalk. Via this connection, a lipid flow was initiated between the monolayer at the interface and the bilayer in water in a surface-tension-dependent manner. On interface expansion, the flow of lipids to the monolayer restored the surface tension to the equilibrium spreading value. SP-B induced formation of bilayer folds from the monolayer at positive surface tensions below the equilibrium. In the absence of proteins, lipid monolayers were stable at these conditions. Fold nucleation was initiated by SP-B from the liquid-expanded monolayer phase by local bending, and the proteins lined the curved perimeter of the growing fold. No effect on the liquid-condensed phase was observed. Covalently linked dimers resulted in faster kinetics for monolayer folding. The simulation results are in line with existing hypotheses on SP-B activity in lung surfactant and explain its molecular mechanism.

On the low surface tension of lung surfactant

Natural lung surfactant contains less than 40% disaturated phospholipids, mainly dipalmitoylphosphatidylcholine (DPPC). The mechanism by which lung surfactant achieves very low near-zero surface tensions, well below its equilibrium value, is not fully understood. To date, the low surface tension of lung surfactant is usually explained by a squeeze-out model which predicts that upon film compression non-DPPC components are gradually excluded from the air-water interface into a surface-associated surfactant reservoir. However, detailed experimental evidence of the squeeze-out within the physiologically relevant high surface pressure range is still lacking. In the present work, we studied four animal-derived clinical surfactant preparations, including Survanta, Curosurf, Infasurf, and BLES. By comparing compression isotherms and lateral structures of these surfactant films obtained by atomic force microscopy within the physiologically relevant high surface pressure range, we have derived an updated squeeze-out model. Our model suggests that the squeeze-out originates from fluid phases of a phase-separated monolayer. The squeeze-out process follows a nucleation-growth model and only occurs within a narrow surface pressure range around the equilibrium spreading pressure of lung surfactant. After the squeeze-out, three-dimensional nuclei stop growing, thereby resulting in a DPPC-enriched interfacial monolayer to reduce the air-water surface tension to very low values.

Comparative study of clinical pulmonary surfactants using atomic force microscopy

Clinical pulmonary surfactant is routinely used to treat premature newborns with respiratory distress syndrome, and has shown great potential in alleviating a number of neonatal and adult respiratory diseases. Despite extensive study of chemical composition, surface activity, and clinical performance of various surfactant preparations, a direct comparison of surfactant films is still lacking. In this study, we use atomic force microscopy to characterize and compare four animal-derived clinical surfactants currently used throughout the world, i.e., Survanta, Curosurf, Infasurf and BLES. These modified-natural surfactants are further compared to dipalmitoyl phosphatidylcholine (DPPC), a synthetic model surfactant of DPPC:palmitoyl-oleoyl phosphatidylglycerol (POPG) (7:3), and endogenous bovine natural surfactant. Atomic force microscopy reveals significant differences in the lateral structure and molecular organization of these surfactant preparations. These differences are discussed in terms of DPPC and cholesterol contents. We conclude that all animal-derived clinical surfactants assume a similar structure of multilayers of fluid phospholipids closely attached to an interfacial monolayer enriched in DPPC, at physiologically relevant surface pressures. This study provides the first comprehensive survey of the lateral structure of clinical surfactants at various surface pressures. It may have clinical implications on future application and development of surfactant preparations.

Lipid polymorphism induced by surfactant peptide SP-B(1-25)

Pulmonary surfactant protein B (SP-B) is an essential protein for lowering surface tension in the alveoli. SP-B(1-25), a peptide comprised of the N-terminal 25 amino-acid residues of SP-B, is known to retain much of the biological activity of SP-B. Circular dichroism has shown that when SP-B(1-25) interacts with negatively charged lipid vesicles, it contains significant helical structure for the lipid compositions and peptide/lipid ratios studied here. The effect of SP-B(1-25) on lipid organization and polymorphisms was investigated via DSC, dynamic light scattering, transmission electron microscopy, and solid-state NMR spectroscopy. At 1-3 mol% peptide and physiologic temperature, SP-B(1-25) partitions at the interface of negatively charged PC/PG lipid bilayers. In lipid mixtures containing 1-5 mol% peptide, the structure of SP-B(1-25) remains constant, but (2)H and (31)P NMR spectra show the presence of an isotropic lipid phase in exchange with the lamellar phase below the T(m) of the lipids. This behavior is observed for both DPPC/POPG and POPC/POPG lipid mixtures as well as for both the PC and PG components of the mixtures. For 1-3 mol% SP-B(1-25), a return to a single lamellar phase above the lipid mixture T(m) is observed, but for 5 mol% SP-B(1-25) a significant isotropic component is observed at physiologic temperatures for DPPC and exchange broadening is observed in (2)H and (31)P NMR spectra of the other lipid components in the two mixtures. DLS and TEM rule out the formation of micellar structures and suggest that SP-B(1-25) promotes the formation of a fluid isotropic phase. The ability of SP-B(1-25) to fuse lipid lamellae via this mechanism, particularly those enriched in DPPC, suggests a specific role for the highly conserved N-terminus of SP-B in the packing of lipid lamellae into surfactant lamellar bodies or in stabilizing multilayer structures at the air-liquid interface. Importantly, this behavior has not been seen for the other SP-B fragments of SP-B(8-25) and SP-B(59-80), indicating a critical role for the proline rich first seven amino acids in this protein.

Fluorocarbon-hybrid pulmonary surfactants for replacement therapy--a Langmuir monolayer study

Effective additives to pulmonary surfactant (PS) preparations for therapy of respiratory distress syndrome (RDS) are being intensively sought. We report here the investigation of the effects of partially fluorinated amphiphiles (PFA) on the surface behavior of a model PS formulation. When small amounts of a partially fluorinated alcohol C(8)F(17)C(m)H(2m)OH (F8HmOH, m = 5 and 11) are added to the PS model preparation (a dipalmitoylphosphatidylcholine (DPPC)/Hel 13-5 peptide mixture) considered here, the effectiveness of the latter in in vitro pulmonary functions is enhanced. The mechanism for the improved efficacy depends on the hydrophobic chain length of the added PFA molecules. The shorter PFA, F8H5OH, when incorporated in the monolayer of the PS model preparation, promotes a disordered liquid-expanded (LE) phase upon lateral compression (fluidization). In contrast, the addition of the longer PFA, F8H11OH, reduces the disordered LE/ordered liquid-condensed (LC) phase transition pressure and promotes the growth of ordered domains (solidification). Furthermore, compression-expansion cycles suggest that F8H5OH, when incorporated in the PS model preparation, undergoes an irreversible elimination into the subphase, whereas F8H11OH enhances the squeeze-out phenomenon of the SP-B mimicking peptide, which is important in pulmonary functions and is related to the formation of a solid-like monolayer at the surface and of a surface reservoir just below the surface. F8H11OH particularly reinforces the effectiveness of DPPC in terms of minimum reachable surface tension, and of preservation of the integrated hysteresis area between compression and expansion isotherms, the two latter parameters being generally accepted indices for assessing PS efficacy. We suggest that PFA amphiphiles may be useful potential additives for synthetic PS preparations destined for treatment of RDS in premature infants and in adults.

A ToF-SIMS study of the lateral organization of lipids and proteins in pulmonary surfactant systems

Pulmonary surfactant is a complex lipid-protein mixture whose main function is to reduce the surface tension at the air-liquid interface of alveoli to minimize the work of breathing. The exact mechanism by which surfactant monolayers and multilayers are formed and how they lower surface tension to very low values during lateral compression remains uncertain. We used time-of-flight secondary ion mass spectrometry to study the lateral organization of lipids and peptide in surfactant preparations ranging in complexity. We show that we can successfully determine the location of phospholipids, cholesterol and a peptide in surfactant Langmuir-Blodgett films and we can determine the effect of cholesterol and peptide addition. A thorough understanding of the lateral organization of PS interfacial films will aid in our understanding of the role of each component as well as different lipid-lipid and lipid-protein interactions. This may further our understanding of pulmonary surfactant function.

Time resolved studies of interfacial reactions of ozone with pulmonary phospholipid surfactants using field induced droplet ionization mass spectrometry

Field induced droplet ionization mass spectrometry (FIDI-MS) comprises a soft ionization method to sample ions from the surface of microliter droplets. A pulsed electric field stretches neutral droplets until they develop dual Taylor cones, emitting streams of positively and negatively charged submicrometer droplets in opposite directions, with the desired polarity being directed into a mass spectrometer for analysis. This methodology is employed to study the heterogeneous ozonolysis of 1-palmitoyl-2-oleoyl-sn-phosphatidylglycerol (POPG) at the air-liquid interface in negative ion mode using FIDI mass spectrometry. Our results demonstrate unique characteristics of the heterogeneous reactions at the air-liquid interface. We observe the hydroxyhydroperoxide and the secondary ozonide as major products of POPG ozonolysis in the FIDI-MS spectra. These products are metastable and difficult to observe in the bulk phase, using standard electrospray ionization (ESI) for mass spectrometric analysis. We also present studies of the heterogeneous ozonolysis of a mixture of saturated and unsaturated phospholipids at the air-liquid interface. A mixture of the saturated phospholipid 1,2-dipalmitoyl-sn-phosphatidylglycerol (DPPG) and unsaturated POPG is investigated in negative ion mode using FIDI-MS while a mixture of 1,2-dipalmitoyl-sn-phosphatidylcholine (DPPC) and 1-stearoyl-2-oleoyl-sn-phosphatidylcholine (SOPC) surfactant is studied in positive ion mode. In both cases FIDI-MS shows the saturated and unsaturated pulmonary surfactants form a mixed interfacial layer. Only the unsaturated phospholipid reacts with ozone, forming products that are more hydrophilic than the saturated phospholipid. With extensive ozonolysis only the saturated phospholipid remains at the droplet surface. Combining these experimental observations with the results of computational analysis provides an improved understanding of the interfacial structure and chemistry of a surfactant layer system when subject to oxidative stress.

Pulmonary surfactant pathophysiology: current models and open questions

Pulmonary surfactant is an essential lipid-protein complex that stabilizes the respiratory units (alveoli) involved in gas exchange. Quantitative or qualitative derangements in surfactant are associated with severe respiratory pathologies. The integrated regulation of surfactant synthesis, secretion, and metabolism is critical for air breathing and, ultimately, survival. The goal of this review is to summarize our current understanding and highlight important knowledge gaps in surfactant homeostatic mechanisms.

Overcoming rapid inactivation of lung surfactant: analogies between competitive adsorption and colloid stability

Lung surfactant (LS) is a mixture of lipids and proteins that line the alveolar air-liquid interface, lowering the interfacial tension to levels that make breathing possible. In acute respiratory distress syndrome (ARDS), inactivation of LS is believed to play an important role in the development and severity of the disease. This review examines the competitive adsorption of LS and surface-active contaminants, such as serum proteins, present in the alveolar fluids of ARDS patients, and how this competitive adsorption can cause normal amounts of otherwise normal LS to be ineffective in lowering the interfacial tension. LS and serum proteins compete for the air-water interface when both are present in solution either in the alveolar fluids or in a Langmuir trough. Equilibrium favors LS as it has the lower equilibrium surface pressure, but the smaller proteins are kinetically favored over multi-micron LS bilayer aggregates by faster diffusion. If albumin reaches the interface, it creates an energy barrier to subsequent LS adsorption that slows or prevents the adsorption of the necessary amounts of LS required to lower surface tension. This process can be understood in terms of classic colloid stability theory in which an energy barrier to diffusion stabilizes colloidal suspensions against aggregation. This analogy provides qualitative and quantitative predictions regarding the origin of surfactant inactivation. An important corollary is that any additive that promotes colloid coagulation, such as increased electrolyte concentration, multivalent ions, hydrophilic non-adsorbing polymers such as PEG, dextran, etc. added to LS, or polyelectrolytes such as chitosan, also promotes LS adsorption in the presence of serum proteins and helps reverse surfactant inactivation. The theory provides quantitative tools to determine the optimal concentration of these additives and suggests that multiple additives may have a synergistic effect. A variety of physical and chemical techniques including isotherms, fluorescence microscopy, electron microscopy and X-ray diffraction show that LS adsorption is enhanced by this mechanism without substantially altering the structure or properties of the LS monolayer.

Functional importance of the NH2-terminal insertion sequence of lung surfactant protein B

Lung surfactant protein B (SP-B) is required for proper surface activity of pulmonary surfactant. In model lung surfactant lipid systems composed of saturated and unsaturated lipids, the unsaturated lipids are removed from the film at high compression. It is thought that SP-B helps anchor these lipids closely to the monolayer in three-dimensional cylindrical structures termed "nanosilos" seen by atomic force microscopy imaging of deposited monolayers at high surface pressures. Here we explore the role of the SP-B NH(2) terminus in the formation and stability of these cylindrical structures, specifically the distribution of lipid stack height, width, and density with four SP-B truncation peptides: SP-B 1-25, SP-B 9-25, SP-B 11-25, and SP-B 1-25Nflex (prolines 2 and 4 substituted with alanine). The first nine amino acids, termed the insertion sequence and the interface seeking tryptophan residue 9, are shown to stabilize the formation of nanosilos while an increase in the insertion sequence flexibility (SP-B 1-25Nflex) may improve peptide functionality. This provides a functional understanding of the insertion sequence beyond anchoring the protein to the two-dimensional membrane lining the lung, as it also stabilizes formation of nanosilos, creating reversible repositories for fluid lipids at high compression. In lavaged, surfactant-deficient rats, instillation of a mixture of SP-B 1-25 (as a monomer or dimer) and synthetic lung lavage lipids quickly improved oxygenation and dynamic compliance, whereas SP-B 11-25 surfactants showed oxygenation and dynamic compliance values similar to that of lipids alone, demonstrating a positive correlation between formation of stable, but reversible, nanosilos and in vivo efficacy.

Calcium ions as "miscibility switch": colocalization of surfactant protein B with anionic lipids under absolute calcium free conditions

One of the main determinants of lung surfactant function is the complex interplay between its protein and lipid components. The lipid specificity of surfactant protein B (SP-B), however, and the protein's ability to selectively squeeze out lipids, has remained contradictory. In this work we present, for the first time to our knowledge, by means of time-of-flight secondary ion mass spectrometry chemical imaging, a direct evidence for colocalization of SP-B as well as its model peptide KL(4) with negatively charged dipalmitoylphosphatidylglycerol under absolute calcium free conditions. Our results prove that protein/lipid localization depends on the miscibility of all surfactant components, which itself is influenced by subphase ionic conditions. In contrast to our earlier studies reporting SP-B/KL(4) colocalization with zwitterionic dipalmitoylphosphatidylcholine, in the presence of even the smallest traces of calcium, we finally evidence an apparent reversal of protein/lipid mixing behavior upon calcium removal with ethylene diamine tetraacetic acid. In addition, scanning force microscopy measurements reveal that by depleting the subphase from calcium ions the protrusion formation ability of SP-B or KL(4) is not hampered. However, in the case of KL(4), distinct differences in protrusion morphology and height are visible. Our results support the idea that calcium ions act as a "miscibility switch" in surfactant model systems and probably are one of the major factors steering lipid/protein mixing behavior as well as influencing the protein's protrusion formation ability.

Mixed DPPC/DPPG monolayers at very high film compression

A drop shape technique using a constrained sessile drop constellation (ADSA-CSD) has been introduced as a superior technique for studying spread films specially at high collapse pressures [Saad et al. Langmuir 2008, 24, 10843-10850]. It has been shown that ADSA-CSD has certain advantages including the need only for small quantities of liquid and insoluble surfactants, the ability to measure very low surface tension values, easier deposition procedure, and leak-proof design. Here, this technique was applied to investigate mixed DPPC/DPPG monolayers to characterize the role of such molecules in maintaining stable film properties and surface activity of lung surfactant preparations. Results of compression isotherms were obtained for different DPPC/DPPG mixture ratios: 90/10, 80/20, 70/30, 60/40, and 50/50 in addition to pure DPPC and pure DPPG at room temperature of 24 degrees C. The ultimate collapse pressure of DPPC/DPPG mixtures was found to be 70.5 mJ/m2 (similar to pure DPPC) for the cases of low DPPG content (up to 20%). Increasing the DPPG content in the mixture (up to 40%) caused a slight decrease in the ultimate collapse pressure. However, further increase of DPPG in the mixture (50% or more) caused a sharp decrease in the ultimate collapse pressure to a value of 59.9 mJ/m2 (similar to pure DPPG). The change in film elasticity was also tracked for the range of mixture ratios studied. The physical reasons for such changes and the interaction between DPPC and DPPG molecules are discussed. The results also show a change in the film hysteresis upon successive compression and expansion cycles for different mixture ratios.

The immediate-early oncoproteins Fra-1, c-Fos, and c-Jun have distinguishable surface behavior and interactions with phospholipids

This work explores the surface properties of the transcription factor Fra-1 and compares them with those of two other immediate early proteins, c-Fos and c-Jun, to establish generalities and differences in the surface behavior and interaction with phospholipids of this type of proteins. We present several experimental clues of the flexible nature of Fra-1, c-Fos, and c-Jun that support sequence-based predictions of their intrinsical disorder. The values of surface parameters for Fra-1 are similar in general to those of c-Fos and c-Jun. However, we find differences in the interactions of the three proteins with phospholipids. The closely related Fra-1 and c-Fos share affinity for anionic lipids but the former has more affinity for a condensed phase and senses a change in DPPC phase, while the latter has more affinity for an expanded phase. These features are in contrast with our previous finding that c-Jun is not selective for phospholipid polar head group or charge. We show here that at least some immediate early transcription factors can interact with membrane phospholipids in a distinguishable manner, and this shall provide a basis for their potential capacity to regulate membrane-mediated cellular processes.

Pulmonary surfactant model systems catch the specific interaction of an amphiphilic peptide with anionic phospholipid

Interfacial behavior was studied in pulmonary surfactant model systems containing an amphiphilic alpha-helical peptide (Hel 13-5), which consists of 13 hydrophobic and five hydrophilic amino acid residues. Fully saturated phospholipids of dipalmitoylphosphatidylcholine (DPPC) and dipalmitoylphosphatidylglycerol (DPPG) were utilized to understand specific interactions between anionic DPPG and cationic Hel 13-5 for pulmonary functions. Surface pressure (pi)-molecular area (A) and surface potential (DeltaV)-A isotherms of DPPG/Hel 13-5 and DPPC/DPPG (4:1, mol/mol)/Hel 13-5 preparations were measured to obtain basic information on the phase behavior under compression and expansion processes. The interaction leads to a variation in squeeze-out surface pressures against a mole fraction of Hel 13-5, where Hel 13-5 is eliminated from the surface on compression. The phase behavior was visualized by means of Brewster angle microscopy, fluorescence microscopy, and atomic force microscopy. At low surface pressures, the formation of differently ordered domains in size and shape is induced by electrostatic interactions. The domains independently grow upon compression to high surface pressures, especially in the DPPG/Hel 13-5 system. Under the further compression process, protrusion masses are formed in AFM images in the vicinity of squeeze-out pressures. The protrusion masses, which are attributed to the squeezed-out Hel 13-5, grow larger in lateral size with increasing DPPG content in phospholipid compositions. During subsequent expansion up to 35 mN m(-1), the protrusions retain their height and lateral diameter for the DPPG/Hel 13-5 system, whereas the protrusions become smaller for the DPPC/Hel 13-5 and DPPC/DPPG/Hel 13-5 systems due to a reentrance of the ejected Hel 13-5 into the surface. In this work we detected for the first time, to our knowledge, a remarkably large hysteresis loop for cyclic DeltaV-A isotherms of the binary DPPG/Hel 13-5 preparation. This exciting phenomenon suggests that the specific interaction triggers two completely independent processes for Hel 13-5 during repeated compression and expansion: 1), squeezing-out into the subsolution; and 2), and close packing as a monolayer with DPPG at the interface. These characteristic processes are also strongly supported by atomic force microscopy observations. The data presented here provide complementary information on the mechanism and importance of the specific interaction between the phosphatidylglycerol headgroup and the polarized moiety of native surfactant protein B for biophysical functions of pulmonary surfactants.

Structure of SP-B/DPPC mixed films studied by neutron reflectometry

The structures of films of pulmonary surfactant protein B (SP-B) and mixtures of SP-B and dipalmitoylphosphatidylcholine (DPPC) at the air/water interface have been studied by neutron reflectometry and Langmuir film balance methods. From the film balance studies, we observe that the isotherms of pure DPPC and SP-B/DPPC mixtures very nearly overlay one another at very high pressures, suggesting that the SP-B is being excluded from the film. The use of multiple contrasts with neutron reflectometry at a range of surface pressures has enabled the mixing and squeeze out of the DPPC and SP-B mixtures to be studied. We can identify the SP-B component of the interfacial structure and its position as a function of surface pressure. The mixtures are initially a homogeneous layer at low surface pressures. At higher surface pressures, the SP-B is squeezed out of the lipid layer into the subphase, with the first signs detected at 30 mN m(-1). At 50 mN m(-1), the subphase is almost completely excluded from the DPPC layer, with the SP-B content significantly reduced. Only a small amount of DPPC appears to be associated with the squeezed out SP-B.

Current perspectives in pulmonary surfactant--inhibition, enhancement and evaluation

Pulmonary surfactant (PS) is a complicated mixture of approximately 90% lipids and 10% proteins. It plays an important role in maintaining normal respiratory mechanics by reducing alveolar surface tension to near-zero values. Supplementing exogenous surfactant to newborns suffering from respiratory distress syndrome (RDS), a leading cause of perinatal mortality, has completely altered neonatal care in industrialized countries. Surfactant therapy has also been applied to the acute respiratory distress syndrome (ARDS) but with only limited success. Biophysical studies suggest that surfactant inhibition is partially responsible for this unsatisfactory performance. This paper reviews the biophysical properties of functional and dysfunctional PS. The biophysical properties of PS are further limited to surface activity, i.e., properties related to highly dynamic and very low surface tensions. Three main perspectives are reviewed. (1) How does PS permit both rapid adsorption and the ability to reach very low surface tensions? (2) How is PS inactivated by different inhibitory substances and how can this inhibition be counteracted? A recent research focus of using water-soluble polymers as additives to enhance the surface activity of clinical PS and to overcome inhibition is extensively discussed. (3) Which in vivo, in situ, and in vitro methods are available for evaluating the surface activity of PS and what are their relative merits? A better understanding of the biophysical properties of functional and dysfunctional PS is important for the further development of surfactant therapy, especially for its potential application in ARDS.

Langmuir monolayer of artificial pulmonary surfactant mixtures with an amphiphilic peptide at the air/water interface: comparison of new preparations with surfacten (Surfactant TA)

Interfacial behavior was studied on the pulmonary lipid mixture containing a newly designed amphiphilic alpha-helical peptide (Hel 13-5) that consists of 13 hydrophobic and 5 hydrophilic amino acid residues. Moreover, the data obtained were compared with those of commercially available Surfacten (Surfactant TA) which has been clinically used for neonatal respiratory distress syndrome (NRDS) in Japan. Surface pressure (pi)-A and surface potential (DeltaV)-area (A) isotherms were measured for our synthetic preparations and Surfacten. Herein, a mixture of dipalmitoylphosphatidylcholine (DPPC)/egg-phosphatidylglycerol (PG)/palmitic acid (PA) (68:22:9 by weight) was used as the constituent of basic preparations. Monolayers were spread on 0.02 M Tris buffer (pH 7.4) with 0.13 M NaCl at the air/liquid interface, and the surface behavior was investigated by employing the Wilhelmy method, an ionizing electrode method, and fluorescence microscopy (FM). Cyclic compression and expansion isotherms of the prepared materials (or products) (DPPC/PG/PA/Hel 13-5) were examined to confirm the spreading and respreading ability. For the prepared products, a plateau region exists on pi-A and DeltaV-A isotherms at approximately 42 mN m(-1), indicating that Hel 13-5 is squeezed out of surface monolayers together with fluid components (PG) upon lateral compression. That is, the squeeze-out phenomenon induces a 2D-3D phase transformation. In particular, the inclination of the pi-A isotherms at X(Hel 13-5) = 0.1 in the plateau region was almost zero irrespective of the molecular area. As proposed in the earlier report (Nakahara, H.; Lee, S.; Sugihara, G.; Shibata, O. Langmuir 2006, 22, 5792-5803), an observed refluorescence phenomenon was discussed for FM measurements. This phenomenon provides evidence of the squeeze-out motion with fluid molecules. Furthermore, the cyclic pi-A and DeltaV-A isotherms show larger hysteresis areas and better respreading abilities in comparison with the previous ternary systems (DPPC/PG/Hel 13-5 and DPPC/PA/Hel 13-5) that are very important properties in pulmonary functions. FM photographs and the temperature dependence of pi-A and DeltaV-A isotherms suggest that the phase behavior of the present preparation product is very similar to that of Surfacten in terms of the domain size and in parameters such as collapse pressures, maximum DeltaV values, and so on. These results demonstrate that PG and PA even in the present preparations work well for compression-expansion cycling as is the case in the previous ternary systems, and the present preparations show comparable properties to Surfacten in vitro.

Structural characterization of the monolayer-multilayer transition in a pulmonary surfactant model: IR studies of films transferred at continuously varying surface pressures

The four-component system acyl chain perdeuterated 1,2-dipalmitoylphosphatidylcholine (DPPC)/1,2-dipalmitoylphosphatidylglycerol/ (DPPG)/pulmonary surfactant protein SP-C/cholesterol provides a useful model for in vitro biophysical studies of the reversible monolayer to multilayer transition that occurs during compression <--> expansion cycles in the lung. Monolayer films of this mixture (with chain perdeuterated DPPC-d62) at the air/water interface have been transferred to solid substrates under conditions of continuously varying surface pressure, an approach termed COVASP (continuously varying surface pressures) (Langmuir 2007, 23, 4958). The thermodynamic properties of the Langmuir films have been examined with pressure-area isotherms, while the molecular properties of the film constituents in the transferred films in the monolayer and multilayer phases have been examined with IR spectroscopy. Quantitative intensity measurements of the DPPC-d62, DPPG, and SP-C components in each phase reveal that the DPPG and SP-C constituents are relatively enriched in the multilayer compared with the DPPC-d62, although all three species are present in both phases. Some molecular structure information is available from the surface-pressure-induced variation in IR parameters. The DPPC-d62 exhibits slightly increased conformational order in the multilayer phase as detected from decreases in the CD2 stretching frequencies upon compression, while the lipid phosphate residues become dehydrated, as deduced from increases in the 1245 cm-1 symmetric PO2- stretching frequency. A small increase is observed in the protein amide I frequency; possible interpretations of these changes are presented. The current observations are compared with ideas contained in the "squeeze-out hypothesis" (Handbook of Physiology, The Respiratory System; American Physiological Society Press: Bethesda, MD, 1986; Vol. III, p 247) and in the "liquid crystalline collapse" model (Biophys. J. 2003, 84, 3792). Within the limitation of the current procedures, the data contain elements from both these descriptions of the monolayer transformation. Extensions and possible limitations of the COVASP-IR method are discussed.

Atomic force microscopy studies of functional and dysfunctional pulmonary surfactant films. I. Micro- and nanostructures of functional pulmonary surfactant films and the effect of SP-A

Monolayers of a functional pulmonary surfactant (PS) can reach very low surface tensions well below their equilibrium value. The mechanism by which PS monolayers reach such low surface tensions and maintain film stability remains unknown. As shown previously by fluorescence microscopy, phospholipid phase transition and separation seem to be important for the normal biophysical properties of PS. This work studied phospholipid phase transitions and separations in monolayers of bovine lipid extract surfactant using atomic force microscopy. Atomic force microscopy showed phospholipid phase separation on film compression and a monolayer-to-multilayer transition at surface pressure 40-50 mN/m. The tilted-condensed phase consisted of domains not only on the micrometer scale, as detected previously by fluorescence microscopy, but also on the nanometer scale, which is below the resolution limits of conventional optical methods. The nanodomains were embedded uniformly within the liquid-expanded phase. On compression, the microdomains broke up into nanodomains, thereby appearing to contribute to tilted-condensed and liquid-expanded phase remixing. Addition of surfactant protein A altered primarily the nanodomains and promoted the formation of multilayers. We conclude that the nanodomains play a predominant role in affecting the biophysical properties of PS monolayers and the monolayer-to-multilayer transition.

Langmuir-Blodgett films formed by continuously varying surface pressure. Characterization by IR spectroscopy and epifluorescence microscopy

Monolayer films of phospholipids at the air-water interface have been transferred to solid substrates under conditions of continuously varying surface pressure, an approach termed COVASP. The molecular and supramolecular properties of the film constituents have been characterized with two complementary techniques. IR spectroscopy was used to monitor chain conformation as a function of transfer surface pressure. Results were compared to those from Langmuir films determined directly at the A/W interface by IR reflection-absorption spectroscopy (IRRAS). The methylene stretching frequencies for both proteated and acyl chain perdeuterated 1,2-dipalmitoylphosphatidylcholine (DPPC and DPPC-d62) in the transferred molecules indicate that the phospholipids retain at least, in part, their surface pressure-dependent chain-conformational order characteristics. The line widths of these modes are somewhat reduced, suggestive of slower rates of reorientational motion in the Langmuir-Blodgett (LB) films. Epifluorescence microscopy reveals a progressive condensation gradient, including nucleation and growth of probe-excluding condensed domains along the transfer line. DPPC condensation, observed along a single LB film, was qualitatively comparable to compression-driven condensation as observed in situ or in conventional LB films transferred at constant pressures. However, condensation along the compression isotherm in COVASP-LB films was reduced by 15-20% as compared to films equilibrated at different constant pressures, probably the result of kinetic differences in equilibration processes. As a preliminary demonstration of the utility of this new approach, the monolayer --> multilayer transition known to occur (Eur. Biophys. J. 2005, 34, 243) in a four-component model for pulmonary surfactant has been examined. IR parameters from both the lipid and the protein constituents of the film all indicate that the transition persists during the transfer process. This new approach for the study of transferred films will permit the efficient characterization of lipid-protein interactions and structural transitions occurring in pulmonary surfactant films subjected to dynamic compression.

Hydrophobic surfactant proteins and their analogues

Lung surfactant is a complex mixture of phospholipids and four surfactant-associated proteins (SP-A, SP-B, SP-C and SP-D). Its major function in the lung alveolus is to reduce surface tension at the air-water interface in the terminal airways by the formation of a surface-active film enriched in surfactant lipids, hence preventing cellular collapse during respiration. Surfactant therapy using bovine or porcine lung surfactant extracts, which contain only polar lipids and native SP-B and SP-C, has dramatically improved the therapeutic outcomes of preterm infants with respiratory distress syndrome (RDS). One important goal of surfactant researchers is to replace animal-derived therapies with fully synthetic preparations based on SP-B and SP-C, produced by recombinant technology or peptide synthesis, and reconstituted with selected synthetic lipids. Here, we review recent research developments with peptide analogues of SP-B and SP-C, designed using either the known primary sequence and three-dimensional (3D) structure of the native proteins or, alternatively, the known 3D structures of closely homologous proteins. Such SP-B and SP-C mimics offer the possibility of studying the mechanisms of action of the respective native proteins, and may allow the design of optimized surfactant formulations for specific pulmonary diseases (e.g., acute lung injury (ALI) or acute respiratory distress syndrome (ARDS)). These synthetic surfactant preparations may also be a cost-saving therapeutic approach, with better quality control than may be obtained with animal-based treatments.

Surfactant protein C and lung function: new insights into the role of α-helical length and palmitoylation

Surfactant protein C (SP-C) is known to be essential for lung function and the formation of a surface confined reservoir at the alveolar interface. The structural features relevant for the peptide's extraordinary ability to form extended three-dimensional structures were systematically investigated and are summarized in the present paper. The influence of palmitoylation was studied for full length SP-Cs as well as truncated variants with the N-terminal residues 1-17 and 1-13, respectively. The combined results from film balance measurements, fluorescence microscopy (FLM) and scanning force microscopy (SFM) reveal a fine-tuned balance between the influence of the palmitoyl chains and alpha-helical length. Native SP-C added to DPPC/DPPG monolayers (molar ratio 80:20) induced the formation of the surface confined reservoir independent of its palmitoylation degree. However, topographic images revealed that only bilayers and not multilayers where formed when the acyl chains were missing. The influence of palmitoylation increased when alpha-helical length was considerably reduced to 17 or even 13 amino acid residues. In these strongly truncated SP-C peptides palmitoyl chains increased monolayer stability and anchored the peptides in the lipid film. However, no multilayer formation was observed at all for all shortened peptides. The alpha-helix of SP-C seems to be a prerequisite for the formation of extended three-dimensional structures and obviously has to be able to span a lipid bilayer. Palmitoylation obviously mediates interactions between lipids and/or peptides not only within a protein/lipid film but also between neighbouring layers and induces a stacking of bilayers.

Lipid specificity of surfactant protein B studied by time-of-flight secondary ion mass spectrometry

One of the key functions of mammalian pulmonary surfactant is the reduction of surface tension to minimal values. To fulfill this function it is expected to become enriched in dipalmitoylphosphatidylcholine either on its way from the alveolar type II pneumocytes to the air/water interface of the lung or within the surface film during compression and expansion of the alveoli during the breathing cycle. One protein that may play a major role in this enrichment process is the surfactant protein B. The aim of this study was to identify the lipidic interaction partner of this protein. Time-of-flight secondary ion mass spectrometry was used to analyze the lateral distribution of the components in two SP-B-containing model systems. Either native or partly isotopically labeled lipids were analyzed. The results of both setups give strong indications that, at least under the specific conditions of the chosen model systems (e.g., concerning pH and lipid composition), the lipid interacting with surfactant protein B is not phosphatidylglycerol as generally accepted, but dipalmitoylphosphatidylcholine instead.

Lung-surfactant-meconium interaction: in vitro study in bulk and at the air-solution interface

Lung surfactants (LSs) form a monolayer at the lung's alveoli air-solution interface and play a crucial role in making normal breathing possible by reducing the surface tension. LS are affected by various agents that hamper their normal functioning. Tobacco smoke [Bringezu, F.; Pinkerton, K. E.; Zasadzinski, J. A. Langmuir 2003, 19, 2900-2907] and meconium, the first excrement of the newborn, are examples for such LS poison. In neonates, intrauterine aspiration of meconium is a known cause for morbidity and mortality. We studied in vitro the interactions between modified porcine LSs (Curosurf), used as LS replacement, and meconium, as well as between their artificial analogues, phospholipids mixture, and taurocholic acid (TA), respectively. The interactions were examined both in the bulk solution and at the air-water interface, representing the pre- and postnatal situations. It was found that the artificial analogues represent the natural system reliably and exhibit similar effects. TA, a principle component of bile, is an amphiphilic sterol compound in which the hydrophilic and hydrophobic moieties are presented at different faces of the sterol plane. Here we found that TA affects the structure of both monolayers at the interface and surfactant aggregates in solution. A likely poisoning mechanism is by stereoselective penetration of TA into the lamellar or monolayer structures, thus disrupting the contiguous structure of the intact monolayer or the bilayer vesicle structure.

Protein-lipid interactions and surface activity in the pulmonary surfactant system

Pulmonary surfactant is a lipid-protein complex, synthesized and secreted by the respiratory epithelium of lungs to the alveolar spaces, whose main function is to reduce the surface tension at the air-liquid interface to minimize the work of breathing. The activity of surfactant at the alveoli involves three main processes: (i) transfer of surface active molecules from the aqueous hypophase into the interface, (ii) surface tension reduction to values close to 0 mN/m during compression at expiration and (iii) re-extension of the surface active film upon expansion at inspiration. Phospholipids are the main surface active components of pulmonary surfactant, but the dynamic behaviour of phospholipids along the breathing cycle requires the necessary participation of some specific surfactant associated proteins. The present review summarizes the current knowledge on the structure, disposition and lipid-protein interactions of the hydrophobic surfactant proteins SP-B and SP-C, the two main actors participating in the surface properties of pulmonary surfactant. Some of the methodologies currently used to evaluate the surface activity of the proteins in lipid-protein surfactant preparations are also revised. Working models for the potential molecular mechanism of SP-B and SP-C are finally discussed. SP-B might act in surfactant as a sort of amphipathic tag, directing the lipid-protein complexes to insert and re-insert very efficiently into the air-liquid interface along successive breathing cycles. SP-C could be essential to maintain association of lipid-protein complexes with the interface at the highest compressed states, at the end of exhalation. The understanding of the mechanisms of action of these proteins is critical to approach the design and development of new clinical surfactant preparations for therapeutical applications.