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Saibro-Girardi C, Scheibel IM, Santos L, Bittencourt RR, Fröhlich NT, Dos Reis Possa L, Moreira JCF, Gelain DP. Bexarotene drives the self-renewing proliferation of adult neural stem cells, promotes neuron-glial fate shift, and regulates late neuronal differentiation. J Neurochem 2024; 168:1527-1545. [PMID: 37984072 DOI: 10.1111/jnc.15998] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 03/24/2023] [Revised: 10/05/2023] [Accepted: 10/10/2023] [Indexed: 11/22/2023]
Abstract
Treatment with bexarotene, a selective retinoid X receptor (RXR) agonist, significantly improves behavioral dysfunctions in various neurodegenerative animal models. Additionally, it activates neurodevelopmental and plasticity pathways in the brains of adult mice. Our objective was to investigate the impact of RXR activation by bexarotene on adult neural stem cells (aNSC) and their cell lineages. To achieve this, we treated NSCs isolated from the subventricular zone (SVZ) of adult rat brains from the proliferative stage to the differentiated status. The results showed that bexarotene-treated aNSC exhibited increased BrdU incorporation, SOX2+ dividing cell pairs, and cell migration from neurospheres, revealing that the treatment promotes self-renewing proliferation and cell motility in SVZ-aNCS. Furthermore, bexarotene induced a cell fate shift characterized by a significant increase in GFAP+/S100B+ differentiated astrocytes, which uncovers the participation of activated-RXR in astrogenesis. In the neuronal lineage, the fate shift was counteracted by bexarotene-induced enhancement of NeuN+ nuclei together with neurite network outgrowth, indicating that the RXR agonist stimulates SVZ-aNCS neuronal differentiation at later stages. These findings establish new connections between RXR activation, astro- and neurogenesis in the adult brain, and contribute to the development of therapeutic strategies targeting nuclear receptors for neural repair.
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Affiliation(s)
- Carolina Saibro-Girardi
- Centro de Estudos em Estresse Oxidativo, Departamento de Bioquímica, Instituto de Ciências Básicas da Saúde-Universidade Federal do Rio Grande do Sul (ICBS-UFRGS), Porto Alegre, RS, Brazil
- Programa de Pós-graduação em Biologia Celular e Molecular, Centro de Biotecnologia-Universidade Federal do Rio Grande do Sul, Porto Alegre, RS, Brazil
| | - Ingrid Matsubara Scheibel
- Centro de Estudos em Estresse Oxidativo, Departamento de Bioquímica, Instituto de Ciências Básicas da Saúde-Universidade Federal do Rio Grande do Sul (ICBS-UFRGS), Porto Alegre, RS, Brazil
| | - Lucas Santos
- Centro de Estudos em Estresse Oxidativo, Departamento de Bioquímica, Instituto de Ciências Básicas da Saúde-Universidade Federal do Rio Grande do Sul (ICBS-UFRGS), Porto Alegre, RS, Brazil
- Programa de Pós-graduação em Biologia Celular e Molecular, Centro de Biotecnologia-Universidade Federal do Rio Grande do Sul, Porto Alegre, RS, Brazil
| | - Reykla Ramon Bittencourt
- Centro de Estudos em Estresse Oxidativo, Departamento de Bioquímica, Instituto de Ciências Básicas da Saúde-Universidade Federal do Rio Grande do Sul (ICBS-UFRGS), Porto Alegre, RS, Brazil
| | - Nicole Taís Fröhlich
- Centro de Estudos em Estresse Oxidativo, Departamento de Bioquímica, Instituto de Ciências Básicas da Saúde-Universidade Federal do Rio Grande do Sul (ICBS-UFRGS), Porto Alegre, RS, Brazil
| | - Luana Dos Reis Possa
- Centro de Estudos em Estresse Oxidativo, Departamento de Bioquímica, Instituto de Ciências Básicas da Saúde-Universidade Federal do Rio Grande do Sul (ICBS-UFRGS), Porto Alegre, RS, Brazil
| | - José Claudio Fonseca Moreira
- Centro de Estudos em Estresse Oxidativo, Departamento de Bioquímica, Instituto de Ciências Básicas da Saúde-Universidade Federal do Rio Grande do Sul (ICBS-UFRGS), Porto Alegre, RS, Brazil
- Programa de Pós-graduação em Biologia Celular e Molecular, Centro de Biotecnologia-Universidade Federal do Rio Grande do Sul, Porto Alegre, RS, Brazil
| | - Daniel Pens Gelain
- Centro de Estudos em Estresse Oxidativo, Departamento de Bioquímica, Instituto de Ciências Básicas da Saúde-Universidade Federal do Rio Grande do Sul (ICBS-UFRGS), Porto Alegre, RS, Brazil
- Programa de Pós-graduação em Biologia Celular e Molecular, Centro de Biotecnologia-Universidade Federal do Rio Grande do Sul, Porto Alegre, RS, Brazil
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Valencia-Olvera AC, Balu D, Bellur S, McNally T, Saleh Y, Pham D, Ghura S, York J, Johansson JO, LaDu MJ, Tai L. A novel apoE-mimetic increases brain apoE levels, reduces Aβ pathology and improves memory when treated before onset of pathology in male mice that express APOE3. Alzheimers Res Ther 2023; 15:216. [PMID: 38102668 PMCID: PMC10722727 DOI: 10.1186/s13195-023-01353-z] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 09/15/2023] [Accepted: 11/15/2023] [Indexed: 12/17/2023]
Abstract
BACKGROUND Alzheimer's disease (AD) is characterized by cognitive dysfunction and amyloid plaques composed of the amyloid-beta peptide (Aβ). APOE is the greatest genetic risk for AD with APOE4 increasing risk up to ~ 15-fold compared to APOE3. Evidence suggests that levels and lipidation of the apoE protein could regulate AD progression. In glia, apoE is lipidated via cholesterol efflux from intracellular pools, primarily by the ATP-binding cassette transporter A1 (ABCA1). Therefore, increasing ABCA1 activity is suggested to be a therapeutic approach for AD. CS-6253 (CS) is a novel apoE mimetic peptide that was developed to bind and stabilize ABCA1 and maintain its localization into the plasma membrane therefore promoting cholesterol efflux. The goal of this study was to determine whether CS could modulate apoE levels and lipidation, Aβ pathology, and behavior in a model that expresses human APOE and overproduce Aβ. METHODS In vitro, APOE3-glia or APOE4-glia were treated with CS. In vivo, male and female, E3FAD (5xFAD+/-/APOE3+/+) and E4FAD (5xFAD+/-/APOE4+/+) mice were treated with CS via intraperitoneal injection at early (from 4 to 8 months of age) and late ages (from 8 to 10 months of age). ApoE levels, ABCA1 levels and, apoE lipidation were measured by western blot and ELISA. Aβ and amyloid levels were assessed by histochemistry and ELISA. Learning and memory were tested by Morris Water Maze and synaptic proteins were measured by Western blot. RESULTS CS treatment increased apoE levels and cholesterol efflux in primary glial cultures. In young male E3FAD mice, CS treatment increased soluble apoE and lipid-associated apoE, reduced soluble oAβ and insoluble Aβ levels as well as Aβ and amyloid deposition, and improved memory and synaptic protein levels. CS treatment did not induce any therapeutic benefits in young female E3FAD and E4FAD mice or in any groups when treatment was started at later ages. CONCLUSIONS CS treatment reduced Aβ pathology and improved memory only in young male E3FAD, the cohort with the least AD pathology. Therefore, the degree of Aβ pathology or Aβ overproduction may impact the ability of targeting ABCA1 to be an effective AD therapeutic. This suggests that ABCA1-stabilizing treatment by CS-6253 works best in conditions of modest Aβ levels.
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Affiliation(s)
- Ana C Valencia-Olvera
- Department of Anatomy and Cell Biology, University of Illinois at Chicago, Chicago, IL, USA
| | - Deebika Balu
- Department of Anatomy and Cell Biology, University of Illinois at Chicago, Chicago, IL, USA
| | - Shreya Bellur
- Department of Anatomy and Cell Biology, University of Illinois at Chicago, Chicago, IL, USA
| | - Thomas McNally
- Department of Surgery, University of Washington, Seattle, WA, USA
| | - Yaseen Saleh
- University of Miami/Jackson Healthcare System, Miami, FL, USA
| | - Don Pham
- Department of Dentistry, University of Illinois at Chicago, Chicago, IL, USA
| | - Shivesh Ghura
- Department of Pharmacology, University of Pennsylvania, Philadelphia, PA, USA
| | - Jason York
- Department of Anatomy and Cell Biology, University of Illinois at Chicago, Chicago, IL, USA
| | | | - Mary Jo LaDu
- Department of Anatomy and Cell Biology, University of Illinois at Chicago, Chicago, IL, USA
| | - Leon Tai
- Department of Anatomy and Cell Biology, University of Illinois at Chicago, Chicago, IL, USA.
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Liu Y, Wang P, Jin G, Shi P, Zhao Y, Guo J, Yin Y, Shao Q, Li P, Yang P. The novel function of bexarotene for neurological diseases. Ageing Res Rev 2023; 90:102021. [PMID: 37495118 DOI: 10.1016/j.arr.2023.102021] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 05/28/2023] [Revised: 07/13/2023] [Accepted: 07/20/2023] [Indexed: 07/28/2023]
Abstract
Bexarotene, a retinoid X receptor (RXR) agonist, is approved by FDA to treat cutaneous T-cell lymphoma. However, it has also demonstrated promising therapeutic potential for neurological diseases such as stroke, traumatic brain injury, Parkinson's disease, and particularly Alzheimer's disease(AD). In AD, bexarotene inhibits the production and aggregation of amyloid β (Aβ), activates Liver X Receptor/RXR heterodimers to increase lipidated apolipoprotein E to remove Aβ, mitigates the negative impact of Aβ, regulates neuroinflammation, and ultimately improves cognitive function. For other neurological diseases, its mechanisms of action include inhibiting inflammatory responses, up-regulating microglial phagocytosis, and reducing misfolded protein aggregation, all of which aid in alleviating neurological damage. Here, we briefly discuss the characteristics, applications, and adverse effects of bexarotene, summarize its pharmacological mechanisms and therapeutic results in various neurological diseases, and elaborate on the problems encountered in preclinical research, with the aim of providing help for the further application of bexarotene in central nervous system diseases.
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Affiliation(s)
- Yangtao Liu
- College of Pharamacy, Xinxiang Medical University, Xinxiang, China; Xinxiang Key Laboratory of Vascular Remodeling Intervention and Molecular Targeted Therapy Drug Development, Henan International Joint Laboratory of Cardiovascular Remodeling and Drug Intervention, Xinxiang, China; College of Third Clinical, Xinxiang Medical University, Xinxiang, China
| | - Pengwei Wang
- Department of Pharmacy, The First Affiliated Hospital of Xinxiang Medical University, Xinxiang Medical University, Weihui, China
| | - Guofang Jin
- College of Pharamacy, Xinxiang Medical University, Xinxiang, China; Xinxiang Key Laboratory of Vascular Remodeling Intervention and Molecular Targeted Therapy Drug Development, Henan International Joint Laboratory of Cardiovascular Remodeling and Drug Intervention, Xinxiang, China
| | - Peijie Shi
- College of Pharamacy, Xinxiang Medical University, Xinxiang, China; Xinxiang Key Laboratory of Vascular Remodeling Intervention and Molecular Targeted Therapy Drug Development, Henan International Joint Laboratory of Cardiovascular Remodeling and Drug Intervention, Xinxiang, China; Xinxiang First People's Hospital, The Affiliated People's Hospital of Xinxiang Medical University, Xinxiang, China
| | - Yonghui Zhao
- Xinxiang First People's Hospital, The Affiliated People's Hospital of Xinxiang Medical University, Xinxiang, China
| | - Jiayi Guo
- College of Pharamacy, Xinxiang Medical University, Xinxiang, China; Xinxiang Key Laboratory of Vascular Remodeling Intervention and Molecular Targeted Therapy Drug Development, Henan International Joint Laboratory of Cardiovascular Remodeling and Drug Intervention, Xinxiang, China
| | - Yaling Yin
- School of Basic Medical Sciences, Department of Physiology and Pathophysiology, Sino-UK Joint Laboratory of Brain Function and Injury and Department of Physiology and Neurobiology, Xinxiang Medical University, Xinxiang, China
| | - Qianhang Shao
- Department of Pharmacy, People's Hospital of Peking University, Beijing, China.
| | - Peng Li
- College of Pharamacy, Xinxiang Medical University, Xinxiang, China; Xinxiang Key Laboratory of Vascular Remodeling Intervention and Molecular Targeted Therapy Drug Development, Henan International Joint Laboratory of Cardiovascular Remodeling and Drug Intervention, Xinxiang, China.
| | - Pengfei Yang
- College of Pharamacy, Xinxiang Medical University, Xinxiang, China; Xinxiang Key Laboratory of Vascular Remodeling Intervention and Molecular Targeted Therapy Drug Development, Henan International Joint Laboratory of Cardiovascular Remodeling and Drug Intervention, Xinxiang, China.
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Valencia-Olvera AC, Balu D, Faulk N, Amiridis A, Wang Y, Pham C, Avila-Munoz E, York JM, Thatcher GRJ, LaDu MJ. Inhibition of ACAT as a Therapeutic Target for Alzheimer's Disease Is Independent of ApoE4 Lipidation. Neurotherapeutics 2023; 20:1120-1137. [PMID: 37157042 PMCID: PMC10457278 DOI: 10.1007/s13311-023-01375-3] [Citation(s) in RCA: 6] [Impact Index Per Article: 6.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Accepted: 03/20/2023] [Indexed: 05/10/2023] Open
Abstract
APOE4, encoding apolipoprotein E4 (apoE4), is the greatest genetic risk factor for Alzheimer's disease (AD), compared to the common APOE3. While the mechanism(s) underlying APOE4-induced AD risk remains unclear, increasing the lipidation of apoE4 is an important therapeutic target as apoE4-lipoproteins are poorly lipidated compared to apoE3-lipoproteins. ACAT (acyl-CoA: cholesterol-acyltransferase) catalyzes the formation of intracellular cholesteryl-ester droplets, reducing the intracellular free cholesterol (FC) pool. Thus, inhibiting ACAT increases the FC pool and facilitates lipid secretion to extracellular apoE-containing lipoproteins. Previous studies using commercial ACAT inhibitors, including avasimibe (AVAS), as well as ACAT-knock out (KO) mice, exhibit reduced AD-like pathology and amyloid precursor protein (APP) processing in familial AD (FAD)-transgenic (Tg) mice. However, the effects of AVAS with human apoE4 remain unknown. In vitro, AVAS induced apoE efflux at concentrations of AVAS measured in the brains of treated mice. AVAS treatment of male E4FAD-Tg mice (5xFAD+/-APOE4+/+) at 6-8 months had no effect on plasma cholesterol levels or distribution, the original mechanism for AVAS treatment of CVD. In the CNS, AVAS reduced intracellular lipid droplets, indirectly demonstrating target engagement. Surrogate efficacy was demonstrated by an increase in Morris water maze measures of memory and postsynaptic protein levels. Amyloid-beta peptide (Aβ) solubility/deposition and neuroinflammation were reduced, critical components of APOE4-modulated pathology. However, there was no increase in apoE4 levels or apoE4 lipidation, while amyloidogenic and non-amyloidogenic processing of APP were significantly reduced. This suggests that the AVAS-induced reduction in Aβ via reduced APP processing was sufficient to reduce AD pathology, as apoE4-lipoproteins remained poorly lipidated.
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Affiliation(s)
- Ana C. Valencia-Olvera
- Department of Anatomy and Cell Biology, University of Illinois at Chicago, Chicago, IL 60612 USA
| | - Deebika Balu
- Department of Anatomy and Cell Biology, University of Illinois at Chicago, Chicago, IL 60612 USA
| | - Naomi Faulk
- Department of Anatomy and Cell Biology, University of Illinois at Chicago, Chicago, IL 60612 USA
| | | | - Yueting Wang
- Department of Pharmaceutical Sciences, University of Illinois at Chicago, Chicago, IL 60612 USA
- Present Address: AbbVie Inc., 1 N. Waukegan Road, North Chicago, IL 60064 USA
| | - Christine Pham
- Department of Anatomy and Cell Biology, University of Illinois at Chicago, Chicago, IL 60612 USA
| | - Eva Avila-Munoz
- Syneos Health, Av. Gustavo Baz 309, La Loma, Tlalnepantla de Baz, 54060 Mexico
| | - Jason M. York
- Department of Anatomy and Cell Biology, University of Illinois at Chicago, Chicago, IL 60612 USA
| | - Gregory R. J. Thatcher
- Department of Pharmacology & Toxicology, University of Arizona, 1703 E Mabel St., Tucson, AZ 85721 USA
| | - Mary Jo LaDu
- Department of Anatomy and Cell Biology, University of Illinois at Chicago, Chicago, IL 60612 USA
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Ng CAS, Biran LP, Galvano E, Mandelblatt J, Vicini S, Rebeck GW. Chemotherapy promotes astrocytic response to Aβ deposition, but not Aβ levels, in a mouse model of amyloid and APOE. Neurobiol Dis 2022; 175:105915. [PMID: 36336241 PMCID: PMC9794416 DOI: 10.1016/j.nbd.2022.105915] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 08/29/2022] [Revised: 10/19/2022] [Accepted: 11/02/2022] [Indexed: 11/06/2022] Open
Abstract
Many cancer survivors experience cancer-related cognitive impairment (CRCI), which is characterized by problems of attention, working memory, and executive function following chemotherapy and/or hormonal treatment. APOE4, the strongest genetic risk factor for Alzheimer's Disease (AD), is also a risk factor for CRCI, especially among survivors exposed to chemotherapy. We explored whether the effects of APOE genotype to chemotherapy were associated with an increase in AD pathological processes, using a mouse model of amyloid (5XFAD) along with the E3 or E4 alleles of human APOE (E3FAD and E4FAD). Six-month-old female E3FAD mice (control n = 5, treated n = 5) and E4FAD (control n = 6, treated n = 6) were treated with two doses of doxorubicin (total 10 mg/kg) or DMSO vehicle. After six weeks, mice were euthanized and brains were analyzed by immunohistochemistry and biochemical assays. Doxorubicin-treated mice had the same level of Aβ in the brain as control mice, as measured by 6E10 immunohistochemistry, Aβ40 and Aβ42 ELISAs, and plaque morphologies. Doxorubicin significantly increased the level of the astrocytic response to Aβ deposits, which was independent of APOE genotype; no effects of doxorubicin were observed on the microglial responses. These data are consistent with a model in which the effects of doxorubicin on risk of CRCI are unrelated amyloid accumulation, but possibly related to glial responses to damage.
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Affiliation(s)
- Christi Anne S. Ng
- Department of Neuroscience, Georgetown University, Washington, DC, United States of America
| | - Lucas P. Biran
- Department of Neuroscience, Georgetown University, Washington, DC, United States of America
| | - Elena Galvano
- Department of Neuroscience, Georgetown University, Washington, DC, United States of America
| | - Jeanne Mandelblatt
- Department of Oncology, Cancer Prevention and Control Program and Georgetown Lombardi Institute for Cancer and Aging Research, Georgetown University, Washington, DC, United States of America
| | - Stefano Vicini
- Department of Pharmacology and Physiology, Georgetown University, Washington, DC, United States of America,Interdisciplinary Program in Neuroscience, Georgetown University, Washington, DC, United States of America
| | - G. William Rebeck
- Department of Neuroscience, Georgetown University, Washington, DC, United States of America,Interdisciplinary Program in Neuroscience, Georgetown University, Washington, DC, United States of America,Corresponding author at: 3970 Reservoir Rd, NW, Washington, DC 20007, United States of America. (G.W. Rebeck)
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6
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Yao W, Yang H, Yang J. Small-molecule drugs development for Alzheimer's disease. Front Aging Neurosci 2022; 14:1019412. [PMID: 36389082 PMCID: PMC9664938 DOI: 10.3389/fnagi.2022.1019412] [Citation(s) in RCA: 9] [Impact Index Per Article: 4.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 08/23/2022] [Accepted: 09/26/2022] [Indexed: 11/25/2022] Open
Abstract
Alzheimer's disease (AD) is an irreversible, progressive neurodegenerative brain disorder with no effective therapeutic drugs currently. The complicated pathophysiology of AD is not well understood, although beta-amyloid (Aβ) cascade and hyperphosphorylated tau protein were regarded as the two main causes of AD. Other mechanisms, such as oxidative stress, deficiency of central cholinergic neurotransmitters, mitochondrial dysfunction, and inflammation, were also proposed and studied as targets in AD. This review aims to summarize the small-molecule drugs that were developed based on the pathogenesis and gives a deeper understanding of the AD. We hope that it could help scientists find new and better treatments to gradually conquer the problems related to AD in future.
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Abstract
The brain, as one of the most lipid-rich organs, heavily relies on lipid transport and distribution to maintain homeostasis and neuronal function. Lipid transport mediated by lipoprotein particles, which are complex structures composed of apolipoproteins and lipids, has been thoroughly characterized in the periphery. Although lipoproteins in the central nervous system (CNS) were reported over half a century ago, the identification of APOE4 as the strongest genetic risk factor for Alzheimer's disease has accelerated investigation of the biology and pathobiology of lipoproteins in the CNS. This review provides an overview of the different components of lipoprotein particles, in particular apolipoproteins, and their involvements in both physiological functions and pathological mechanisms in the CNS.
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Affiliation(s)
| | - Yuka A Martens
- Department of Neuroscience, Mayo Clinic, Jacksonville, Florida, USA;
| | - Guojun Bu
- Department of Neuroscience, Mayo Clinic, Jacksonville, Florida, USA;
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8
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Li RY, Qin Q, Yang HC, Wang YY, Mi YX, Yin YS, Wang M, Yu CJ, Tang Y. TREM2 in the pathogenesis of AD: a lipid metabolism regulator and potential metabolic therapeutic target. Mol Neurodegener 2022; 17:40. [PMID: 35658903 PMCID: PMC9166437 DOI: 10.1186/s13024-022-00542-y] [Citation(s) in RCA: 43] [Impact Index Per Article: 21.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 01/07/2022] [Accepted: 05/09/2022] [Indexed: 12/13/2022] Open
Abstract
Triggering receptor expressed on myeloid cells 2 (TREM2) is a single-pass transmembrane immune receptor that is mainly expressed on microglia in the brain and macrophages in the periphery. Recent studies have identified TREM2 as a risk factor for Alzheimer’s disease (AD). Increasing evidence has shown that TREM2 can affect lipid metabolism both in the central nervous system (CNS) and in the periphery. In the CNS, TREM2 affects the metabolism of cholesterol, myelin, and phospholipids and promotes the transition of microglia into a disease-associated phenotype. In the periphery, TREM2 influences lipid metabolism by regulating the onset and progression of obesity and its complications, such as hypercholesterolemia, atherosclerosis, and nonalcoholic fatty liver disease. All these altered lipid metabolism processes could influence the pathogenesis of AD through several means, including affecting inflammation, insulin resistance, and AD pathologies. Herein, we will discuss a potential pathway that TREM2 mediates lipid metabolism to influence the pathogenesis of AD in both the CNS and periphery. Moreover, we discuss the possibility that TREM2 may be a key factor that links central and peripheral lipid metabolism under disease conditions, including AD. This link may be due to impacts on the integrity of the blood–brain barrier, and we introduce potential pathways by which TREM2 affects the blood–brain barrier. Moreover, we discuss the role of lipids in TREM2-associated treatments for AD. We propose some potential therapies targeting TREM2 and discuss the prospect and limitations of these therapies.
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Affiliation(s)
- Rui-Yang Li
- Innovation Center for Neurological Disorders, Department of Neurology, Xuanwu Hospital, Capital Medical University, National Center for Neurological Disorders, Beijing, China
| | - Qi Qin
- Innovation Center for Neurological Disorders, Department of Neurology, Xuanwu Hospital, Capital Medical University, National Center for Neurological Disorders, Beijing, China
| | - Han-Chen Yang
- Innovation Center for Neurological Disorders, Department of Neurology, Xuanwu Hospital, Capital Medical University, National Center for Neurological Disorders, Beijing, China
| | - Ying-Ying Wang
- State Key Laboratory of Stem Cell and Reproductive Biology, Institute of Zoology, Chinese Academy of Sciences, Beijing, China
| | - Ying-Xin Mi
- Innovation Center for Neurological Disorders, Department of Neurology, Xuanwu Hospital, Capital Medical University, National Center for Neurological Disorders, Beijing, China
| | - Yun-Si Yin
- Innovation Center for Neurological Disorders, Department of Neurology, Xuanwu Hospital, Capital Medical University, National Center for Neurological Disorders, Beijing, China
| | - Meng Wang
- Innovation Center for Neurological Disorders, Department of Neurology, Xuanwu Hospital, Capital Medical University, National Center for Neurological Disorders, Beijing, China
| | - Chao-Ji Yu
- Innovation Center for Neurological Disorders, Department of Neurology, Xuanwu Hospital, Capital Medical University, National Center for Neurological Disorders, Beijing, China
| | - Yi Tang
- Innovation Center for Neurological Disorders, Department of Neurology, Xuanwu Hospital, Capital Medical University, National Center for Neurological Disorders, Beijing, China.
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9
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Martens YA, Zhao N, Liu CC, Kanekiyo T, Yang AJ, Goate AM, Holtzman DM, Bu G. ApoE Cascade Hypothesis in the pathogenesis of Alzheimer's disease and related dementias. Neuron 2022; 110:1304-1317. [PMID: 35298921 PMCID: PMC9035117 DOI: 10.1016/j.neuron.2022.03.004] [Citation(s) in RCA: 123] [Impact Index Per Article: 61.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 11/22/2021] [Revised: 02/08/2022] [Accepted: 03/01/2022] [Indexed: 12/21/2022]
Abstract
The ε4 allele of the apolipoprotein E gene (APOE4) is a strong genetic risk factor for Alzheimer's disease (AD) and several other neurodegenerative conditions, including Lewy body dementia (LBD). The three APOE alleles encode protein isoforms that differ from one another only at amino acid positions 112 and 158: apoE2 (C112, C158), apoE3 (C112, R158), and apoE4 (R112, R158). Despite progress, it remains unclear how these small amino acid differences in apoE sequence among the three isoforms lead to profound effects on aging and disease-related pathways. Here, we propose a novel "ApoE Cascade Hypothesis" in AD and age-related cognitive decline, which states that the biochemical and biophysical properties of apoE impact a cascade of events at the cellular and systems levels, ultimately impacting aging-related pathogenic conditions including AD. As such, apoE-targeted therapeutic interventions are predicted to be more effective by addressing the biochemical phase of the cascade.
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Affiliation(s)
- Yuka A Martens
- Department of Neuroscience, Mayo Clinic, Jacksonville, FL, USA
| | - Na Zhao
- Department of Neuroscience, Mayo Clinic, Jacksonville, FL, USA
| | - Chia-Chen Liu
- Department of Neuroscience, Mayo Clinic, Jacksonville, FL, USA
| | | | - Austin J Yang
- Division of Neuroscience, National Institute on Aging, Bethesda, MD, USA
| | - Alison M Goate
- Ronald M. Loeb Center for Alzheimer's Disease, Department of Genetics and Genomic Sciences, Icahn School of Medicine at Mount Sinai, New York, NY, USA
| | - David M Holtzman
- Department of Neurology, Hope Center for Neurological Disorders, Knight Alzheimer's Disease Research Center, Washington University in St. Louis, St. Louis, MO, USA
| | - Guojun Bu
- Department of Neuroscience, Mayo Clinic, Jacksonville, FL, USA.
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Lewandowski CT, Laham MS, Thatcher GR. Remembering your A, B, C's: Alzheimer's disease and ABCA1. Acta Pharm Sin B 2022; 12:995-1018. [PMID: 35530134 PMCID: PMC9072248 DOI: 10.1016/j.apsb.2022.01.011] [Citation(s) in RCA: 13] [Impact Index Per Article: 6.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 11/12/2021] [Revised: 12/27/2021] [Accepted: 01/07/2022] [Indexed: 12/24/2022] Open
Abstract
The function of ATP binding cassette protein A1 (ABCA1) is central to cholesterol mobilization. Reduced ABCA1 expression or activity is implicated in Alzheimer's disease (AD) and other disorders. Therapeutic approaches to boost ABCA1 activity have yet to be translated successfully to the clinic. The risk factors for AD development and progression, including comorbid disorders such as type 2 diabetes and cardiovascular disease, highlight the intersection of cholesterol transport and inflammation. Upregulation of ABCA1 can positively impact APOE lipidation, insulin sensitivity, peripheral vascular and blood–brain barrier integrity, and anti-inflammatory signaling. Various strategies towards ABCA1-boosting compounds have been described, with a bias toward nuclear hormone receptor (NHR) agonists. These agonists display beneficial preclinical effects; however, important side effects have limited development. In particular, ligands that bind liver X receptor (LXR), the primary NHR that controls ABCA1 expression, have shown positive effects in AD mouse models; however, lipogenesis and unwanted increases in triglyceride production are often observed. The longstanding approach, focusing on LXRβ vs. LXRα selectivity, is over-simplistic and has failed. Novel approaches such as phenotypic screening may lead to small molecule NHR modulators that elevate ABCA1 function without inducing lipogenesis and are clinically translatable.
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Patel K, Srivastava S, Kushwah S, Mani A. Perspectives on the Role of APOE4 as a Therapeutic Target for Alzheimer's Disease. J Alzheimers Dis Rep 2021; 5:899-910. [PMID: 35088039 PMCID: PMC8764632 DOI: 10.3233/adr-210027] [Citation(s) in RCA: 2] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 05/28/2021] [Accepted: 11/21/2021] [Indexed: 11/15/2022] Open
Abstract
Alzheimer's disease (AD) is a neurodegenerative disease that is coupled with chronic cognitive dysfunction. AD cases are mostly late onset, and genetic risk factors like the Apolipoprotein E (APOE) play a key role in this process. APOE ɛ2, APOE ɛ3, and APOE ɛ4 are three key alleles in the human APOE gene. For late onset, APOE ɛ4 has the most potent risk factor while APOE ɛ2 plays a defensive role. Several studies suggests that APOE ɛ4 causes AD via different processes like neurofibrillary tangle formation by amyloid-β accumulation, exacerbated neuroinflammation, cerebrovascular disease, and synaptic loss. But the pathway is still unclear that which actions of APOE ɛ4 lead to AD development. Since APOE was found to contribute to many AD pathways, targeting APOE ɛ4 can lead to a hopeful plan of action in development of new drugs to target AD. In this review, we focus on recent studies and perspectives, focusing on APOE ɛ4 as a key molecule in therapeutic strategies.
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Affiliation(s)
- Kavita Patel
- Department of Biotechnology, Motilal Nehru National Institute of Technology Allahabad, Prayagraj, India
| | - Siwangi Srivastava
- Department of Biotechnology, Motilal Nehru National Institute of Technology Allahabad, Prayagraj, India
| | - Shikha Kushwah
- Department of Biotechnology, Motilal Nehru National Institute of Technology Allahabad, Prayagraj, India
| | - Ashutosh Mani
- Department of Biotechnology, Motilal Nehru National Institute of Technology Allahabad, Prayagraj, India
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12
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Scheinman SB, Sugasini D, Zayed M, Yalagala PCR, Marottoli FM, Subbaiah PV, Tai LM. LPC-DHA/EPA-Enriched Diets Increase Brain DHA and Modulate Behavior in Mice That Express Human APOE4. Front Neurosci 2021; 15:690410. [PMID: 34276296 PMCID: PMC8282213 DOI: 10.3389/fnins.2021.690410] [Citation(s) in RCA: 7] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 04/02/2021] [Accepted: 05/31/2021] [Indexed: 12/22/2022] Open
Abstract
Compared with APOE3, APOE4 is associated with greater age-related cognitive decline and higher risk of neurodegenerative disorders. Therefore, development of supplements that target APOE genotype-modulated processes could provide a great benefit for the aging population. Evidence suggests a link between APOE genotype and docosahexaenoic acid (DHA); however, clinical studies with current DHA supplements have produced negative results in dementia. The lack of beneficial effects with current DHA supplements may be related to limited bioavailability, as the optimal form of DHA for brain uptake is lysophosphatidylcholine (LPC)-DHA. We previously developed a method to enrich the LPC-DHA content of krill oil through lipase treatment (LT-krill oil), which resulted in fivefold higher enrichment in brain DHA levels in wild-type mice compared with untreated krill oil. Here, we evaluated the effect of a control diet, diet containing krill oil, or a diet containing LT-krill oil in APOE3- and APOE4-targeted replacement mice (APOE-TR mice; treated from 4 to 12 months of age). We found that DHA levels in the plasma and hippocampus are lower in APOE4-TR mice and that LT-krill oil increased DHA levels in the plasma and hippocampus of both APOE3- and APOE4-TR mice. In APOE4-TR mice, LT-krill oil treatment resulted in higher levels of the synaptic vesicle protein SV2A and improved performance on the novel object recognition test. In conclusion, our data demonstrate that LPC-DHA/EPA-enriched krill oil can increase brain DHA and improve memory-relevant behavior in mice that express APOE4. Therefore, long-term use of LT-krill oil supplements may on some level protect against age-related neurodegeneration.
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Affiliation(s)
- Sarah B Scheinman
- Department of Anatomy and Cell Biology, University of Illinois at Chicago, Chicago, IL, United States
| | - Dhavamani Sugasini
- Division of Endocrinology and Metabolism, Department of Medicine, University of Illinois at Chicago, Chicago, IL, United States
| | - Monay Zayed
- Department of Anatomy and Cell Biology, University of Illinois at Chicago, Chicago, IL, United States
| | - Poorna C R Yalagala
- Division of Endocrinology and Metabolism, Department of Medicine, University of Illinois at Chicago, Chicago, IL, United States
| | - Felecia M Marottoli
- Department of Anatomy and Cell Biology, University of Illinois at Chicago, Chicago, IL, United States
| | - Papasani V Subbaiah
- Division of Endocrinology and Metabolism, Department of Medicine, University of Illinois at Chicago, Chicago, IL, United States.,Jesse Brown VA Medical Center, Chicago, IL, United States
| | - Leon M Tai
- Department of Anatomy and Cell Biology, University of Illinois at Chicago, Chicago, IL, United States
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13
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Vinuesa A, Pomilio C, Gregosa A, Bentivegna M, Presa J, Bellotto M, Saravia F, Beauquis J. Inflammation and Insulin Resistance as Risk Factors and Potential Therapeutic Targets for Alzheimer's Disease. Front Neurosci 2021; 15:653651. [PMID: 33967682 PMCID: PMC8102834 DOI: 10.3389/fnins.2021.653651] [Citation(s) in RCA: 27] [Impact Index Per Article: 9.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 01/14/2021] [Accepted: 03/31/2021] [Indexed: 12/21/2022] Open
Abstract
Overnutrition and modern diets containing high proportions of saturated fat are among the major factors contributing to a low-grade state of inflammation, hyperglycemia and dyslipidemia. In the last decades, the global rise of type 2 diabetes and obesity prevalence has elicited a great interest in understanding how changes in metabolic function lead to an increased risk for premature brain aging and the development of neurodegenerative disorders such as Alzheimer's disease (AD). Cognitive impairment and decreased neurogenic capacity could be a consequence of metabolic disturbances. In these scenarios, the interplay between inflammation and insulin resistance could represent a potential therapeutic target to prevent or ameliorate neurodegeneration and cognitive impairment. The present review aims to provide an update on the impact of metabolic stress pathways on AD with a focus on inflammation and insulin resistance as risk factors and therapeutic targets.
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Affiliation(s)
- Angeles Vinuesa
- Laboratorio de Neurobiología del Envejecimiento, Instituto de Biología y Medicina Experimental, Consejo Nacional de Investigaciones Científicas y Técnicas, Buenos Aires, Argentina
- Departamento de Química Biológica, Facultad de Ciencias Exactas y Naturales, Universidad de Buenos Aires, Buenos Aires, Argentina
| | - Carlos Pomilio
- Laboratorio de Neurobiología del Envejecimiento, Instituto de Biología y Medicina Experimental, Consejo Nacional de Investigaciones Científicas y Técnicas, Buenos Aires, Argentina
- Departamento de Química Biológica, Facultad de Ciencias Exactas y Naturales, Universidad de Buenos Aires, Buenos Aires, Argentina
| | - Amal Gregosa
- Laboratorio de Neurobiología del Envejecimiento, Instituto de Biología y Medicina Experimental, Consejo Nacional de Investigaciones Científicas y Técnicas, Buenos Aires, Argentina
- Departamento de Química Biológica, Facultad de Ciencias Exactas y Naturales, Universidad de Buenos Aires, Buenos Aires, Argentina
| | - Melisa Bentivegna
- Laboratorio de Neurobiología del Envejecimiento, Instituto de Biología y Medicina Experimental, Consejo Nacional de Investigaciones Científicas y Técnicas, Buenos Aires, Argentina
- Departamento de Química Biológica, Facultad de Ciencias Exactas y Naturales, Universidad de Buenos Aires, Buenos Aires, Argentina
| | - Jessica Presa
- Laboratorio de Neurobiología del Envejecimiento, Instituto de Biología y Medicina Experimental, Consejo Nacional de Investigaciones Científicas y Técnicas, Buenos Aires, Argentina
- Departamento de Química Biológica, Facultad de Ciencias Exactas y Naturales, Universidad de Buenos Aires, Buenos Aires, Argentina
| | - Melina Bellotto
- Laboratorio de Neurobiología del Envejecimiento, Instituto de Biología y Medicina Experimental, Consejo Nacional de Investigaciones Científicas y Técnicas, Buenos Aires, Argentina
- Departamento de Química Biológica, Facultad de Ciencias Exactas y Naturales, Universidad de Buenos Aires, Buenos Aires, Argentina
| | - Flavia Saravia
- Laboratorio de Neurobiología del Envejecimiento, Instituto de Biología y Medicina Experimental, Consejo Nacional de Investigaciones Científicas y Técnicas, Buenos Aires, Argentina
- Departamento de Química Biológica, Facultad de Ciencias Exactas y Naturales, Universidad de Buenos Aires, Buenos Aires, Argentina
| | - Juan Beauquis
- Laboratorio de Neurobiología del Envejecimiento, Instituto de Biología y Medicina Experimental, Consejo Nacional de Investigaciones Científicas y Técnicas, Buenos Aires, Argentina
- Departamento de Química Biológica, Facultad de Ciencias Exactas y Naturales, Universidad de Buenos Aires, Buenos Aires, Argentina
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14
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Hacioglu C, Kar F, Kanbak G. Ex Vivo Investigation of Bexarotene and Nicotinamide Function as a Protectıve Agent on Rat Synaptosomes Treated with Aβ(1-42). Neurochem Res 2021; 46:804-818. [PMID: 33428094 DOI: 10.1007/s11064-020-03216-7] [Citation(s) in RCA: 1] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 11/16/2020] [Revised: 12/19/2020] [Accepted: 12/23/2020] [Indexed: 01/09/2023]
Abstract
In this study, we were aimed to investigate the neuroprotective effects of bexarotene and nicotinamide in synaptosomes incubated with amyloid-beta (Aβ). Our study consists of 2 parts, in vivo and in vitro. In the in vivo section, twenty-four Wistar albino male rats were divided into 4 groups (control, dimethyl sulfoxide (DMSO), nicotinamide and bexarotene) with six animals in each group. DMSO(1%), nicotinamide(100 mg/kg) and bexarotene(0.1 mg/kg) were administered intraperitoneally to animals in the experimental groups for seven days. In the in vitro part of our study, three different isolation methods were used to obtain the synaptosomes from the brain tissue. Total antioxidant capacity(TAS), total oxidant capacity(TOS), cleaved caspase 3(CASP3), cytochrome c(Cyt c), sirtuin 1(SIRT1), peroxisome proliferator-activated receptor gamma(PPARγ) and poly(ADP-ribose) polymerase-1(PARP-1) levels in the synaptosomes incubated with a concentration of 10 µM Aβ(1-42) were measured by enzyme-linked immunosorbent assay method. Biochemical analysis and histopathological examinations in serum and brain samples showed that DMSO, nicotinamide and bexarotene treatments did not cause any damage to the rat brain tissue. We found that in vitro Aβ(1-42) administration decreased TAS, SIRT1 and PPARγ levels in synaptosomes while increasing TOS, CASP3, Cyt c, and PARP1 levels. Nicotinamide treatment suppressed oxidative stress and apoptosis by supporting antioxidant capacity and increased PPARγ through SIRT1 activation, causing PARP1 to decrease. On the other hand, bexarotene caused a moderate increase in SIRT1 levels with PPARγ activation. Consequently, we found that nicotinamide can be more effective than bexarotene in AD pathogenesis by regulating mitochondrial functions in synaptosomes.
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Affiliation(s)
- Ceyhan Hacioglu
- Department of Medical Biochemistry, Faculty of Medicine, Duzce University, Duzce, Turkey.
| | - Fatih Kar
- Department of Medical Biochemistry, Faculty of Medicine, Eskisehir Osmangazi University, Eskisehir, Turkey
| | - Gungor Kanbak
- Department of Medical Biochemistry, Faculty of Medicine, Eskisehir Osmangazi University, Eskisehir, Turkey
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15
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Lewandowski CT, Khan MW, BenAissa M, Dubrovskyi O, Ackerman-Berrier M, LaDu MJ, Layden BT, Thatcher GRJ. Metabolomic analysis of a selective ABCA1 inducer in obesogenic challenge provides a rationale for therapeutic development. EBioMedicine 2021; 66:103287. [PMID: 33752129 PMCID: PMC8010624 DOI: 10.1016/j.ebiom.2021.103287] [Citation(s) in RCA: 9] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 09/18/2020] [Revised: 03/02/2021] [Accepted: 03/02/2021] [Indexed: 12/15/2022] Open
Abstract
BACKGROUND Therapeutic agents with novel mechanisms of action are needed to combat the growing epidemic of type 2 diabetes (T2D) and related metabolic syndromes. Liver X receptor (LXR) agonists possess preclinical efficacy yet produce side effects due to excessive lipogenesis. Anticipating that many beneficial and detrimental effects of LXR agonists are mediated by ABCA1 and SREPB1c expression, respectively, we hypothesized that a phenotypic optimization strategy prioritizing selective ABCA1 induction would identify an efficacious lead compound with an improved side effect profile over existing LXRβ agonists. METHODS We synthesized and characterized a novel small molecule for selective induction of ABCA1 vs. SREBP1c in vitro. This compound was evaluated in both wild-type mice and a high-fat diet (HFD) mouse model of obesity-driven diabetes through functional, biochemical, and metabolomic analysis. FINDINGS Six weeks of oral administration of our lead compound attenuated weight gain, glucose intolerance, insulin signaling deficits, and adiposity. Global metabolomics revealed suppression of gluconeogenesis, free fatty acids, and pro-inflammatory metabolites. Target identification linked these beneficial effects to selective LXRβ agonism and PPAR/RXR antagonism. INTERPRETATION Our observations in the HFD model, combined with the absence of lipogenesis and neutropenia in WT mice, support this novel approach to therapeutic development for T2D and related conditions.
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Affiliation(s)
- Cutler T Lewandowski
- Department of Pharmaceutical Sciences, University of Illinois at Chicago, Chicago, IL, USA
| | - Md Wasim Khan
- Department of Medicine, University of Illinois at Chicago, 835 S. Wolcott St., Chicago, IL 60612, USA
| | - Manel BenAissa
- Department of Pharmaceutical Sciences, University of Illinois at Chicago, Chicago, IL, USA
| | - Oleksii Dubrovskyi
- Department of Pharmaceutical Sciences, University of Illinois at Chicago, Chicago, IL, USA
| | - Martha Ackerman-Berrier
- Department of Pharmacology and Toxicology, University of Arizona, 1295N. Martin, Tucson, AZ 85721, USA
| | - Mary Jo LaDu
- Department of Anatomy and Cell Biology, University of Illinois at Chicago, Chicago, IL, USA
| | - Brian T Layden
- Department of Medicine, University of Illinois at Chicago, 835 S. Wolcott St., Chicago, IL 60612, USA.
| | - Gregory R J Thatcher
- Department of Pharmacology and Toxicology, University of Arizona, 1295N. Martin, Tucson, AZ 85721, USA.
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16
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Ben Aissa M, Lewandowski CT, Ratia KM, Lee SH, Layden BT, LaDu MJ, Thatcher GRJ. Discovery of Nonlipogenic ABCA1 Inducing Compounds with Potential in Alzheimer's Disease and Type 2 Diabetes. ACS Pharmacol Transl Sci 2021; 4:143-154. [PMID: 33615168 PMCID: PMC7887740 DOI: 10.1021/acsptsci.0c00149] [Citation(s) in RCA: 14] [Impact Index Per Article: 4.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 09/25/2020] [Indexed: 02/07/2023]
Abstract
Selective liver X receptor (LXR) agonists have been extensively pursued as therapeutics for Alzheimer's disease and related dementia (ADRD) and, for comorbidities such as type 2 diabetes (T2D) and cerebrovascular disease (CVD), disorders with underlying impaired insulin signaling, glucose metabolism, and cholesterol mobilization. The failure of the LXR-focused approach led us to pursue a novel strategy to discover nonlipogenic ATP-binding cassette transporter A1 (ABCA1) inducers (NLAIs): screening for ABCA1-luciferase activation in astrocytoma cells and counterscreening against lipogenic gene upregulation in hepatocarcinoma cells. Beneficial effects of LXRβ agonists mediated by ABCA1 include the following: control of cholesterol and phospholipid efflux to lipid-poor apolipoproteins forming beneficial peripheral HDL and HDL-like particles in the brain and attenuation of inflammation. While rare, ABCA1 variants reduce plasma HDL and correlate with an increased risk of ADRD and CVD. In secondary assays, NLAI hits enhanced cholesterol mobilization and positively impacted in vitro biomarkers associated with insulin signaling, inflammatory response, and biogenic properties. In vivo target engagement was demonstrated after oral administration of NLAIs in (i) mice fed a high-fat diet, a model for obesity-linked T2D, (ii) mice administered LPS, and (iii) mice with accelerated oxidative stress. The lack of adverse effects on lipogenesis and positive effects on multiple biomarkers associated with T2D and ADRD supports this novel phenotypic approach to NLAIs as a platform for T2D and ADRD drug discovery.
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Affiliation(s)
- Manel Ben Aissa
- Department
of Pharmaceutical Sciences, College of Pharmacy, University of Illinois at Chicago (UIC), Chicago, Illinois 60612, United States
- UICentre
(Drug Discovery @ UIC), University of Illinois
at Chicago (UIC), Chicago, Illinois 60612, United States
| | - Cutler T. Lewandowski
- Department
of Pharmaceutical Sciences, College of Pharmacy, University of Illinois at Chicago (UIC), Chicago, Illinois 60612, United States
| | - Kiira M. Ratia
- HTS
Screening Facility, Research Resources Center, University of Illinois at Chicago (UIC), Chicago, Illinois 60612, United States
| | - Sue H. Lee
- Department
of Pharmaceutical Sciences, College of Pharmacy, University of Illinois at Chicago (UIC), Chicago, Illinois 60612, United States
| | - Brian T. Layden
- Department
of Medicine, University of Illinois at Chicago
(UIC), Chicago, Illinois 60612, United States
| | - Mary Jo LaDu
- Department
of Anatomy and Cell Biology, College of Medicine, University of Illinois at Chicago (UIC), Chicago, Illinois 60612, United States
| | - Gregory R. J. Thatcher
- Department
of Pharmacology & Toxicology, College of Pharmacy, University of Arizona, Tucson, Arizona 85721, United States
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17
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Scheinman SB, Zaldua S, Dada A, Krochmaliuk K, Dye K, Marottoli FM, Thatcher GRJ, Tai LM. Systemic Candesartan Treatment Modulates Behavior, Synaptic Protein Levels, and Neuroinflammation in Female Mice That Express Human APOE4. Front Neurosci 2021; 15:628403. [PMID: 33642985 PMCID: PMC7902885 DOI: 10.3389/fnins.2021.628403] [Citation(s) in RCA: 7] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 11/11/2020] [Accepted: 01/20/2021] [Indexed: 11/26/2022] Open
Abstract
Evidence suggests that angiotensin receptor blockers (ARBs) could be beneficial for Alzheimer’s disease (AD) patients independent of any effects on hypertension. However, studies in rodent models directly testing the activity of ARB treatment on behavior and AD-relevent pathology including neuroinflammation, Aβ levels, and cerebrovascular function, have produced mixed results. APOE4 is a major genetic risk factor for AD and has been linked to many of the same functions as those purported to be modulated by ARB treatment. Therefore, evaluating the effects of ARB treatment on behavior and AD-relevant pathology in mice that express human APOE4 could provide important information on whether to further develop ARBs for AD therapy. In this study, we treated female and male mice that express the human APOE4 gene in the absence (E4FAD−) or presence (E4FAD+) of high Aβ levels with the ARB prodrug candesartan cilexetil for a duration of 4 months. Compared to vehicle, candesartan treatment resulted in greater memory-relevant behavior and higher hippocampal presynaptic protein levels in female, but not male, E4FAD− and E4FAD+ mice. The beneficial effects of candesartan in female E4FAD− and E4FAD+ mice occurred in tandem with lower GFAP and Iba1 levels in the hippocampus, whereas there were no effects on markers of cerebrovascular function and Aβ levels. Collectively, these data imply that the effects of ARBs on AD-relevant pathology may be modulated in part by the interaction between APOE genotype and biological sex. Thus, the further development of ARBs could provide therapeutic options for targeting neuroinflammation in female APOE4 carriers.
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Affiliation(s)
- Sarah B Scheinman
- Department of Anatomy and Cell Biology, University of Illinois at Chicago, Chicago, IL, United States
| | - Steve Zaldua
- Department of Anatomy and Cell Biology, University of Illinois at Chicago, Chicago, IL, United States
| | - Adedoyin Dada
- Department of Anatomy and Cell Biology, University of Illinois at Chicago, Chicago, IL, United States
| | - Kateryna Krochmaliuk
- Department of Anatomy and Cell Biology, University of Illinois at Chicago, Chicago, IL, United States
| | - Katherine Dye
- UICentre, University of Illinois at Chicago, Chicago, IL, United States
| | - Felecia M Marottoli
- Department of Anatomy and Cell Biology, University of Illinois at Chicago, Chicago, IL, United States
| | - Gregory R J Thatcher
- Department of Pharmacology and Toxicology, College of Pharmacy, University of Arizona, Tucson, AZ, United States
| | - Leon M Tai
- Department of Anatomy and Cell Biology, University of Illinois at Chicago, Chicago, IL, United States
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18
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Serrano-Pozo A, Das S, Hyman BT. APOE and Alzheimer's disease: advances in genetics, pathophysiology, and therapeutic approaches. Lancet Neurol 2021; 20:68-80. [PMID: 33340485 PMCID: PMC8096522 DOI: 10.1016/s1474-4422(20)30412-9] [Citation(s) in RCA: 403] [Impact Index Per Article: 134.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 08/07/2020] [Revised: 10/02/2020] [Accepted: 10/26/2020] [Indexed: 12/14/2022]
Abstract
The APOE ε4 allele remains the strongest genetic risk factor for sporadic Alzheimer's disease and the APOE ε2 allele the strongest genetic protective factor after multiple large scale genome-wide association studies and genome-wide association meta-analyses. However, no therapies directed at APOE are currently available. Although initial studies causally linked APOE with amyloid-β peptide aggregation and clearance, over the past 5 years our understanding of APOE pathogenesis has expanded beyond amyloid-β peptide-centric mechanisms to tau neurofibrillary degeneration, microglia and astrocyte responses, and blood-brain barrier disruption. Because all these pathological processes can potentially contribute to cognitive impairment, it is important to use this new knowledge to develop therapies directed at APOE. Several therapeutic approaches have been successful in mouse models expressing human APOE alleles, including increasing or reducing APOE levels, enhancing its lipidation, blocking the interactions between APOE and amyloid-β peptide, and genetically switching APOE4 to APOE3 or APOE2 isoforms, but translation to human clinical trials has proven challenging.
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Affiliation(s)
- Alberto Serrano-Pozo
- Department of Neurology, Massachusetts General Hospital, Boston, MA, USA; Massachusetts Alzheimer's Disease Research Center, Charlestown, MA, USA; Harvard Medical School, Boston, MA, USA
| | - Sudeshna Das
- Department of Neurology, Massachusetts General Hospital, Boston, MA, USA; Massachusetts Alzheimer's Disease Research Center, Charlestown, MA, USA; Harvard Medical School, Boston, MA, USA
| | - Bradley T Hyman
- Department of Neurology, Massachusetts General Hospital, Boston, MA, USA; Massachusetts Alzheimer's Disease Research Center, Charlestown, MA, USA; Harvard Medical School, Boston, MA, USA.
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19
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Li Z, Shue F, Zhao N, Shinohara M, Bu G. APOE2: protective mechanism and therapeutic implications for Alzheimer's disease. Mol Neurodegener 2020; 15:63. [PMID: 33148290 PMCID: PMC7640652 DOI: 10.1186/s13024-020-00413-4] [Citation(s) in RCA: 103] [Impact Index Per Article: 25.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 02/20/2020] [Accepted: 10/17/2020] [Indexed: 02/06/2023] Open
Abstract
Investigations of apolipoprotein E (APOE) gene, the major genetic risk modifier for Alzheimer's disease (AD), have yielded significant insights into the pathogenic mechanism. Among the three common coding variants, APOE*ε4 increases, whereas APOE*ε2 decreases the risk of late-onset AD compared with APOE*ε3. Despite increased understanding of the detrimental effect of APOE*ε4, it remains unclear how APOE*ε2 confers protection against AD. Accumulating evidence suggests that APOE*ε2 protects against AD through both amyloid-β (Aβ)-dependent and independent mechanisms. In addition, APOE*ε2 has been identified as a longevity gene, suggesting a systemic effect of APOE*ε2 on the aging process. However, APOE*ε2 is not entirely benign; APOE*ε2 carriers exhibit increased risk of certain cerebrovascular diseases and neurological disorders. Here, we review evidence from both human and animal studies demonstrating the protective effect of APOE*ε2 against AD and propose a working model depicting potential underlying mechanisms. Finally, we discuss potential therapeutic strategies designed to leverage the protective effect of APOE2 to treat AD.
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Affiliation(s)
- Zonghua Li
- Department of Neuroscience, Mayo Clinic, Jacksonville, FL, USA
| | - Francis Shue
- Department of Neuroscience, Mayo Clinic, Jacksonville, FL, USA
- Neuroscience Graduate Program, Mayo Clinic, Jacksonville, FL, USA
| | - Na Zhao
- Department of Neuroscience, Mayo Clinic, Jacksonville, FL, USA
| | - Mitsuru Shinohara
- Department of Aging Neurobiology, National Center for Geriatrics and Gerontology, 7-430 Morioka, Obu, Aichi, 474-8511, Japan.
| | - Guojun Bu
- Department of Neuroscience, Mayo Clinic, Jacksonville, FL, USA.
- Neuroscience Graduate Program, Mayo Clinic, Jacksonville, FL, USA.
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20
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ApoE Lipidation as a Therapeutic Target in Alzheimer's Disease. Int J Mol Sci 2020; 21:ijms21176336. [PMID: 32882843 PMCID: PMC7503657 DOI: 10.3390/ijms21176336] [Citation(s) in RCA: 75] [Impact Index Per Article: 18.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 08/06/2020] [Revised: 08/28/2020] [Accepted: 08/30/2020] [Indexed: 12/19/2022] Open
Abstract
Apolipoprotein E (APOE) is the major cholesterol carrier in the brain, affecting various normal cellular processes including neuronal growth, repair and remodeling of membranes, synaptogenesis, clearance and degradation of amyloid β (Aβ) and neuroinflammation. In humans, the APOE gene has three common allelic variants, termed E2, E3, and E4. APOE4 is considered the strongest genetic risk factor for Alzheimer’s disease (AD), whereas APOE2 is neuroprotective. To perform its normal functions, apoE must be secreted and properly lipidated, a process influenced by the structural differences associated with apoE isoforms. Here we highlight the importance of lipidated apoE as well as the APOE-lipidation targeted therapeutic approaches that have the potential to correct or prevent neurodegeneration. Many of these approaches have been validated using diverse cellular and animal models. Overall, there is great potential to improve the lipidated state of apoE with the goal of ameliorating APOE-associated central nervous system impairments.
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21
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Mamun AA, Uddin MS, Bin Bashar MF, Zaman S, Begum Y, Bulbul IJ, Islam MS, Sarwar MS, Mathew B, Amran MS, Md Ashraf G, Bin-Jumah MN, Mousa SA, Abdel-Daim MM. Molecular Insight into the Therapeutic Promise of Targeting APOE4 for Alzheimer's Disease. OXIDATIVE MEDICINE AND CELLULAR LONGEVITY 2020; 2020:5086250. [PMID: 32509144 PMCID: PMC7245681 DOI: 10.1155/2020/5086250] [Citation(s) in RCA: 34] [Impact Index Per Article: 8.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 03/05/2020] [Accepted: 04/17/2020] [Indexed: 11/17/2022]
Abstract
Alzheimer's disease (AD) is a progressive neurodegenerative disease that causes chronic cognitive dysfunction. Most of the AD cases are late onset, and the apolipoprotein E (APOE) isoform is a key genetic risk factor. The APOE gene has 3 key alleles in humans including APOE2, APOE3, and APOE4. Among them, APOE4 is the most potent genetic risk factor for late-onset AD (LOAD), while APOE2 has a defensive effect. Research data suggest that APOE4 leads to the pathogenesis of AD through various processes such as accelerated beta-amyloid aggregations that raised neurofibrillary tangle formation, cerebrovascular diseases, aggravated neuroinflammation, and synaptic loss. However, the precise mode of actions regarding in what way APOE4 leads to AD pathology remains unclear. Since APOE contributes to several pathological pathways of AD, targeting APOE4 might serve as a promising strategy for the development of novel drugs to combat AD. In this review, we focus on the recent studies about APOE4-targeted therapeutic strategies that have been advanced in animal models and are being prepared for use in humans for the management of AD.
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Affiliation(s)
- Abdullah Al Mamun
- Department of Pharmacy, Southeast University, Dhaka, Bangladesh
- Pharmakon Neuroscience Research Network, Dhaka, Bangladesh
| | - Md. Sahab Uddin
- Department of Pharmacy, Southeast University, Dhaka, Bangladesh
- Pharmakon Neuroscience Research Network, Dhaka, Bangladesh
| | - Md. Fahim Bin Bashar
- Department of Pharmacy, University of Development Alternative, Dhaka, Bangladesh
| | - Sonia Zaman
- Department of Pharmacy, Southeast University, Dhaka, Bangladesh
| | - Yesmin Begum
- Department of Pharmacy, Southeast University, Dhaka, Bangladesh
| | | | | | - Md. Shahid Sarwar
- Department of Pharmacy, Noakhali Science and Technology University, Noakhali, Bangladesh
| | - Bijo Mathew
- Division of Drug Design and Medicinal Chemistry Research Lab, Department of Pharmaceutical Chemistry, Ahalia School of Pharmacy, Palakkad, India
| | - Md. Shah Amran
- Department of Pharmaceutical Chemistry, University of Dhaka, Dhaka, Bangladesh
| | - Ghulam Md Ashraf
- King Fahd Medical Research Center, King Abdulaziz University, Jeddah, Saudi Arabia
- Department of Medical Laboratory Technology, Faculty of Applied Medical Sciences, King Abdulaziz University, Jeddah, Saudi Arabia
| | - May N. Bin-Jumah
- Department of Biology, College of Science, Princess Nourah bint Abdulrahman University, Riyadh 11474, Saudi Arabia
| | - Shaker A. Mousa
- Pharmaceutical Research Institute, Albany College of Pharmacy and Health Sciences, New York, NY 12144, USA
| | - Mohamed M. Abdel-Daim
- Department of Zoology, College of Science, King Saud University, P.O. Box 2455, Riyadh 11451, Saudi Arabia
- Pharmacology Department, Faculty of Veterinary Medicine, Suez Canal University, Ismailia 41522, Egypt
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Scearce-Levie K, Sanchez PE, Lewcock JW. Leveraging preclinical models for the development of Alzheimer disease therapeutics. Nat Rev Drug Discov 2020; 19:447-462. [PMID: 32612262 DOI: 10.1038/s41573-020-0065-9] [Citation(s) in RCA: 62] [Impact Index Per Article: 15.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Accepted: 02/26/2020] [Indexed: 02/06/2023]
Abstract
A large number of mouse models have been engineered, characterized and used to advance biomedical research in Alzheimer disease (AD). Early models simply damaged the rodent brain through toxins or lesions. Later, the spread of genetic engineering technology enabled investigators to develop models of familial AD by overexpressing human genes such as those encoding amyloid precursor protein (APP) or presenilins (PSEN1 or PSEN2) carrying mutations linked to early-onset AD. Recently, more complex models have sought to explore the impact of multiple genetic risk factors in the context of different biological challenges. Although none of these models has proven to be a fully faithful reproduction of the human disease, models remain essential as tools to improve our understanding of AD biology, conduct thorough pharmacokinetic and pharmacodynamic analyses, discover translatable biomarkers and evaluate specific therapeutic approaches. To realize the full potential of animal models as new technologies and knowledge become available, it is critical to define an optimal strategy for their use. Here, we review progress and challenges in the use of AD mouse models, highlight emerging scientific innovations in model development, and introduce a conceptual framework for use of preclinical models for therapeutic development.
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Lewandowski CT, Maldonado Weng J, LaDu MJ. Alzheimer's disease pathology in APOE transgenic mouse models: The Who, What, When, Where, Why, and How. Neurobiol Dis 2020; 139:104811. [PMID: 32087290 DOI: 10.1016/j.nbd.2020.104811] [Citation(s) in RCA: 40] [Impact Index Per Article: 10.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 12/09/2019] [Revised: 02/01/2020] [Accepted: 02/18/2020] [Indexed: 02/07/2023] Open
Abstract
The focus on amyloid plaques and neurofibrillary tangles has yielded no Alzheimer's disease (AD) modifying treatments in the past several decades, despite successful studies in preclinical mouse models. This inconsistency has caused a renewed focus on improving the fidelity and reliability of AD mouse models, with disparate views on how this improvement can be accomplished. However, the interactive effects of the universal biological variables of AD, which include age, APOE genotype, and sex, are often overlooked. Age is the greatest risk factor for AD, while the ε4 allele of the human APOE gene, encoding apolipoprotein E, is the greatest genetic risk factor. Sex is the final universal biological variable of AD, as females develop AD at almost twice the rate of males and, importantly, female sex exacerbates the effects of APOE4 on AD risk and rate of cognitive decline. Therefore, this review evaluates the importance of context for understanding the role of APOE in preclinical mouse models. Specifically, we detail how human AD pathology is mirrored in current transgenic mouse models ("What") and describe the critical need for introducing human APOE into these mouse models ("Who"). We next outline different methods for introducing human APOE into mice ("How") and highlight efforts to develop temporally defined and location-specific human apoE expression models ("When" and "Where"). We conclude with the importance of choosing the human APOE mouse model relevant to the question being addressed, using the selection of transgenic models for testing apoE-targeted therapeutics as an example ("Why").
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Affiliation(s)
- Cutler T Lewandowski
- Department of Pharmaceutical Sciences, University of Illinois at Chicago, 833 S. Wood St., Chicago, IL 60612, USA.
| | - Juan Maldonado Weng
- Department of Anatomy and Cell Biology, University of Illinois at Chicago, 808 S. Wood St., Chicago, IL 60612, USA.
| | - Mary Jo LaDu
- Department of Anatomy and Cell Biology, University of Illinois at Chicago, 808 S. Wood St., Chicago, IL 60612, USA.
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Parikh IJ, Estus JL, Zajac DJ, Malik M, Maldonado Weng J, Tai LM, Chlipala GE, LaDu MJ, Green SJ, Estus S. Murine Gut Microbiome Association With APOE Alleles. Front Immunol 2020; 11:200. [PMID: 32117315 PMCID: PMC7034241 DOI: 10.3389/fimmu.2020.00200] [Citation(s) in RCA: 33] [Impact Index Per Article: 8.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 08/21/2019] [Accepted: 01/27/2020] [Indexed: 12/19/2022] Open
Abstract
Background: Since APOE alleles represent the most impactful genetic risk factors for Alzheimer's disease (AD), their differential mechanism(s) of action are under intense scrutiny. APOE4 is robustly associated with increased AD risk compared to the neutral APOE3 and protective APOE2. APOE alleles have also been associated with differential inflammation and gastrointestinal recovery after insult in human and murine studies, leading us to hypothesize that APOE alleles impact the gut microbiome. Methods: To assess this hypothesis, we compared 16S ribosomal RNA gene amplicon-based microbiome profiles in a cohort of mice that were homozygous for APOE2, APOE3, or APOE4, and included both males and females as well as carriers and non-carriers of five familial AD (5xFAD) mutations. Fecal samples were analyzed from mice at 4 and 6 months of age. APOE genotype, as well as sex and 5xFAD status, was then tested for influence on alpha diversity (Shannon H index) and beta diversity (principal coordinate analyses and PERMANOVA). A Random Forest analysis was used to identify features that predicted APOE, sex and 5xFAD status. Results: The richness and evenness (alpha diversity) of the fecal microbiome was not robustly associated with APOE genotype, 5xFAD status or sex. In contrast, microbial community composition (beta-diversity) was consistently and strongly associated with APOE genotype. The association between beta-diversity and sex or 5xFAD status was less consistent and more modest. Comparison of the differences underlying APOE effects showed that the relative abundance of multiple bacterial taxa was significantly different as a function of APOE genotype. Conclusions: The structure of the gut microbiome was strongly and significantly associated with APOE alleles in this murine model. Further evaluation of these findings in humans, as well as studies evaluating the impact of the APOE-associated microbiota on AD-relevant phenotypes in murine models, will be necessary to determine if alterations in the gut microbiome represent a novel mechanism whereby APOE genotype impacts AD.
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Affiliation(s)
- Ishita J. Parikh
- Department of Physiology, College of Medicine, University of Kentucky, Lexington, KY, United States
- Sanders-Brown Center on Aging, University of Kentucky, Lexington, KY, United States
| | - Janice L. Estus
- Department of Physiology, College of Medicine, University of Kentucky, Lexington, KY, United States
- Sanders-Brown Center on Aging, University of Kentucky, Lexington, KY, United States
| | - Diana J. Zajac
- Department of Physiology, College of Medicine, University of Kentucky, Lexington, KY, United States
- Sanders-Brown Center on Aging, University of Kentucky, Lexington, KY, United States
| | - Manasi Malik
- Department of Physiology, College of Medicine, University of Kentucky, Lexington, KY, United States
- Sanders-Brown Center on Aging, University of Kentucky, Lexington, KY, United States
| | - Juan Maldonado Weng
- Department of Anatomy and Cell Biology, College of Medicine, University of Illinois at Chicago, Chicago, IL, United States
| | - Leon M. Tai
- Department of Anatomy and Cell Biology, College of Medicine, University of Illinois at Chicago, Chicago, IL, United States
| | - George E. Chlipala
- Research Resources Center, University of Illinois at Chicago, Chicago, IL, United States
| | - Mary Jo LaDu
- Department of Anatomy and Cell Biology, College of Medicine, University of Illinois at Chicago, Chicago, IL, United States
| | - Stefan J. Green
- Research Resources Center, University of Illinois at Chicago, Chicago, IL, United States
| | - Steven Estus
- Department of Physiology, College of Medicine, University of Kentucky, Lexington, KY, United States
- Sanders-Brown Center on Aging, University of Kentucky, Lexington, KY, United States
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Singh AK, Mishra G, Maurya A, Awasthi R, Kumari K, Thakur A, Rai A, Rai GK, Sharma B, Kulkarni GT, Singh SK. Role of TREM2 in Alzheimer's Disease and its Consequences on β- Amyloid, Tau and Neurofibrillary Tangles. Curr Alzheimer Res 2020; 16:1216-1229. [DOI: 10.2174/1567205016666190903102822] [Citation(s) in RCA: 15] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 06/18/2019] [Revised: 07/21/2019] [Accepted: 08/21/2019] [Indexed: 11/22/2022]
Abstract
:
Alzheimer's Disease (AD) is age-related neurodegenerative disorder recognized by a steadily
gradual cognitive decline that has devastating personal and socioeconomic implications. Recently, some
genetic factors for AD have been identified which attracted wide attention of researchers in different
areas of AD biology and possible new therapeutic targets. Alternative forms of triggering receptor expressed
on myeloid cells 2 (TREM2) genes are examples of such risk factors, which contribute higher
risk for developing AD. Comprehending TREM2 function pledge to provide salient insight into how
neuroinflammation contributes to AD pathology. The dearth of microglial TREM2 shepherd to augmented
tau pathology is couple with frequent enhancement of activated neuronal stress kinases. The involvement
of TREM2 in the regulation of tau-associated innate immune response of the CNS has clearly
demonstrated through these findings. However, whether decrease level of TREM2 assists pathology of
tau through changed clearance and pathological escalation of tau or through direct contact between microglia
and neuron and any alternative possible mechanisms need to examine. This review briefly summarizes
distinct functional roles of TREM2 in AD pathology and highlights the TREM2 gene regulation.
We have also addressed the impact of TREM2 on β-amyloid plaques and tau pathology in Alzheimer’s
disease.
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Affiliation(s)
- Anurag K. Singh
- Centre of Experimental Medicine & Surgery, Institute of Medical Sciences, Banaras Hindu University, Varanasi-221005, Uttar Pradesh, India
| | - Gaurav Mishra
- Department of Pharmacy, School of Chemical Sciences & Pharmacy, Central University of Rajasthan, Bandar Sindri, Kishangarh, Ajmer-305817, Rajasthan, India
| | - Anand Maurya
- Department of Pharmacy, School of Chemical Sciences & Pharmacy, Central University of Rajasthan, Bandar Sindri, Kishangarh, Ajmer-305817, Rajasthan, India
| | - Rajendra Awasthi
- Department of Pharmaceutics, Amity Institute of Pharmacy, Amity University Uttar Pradesh, Sector 125, Noida - 201303, India
| | - Komal Kumari
- Department of Pharmacy, School of Chemical Sciences & Pharmacy, Central University of Rajasthan, Bandar Sindri, Kishangarh, Ajmer-305817, Rajasthan, India
| | - Abhimanyu Thakur
- Department of Biomedical Sciences, City University of Hong Kong, Hong Kong SAR, China
| | - Arati Rai
- Hygia Institute of Pharmaceutical Education & Research, Lucknow-226020, Uttar Pradesh, India
| | - Gopal Kumar Rai
- Department of Pharmaceutical Engineering & Technology, Indian Institute of Technology (Banaras Hindu University), Varanasi- 221005, Uttar Pradesh, India
| | - Bhupesh Sharma
- Department of Pharmacology, Amity Institute of Pharmacy, Amity University Uttar Pradesh, Sector 125, Noida - 201303, India
| | - Giriraj T Kulkarni
- Department of Pharmaceutics, Amity Institute of Pharmacy, Amity University Uttar Pradesh, Sector 125, Noida - 201303, India
| | - Santosh Kumar Singh
- Centre of Experimental Medicine & Surgery, Institute of Medical Sciences, Banaras Hindu University, Varanasi-221005, Uttar Pradesh, India
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Fanaee-Danesh E, Gali CC, Tadic J, Zandl-Lang M, Carmen Kober A, Agujetas VR, de Dios C, Tam-Amersdorfer C, Stracke A, Albrecher NM, Manavalan APC, Reiter M, Sun Y, Colell A, Madeo F, Malle E, Panzenboeck U. Astaxanthin exerts protective effects similar to bexarotene in Alzheimer's disease by modulating amyloid-beta and cholesterol homeostasis in blood-brain barrier endothelial cells. Biochim Biophys Acta Mol Basis Dis 2019; 1865:2224-2245. [PMID: 31055081 DOI: 10.1016/j.bbadis.2019.04.019] [Citation(s) in RCA: 14] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 11/20/2018] [Revised: 04/28/2019] [Accepted: 04/30/2019] [Indexed: 12/15/2022]
Abstract
The pathogenesis of Alzheimer's disease (AD) is characterized by overproduction, impaired clearance, and deposition of amyloid-β peptides (Aβ) and connected to cholesterol homeostasis. Since the blood-brain barrier (BBB) is involved in these processes, we investigated effects of the retinoid X receptor agonist, bexarotene (Bex), and the peroxisome proliferator-activated receptor α agonist and antioxidant, astaxanthin (Asx), on pathways of cellular cholesterol metabolism, amyloid precursor protein processing/Aβ production and transfer at the BBB in vitro using primary porcine brain capillary endothelial cells (pBCEC), and in 3xTg AD mice. Asx/Bex downregulated transcription/activity of amyloidogenic BACE1 and reduced Aβ oligomers and ~80 kDa intracellular 6E10-reactive APP/Aβ species, while upregulating non-amyloidogenic ADAM10 and soluble (s)APPα production in pBCEC. Asx/Bex enhanced Aβ clearance to the apical/plasma compartment of the in vitro BBB model. Asx/Bex increased expression levels of ABCA1, LRP1, and/or APOA-I. Asx/Bex promoted cholesterol efflux, partly via PPARα/RXR activation, while cholesterol biosynthesis/esterification was suppressed. Silencing of LRP-1 or inhibition of ABCA1 by probucol reversed Asx/Bex-mediated effects on levels of APP/Aβ species in pBCEC. Murine (m)BCEC isolated from 3xTg AD mice treated with Bex revealed elevated expression of APOE and ABCA1. Asx/Bex reduced BACE1 and increased LRP-1 expression in mBCEC from 3xTg AD mice when compared to vehicle-treated or non-Tg treated mice. In parallel, Asx/Bex reduced levels of Aβ oligomers in mBCEC and Aβ species in brain soluble and insoluble fractions of 3xTg AD mice. Our results suggest that both agonists exert beneficial effects at the BBB by balancing cholesterol homeostasis and enhancing clearance of Aβ from cerebrovascular endothelial cells.
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Affiliation(s)
- Elham Fanaee-Danesh
- Division of Immunology and Pathophysiology, Otto Loewi Research Center, Medical University of Graz, Graz, Austria
| | - Chaitanya Chakravarthi Gali
- Division of Immunology and Pathophysiology, Otto Loewi Research Center, Medical University of Graz, Graz, Austria
| | - Jelena Tadic
- Institute of Molecular Biosciences, University of Graz, Graz, Austria
| | - Martina Zandl-Lang
- Division of Immunology and Pathophysiology, Otto Loewi Research Center, Medical University of Graz, Graz, Austria
| | - Alexandra Carmen Kober
- Division of Immunology and Pathophysiology, Otto Loewi Research Center, Medical University of Graz, Graz, Austria
| | - Vicente Roca Agujetas
- Department of Cell Death and Proliferation, Institut d'Investigacions Biomèdiques de Barcelona, Consejo Superior de Investigaciones Científicas (CSIC), IDIBAPS, Centro de Investigación Biomédica en Red sobre Enfermedades Neurodegenerativas (CIBERNED), Barcelona, Spain
| | - Cristina de Dios
- Department of Cell Death and Proliferation, Institut d'Investigacions Biomèdiques de Barcelona, Consejo Superior de Investigaciones Científicas (CSIC), IDIBAPS, Centro de Investigación Biomédica en Red sobre Enfermedades Neurodegenerativas (CIBERNED), Barcelona, Spain; Department of Biomedicine, Facultat de Medicina, Universitat de Barcelona, Barcelona, Spain
| | - Carmen Tam-Amersdorfer
- Division of Immunology and Pathophysiology, Otto Loewi Research Center, Medical University of Graz, Graz, Austria
| | - Anika Stracke
- Division of Immunology and Pathophysiology, Otto Loewi Research Center, Medical University of Graz, Graz, Austria
| | - Nicole Maria Albrecher
- Division of Immunology and Pathophysiology, Otto Loewi Research Center, Medical University of Graz, Graz, Austria
| | | | - Marielies Reiter
- Division of Immunology and Pathophysiology, Otto Loewi Research Center, Medical University of Graz, Graz, Austria
| | - Yidan Sun
- Division of Immunology and Pathophysiology, Otto Loewi Research Center, Medical University of Graz, Graz, Austria
| | - Anna Colell
- Department of Cell Death and Proliferation, Institut d'Investigacions Biomèdiques de Barcelona, Consejo Superior de Investigaciones Científicas (CSIC), IDIBAPS, Centro de Investigación Biomédica en Red sobre Enfermedades Neurodegenerativas (CIBERNED), Barcelona, Spain
| | - Frank Madeo
- Institute of Molecular Biosciences, University of Graz, Graz, Austria; BioTechMed Graz, Graz, Austria
| | - Ernst Malle
- Division of Molecular Biology and Biochemistry, Gottfried Schatz Research Center, Medical University of Graz, Graz, Austria
| | - Ute Panzenboeck
- Division of Immunology and Pathophysiology, Otto Loewi Research Center, Medical University of Graz, Graz, Austria.
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Fitz NF, Nam KN, Koldamova R, Lefterov I. Therapeutic targeting of nuclear receptors, liver X and retinoid X receptors, for Alzheimer's disease. Br J Pharmacol 2019; 176:3599-3610. [PMID: 30924124 PMCID: PMC6715597 DOI: 10.1111/bph.14668] [Citation(s) in RCA: 22] [Impact Index Per Article: 4.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 12/05/2018] [Revised: 02/15/2019] [Accepted: 02/24/2019] [Indexed: 12/18/2022] Open
Abstract
After 15 years of research into Alzheimer's disease (AD) therapeutics, including billions of US dollars provided by federal agencies, pharmaceutical companies, and private foundations, there are still no meaningful therapies that can delay the onset or slow the progression of AD. An understanding of the proteolytic processing of amyloid precursor protein (APP) and the hypothesis that pathogenic mechanisms in familial and sporadic forms of AD are very similar led to the assumption that pharmacological inhibition of secretases or immunological approaches to clear amyloid depositions in the brain would have been the core to drug discovery strategies and successful therapies. However, there are other understudied approaches including targeting genes, gene networks, and metabolic pathways outside the proteolytic processing of APP. The advancement of newly developed sequencing technologies and mass spectrometry, as well as the availability of animal models expressing human apolipoprotein E isoforms, has been critical in rationalizing additional AD therapeutics. The purpose of this review is to present one of those approaches, based on the role of ligand-activated nuclear liver X and retinoid X receptors in the brain. This therapeutic approach was initially proposed utilizing in vitro models 15 years ago and has since been examined in numerous studies using AD-like mouse models. LINKED ARTICLES: This article is part of a themed section on Therapeutics for Dementia and Alzheimer's Disease: New Directions for Precision Medicine. To view the other articles in this section visit http://onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/10.1111/bph.v176.18/issuetoc.
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Affiliation(s)
- Nicholas F Fitz
- Environmental and Occupational Health, Graduate School of Public Health, University of Pittsburgh, Pittsburgh, Pennsylvania
| | - Kyong Nyon Nam
- Environmental and Occupational Health, Graduate School of Public Health, University of Pittsburgh, Pittsburgh, Pennsylvania
| | - Radosveta Koldamova
- Environmental and Occupational Health, Graduate School of Public Health, University of Pittsburgh, Pittsburgh, Pennsylvania
| | - Iliya Lefterov
- Environmental and Occupational Health, Graduate School of Public Health, University of Pittsburgh, Pittsburgh, Pennsylvania
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28
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Apolipoprotein E and Alzheimer disease: pathobiology and targeting strategies. Nat Rev Neurol 2019; 15:501-518. [PMID: 31367008 DOI: 10.1038/s41582-019-0228-7] [Citation(s) in RCA: 692] [Impact Index Per Article: 138.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Accepted: 06/13/2019] [Indexed: 02/06/2023]
Abstract
Polymorphism in the apolipoprotein E (APOE) gene is a major genetic risk determinant of late-onset Alzheimer disease (AD), with the APOE*ε4 allele conferring an increased risk and the APOE*ε2 allele conferring a decreased risk relative to the common APOE*ε3 allele. Strong evidence from clinical and basic research suggests that a major pathway by which APOE4 increases the risk of AD is by driving earlier and more abundant amyloid pathology in the brains of APOE*ε4 carriers. The number of amyloid-β (Aβ)-dependent and Aβ-independent pathways that are known to be differentially modulated by APOE isoforms is increasing. For example, evidence is accumulating that APOE influences tau pathology, tau-mediated neurodegeneration and microglial responses to AD-related pathologies. In addition, APOE4 is either pathogenic or shows reduced efficiency in multiple brain homeostatic pathways, including lipid transport, synaptic integrity and plasticity, glucose metabolism and cerebrovascular function. Here, we review the recent progress in clinical and basic research into the role of APOE in AD pathogenesis. We also discuss how APOE can be targeted for AD therapy using a precision medicine approach.
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Chernick D, Ortiz-Valle S, Jeong A, Qu W, Li L. Peripheral versus central nervous system APOE in Alzheimer's disease: Interplay across the blood-brain barrier. Neurosci Lett 2019; 708:134306. [PMID: 31181302 DOI: 10.1016/j.neulet.2019.134306] [Citation(s) in RCA: 41] [Impact Index Per Article: 8.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 12/02/2018] [Revised: 05/28/2019] [Accepted: 05/29/2019] [Indexed: 12/20/2022]
Abstract
The apolipoprotein E (APOE) ε4 allele has been demonstrated as the preeminent genetic risk factor for late onset Alzheimer's disease (AD), which comprises greater than 90% of all AD cases. The discovery of the connection between different APOE genotypes and AD risk in the early 1990s spurred three decades of intense and comprehensive research into the function of APOE in the normal and diseased brain. The importance of APOE in the periphery has been well established, due to its pivotal role in maintaining cholesterol homeostasis and cardiovascular health. The influence of vascular factors on brain function and AD risk has been extensively studied in recent years. As a major apolipoprotein regulating multiple molecular pathways beyond its canonical lipid-related functions in the periphery and the central nervous system, APOE represents a critical link between the two compartments, and may influence AD risk from both sides of the blood-brain barrier. This review discusses recent advances in understanding the different functions of APOE in the periphery and in the brain, and highlights several promising APOE-targeted therapeutic strategies for AD.
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Affiliation(s)
| | | | - Angela Jeong
- Department of Experimental and Clinical Pharmacology, Minneapolis, MN, United States
| | - Wenhui Qu
- Graduate Program in Neuroscience, University of Minnesota, Minneapolis, MN, United States
| | - Ling Li
- Departments of Pharmacology, Minneapolis, MN, United States; Department of Experimental and Clinical Pharmacology, Minneapolis, MN, United States; Graduate Program in Neuroscience, University of Minnesota, Minneapolis, MN, United States.
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Shinohara M, Shinohara M, Zhao J, Fu Y, Liu CC, Kanekiyo T, Bu G. 5-HT3 Antagonist Ondansetron Increases apoE Secretion by Modulating the LXR-ABCA1 Pathway. Int J Mol Sci 2019; 20:ijms20061488. [PMID: 30934555 PMCID: PMC6471172 DOI: 10.3390/ijms20061488] [Citation(s) in RCA: 8] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 02/12/2019] [Revised: 03/10/2019] [Accepted: 03/21/2019] [Indexed: 12/20/2022] Open
Abstract
Apolipoprotein E (apoE) is linked to the risk for Alzheimer’s disease (AD) and thus has been suggested to be an important therapeutic target. In our drug screening effort, we identified Ondansetron (OS), an FDA-approved 5-HT3 antagonist, as an apoE-modulating drug. OS at low micromolar concentrations significantly increased apoE secretion from immortalized astrocytes and primary astrocytes derived from apoE3 and apoE4-targeted replacement mice without generating cellular toxicity. Other 5-HT3 antagonists also had similar effects as OS, though their effects were milder and required higher concentrations. Antagonists for other 5-HT receptors did not increase apoE secretion. OS also increased mRNA and protein levels of the ATB-binding cassette protein A1 (ABCA1), which is involved in lipidation and secretion of apoE. Accordingly, OS increased high molecular weight apoE. Moreover, the liver X receptor (LXR) and ABCA1 antagonists blocked the OS-induced increase of apoE secretion, indicating that the LXR-ABCA1 pathway is involved in the OS-mediated facilitation of apoE secretion from astrocytes. The effects of OS on apoE and ABCA1 were also observed in human astrocytes derived from induced pluripotent stem cells (iPSC) carrying the APOE ε3/ε3 and APOE ε4/ε4 genotypes. Oral administration of OS at clinically-relevant doses affected apoE levels in the liver, though the effects in the brain were not observed. Collectively, though further studies are needed to probe its effects in vivo, OS could be a potential therapeutic drug for AD by modulating poE metabolism through the LXR-ABCA1 pathway.
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Affiliation(s)
- Motoko Shinohara
- Department of Neuroscience, Mayo Clinic, Jacksonville, FL 32224, USA.
- Department of Aging Neurobiology, National Center for Geriatrics and Gerontology, Aichi 474-8511, Japan.
| | - Mitsuru Shinohara
- Department of Neuroscience, Mayo Clinic, Jacksonville, FL 32224, USA.
- Department of Aging Neurobiology, National Center for Geriatrics and Gerontology, Aichi 474-8511, Japan.
| | - Jing Zhao
- Department of Neuroscience, Mayo Clinic, Jacksonville, FL 32224, USA.
| | - Yuan Fu
- Department of Neuroscience, Mayo Clinic, Jacksonville, FL 32224, USA.
| | - Chia-Chen Liu
- Department of Neuroscience, Mayo Clinic, Jacksonville, FL 32224, USA.
| | - Takahisa Kanekiyo
- Department of Neuroscience, Mayo Clinic, Jacksonville, FL 32224, USA.
- Neuroscience Graduate Program, Mayo Clinic, Jacksonville, FL 32224, USA.
| | - Guojun Bu
- Department of Neuroscience, Mayo Clinic, Jacksonville, FL 32224, USA.
- Neuroscience Graduate Program, Mayo Clinic, Jacksonville, FL 32224, USA.
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31
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Chen R, Lee C, Lin X, Zhao C, Li X. Novel function of VEGF-B as an antioxidant and therapeutic implications. Pharmacol Res 2019; 143:33-39. [PMID: 30851357 DOI: 10.1016/j.phrs.2019.03.002] [Citation(s) in RCA: 27] [Impact Index Per Article: 5.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Submit a Manuscript] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 02/24/2019] [Revised: 03/01/2019] [Accepted: 03/01/2019] [Indexed: 12/14/2022]
Abstract
Oxidative stress, due to insufficiency of antioxidants or over-production of oxidants, can lead to severe cell and tissue damage. Oxidative stress occurs constantly and has been shown to be involved in innumerable diseases, such as degenerative, cardiovascular, neurological, and metabolic disorders, cancer, and aging, thus highlighting the vital need of antioxidant defense mechanisms. Vascular endothelial growth factor B (VEGF-B) was discovered a long time ago, and is abundantly expressed in most types of cells and tissues. VEGF-B remained functionally mysterious for many years and later on has been shown to be minimally angiogenic. Recently, VEGF-B is reported to be a potent antioxidant by boosting the expression of key antioxidant enzymes. Thus, one major role of VEGF-B lies in safeguarding tissues and cells from oxidative stress-induced damage. VEGF-B may therefore have promising therapeutic utilities in treating oxidative stress-related diseases. In this review, we discuss the current knowledge on the newly discovered antioxidant function of VEGF-B and the related molecular mechanisms, particularly, in relationship to some oxidative stress-related diseases, such as retinitis pigmentosa, age-related macular degeneration, diabetic retinopathy, glaucoma, amyotrophic lateral sclerosis, Alzheimer's disease, and Parkinson's disease.
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Affiliation(s)
- Rongyuan Chen
- State Key Laboratory of Ophthalmology, Zhongshan Ophthalmic Center, Sun Yat-sen University, Guangzhou 510060, China
| | - Chunsik Lee
- State Key Laboratory of Ophthalmology, Zhongshan Ophthalmic Center, Sun Yat-sen University, Guangzhou 510060, China
| | - Xianchai Lin
- State Key Laboratory of Ophthalmology, Zhongshan Ophthalmic Center, Sun Yat-sen University, Guangzhou 510060, China
| | - Chen Zhao
- Eye Institute, Eye and ENT Hospital, Shanghai Medical College, Fudan University, China; Key Laboratory of Myopia of State Health Ministry (Fudan University) and Shanghai Key Laboratory of Visual Impairment and Restoration, 200023, Shanghai, China.
| | - Xuri Li
- State Key Laboratory of Ophthalmology, Zhongshan Ophthalmic Center, Sun Yat-sen University, Guangzhou 510060, China.
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Clemens V, Regen F, Le Bret N, Heuser I, Hellmann-Regen J. Retinoic Acid Enhances Apolipoprotein E Synthesis in Human Macrophages. J Alzheimers Dis 2019; 61:1295-1300. [PMID: 29376871 DOI: 10.3233/jad-170823] [Citation(s) in RCA: 5] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 02/06/2023]
Abstract
Apolipoprotein E (ApoE) represents a pivotal target in Alzheimer's disease (AD) and is modulated through retinoic acid (RA), an endogenous neuroprotective and anti-inflammatory compound. A major source of ApoE are microglia, which are pathologically activated in AD. Activated microglia are known to block RA signaling. This suggests a vicious cycle between inflammation, RA signaling, and ApoE homeostasis in AD pathogenesis. To test this hypothesis, we investigated effects of RA and proinflammatory activation on ApoE synthesis in primary human macrophage-derived microglial-like cells. Our results indicate that proinflammatory activation attenuates ApoE synthesis, an effect blocked by RA.
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Affiliation(s)
- Vera Clemens
- Department of Psychiatry, Section Clinical Neurobiology, Campus Benjamin Franklin, Charité, University Medicine Berlin, Germany
| | - Francesca Regen
- Department of Psychiatry, Section Clinical Neurobiology, Campus Benjamin Franklin, Charité, University Medicine Berlin, Germany
| | - Nathalie Le Bret
- Department of Psychiatry, Section Clinical Neurobiology, Campus Benjamin Franklin, Charité, University Medicine Berlin, Germany
| | - Isabella Heuser
- Department of Psychiatry, Section Clinical Neurobiology, Campus Benjamin Franklin, Charité, University Medicine Berlin, Germany
| | - Julian Hellmann-Regen
- Department of Psychiatry, Section Clinical Neurobiology, Campus Benjamin Franklin, Charité, University Medicine Berlin, Germany
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Stewart KC, Subramanian D, Neal UJ, Hanson AJ. APOE Genotype Influences Postprandial Blood Pressure after High Fat Feeding in Older Adults. J Nutr Health Aging 2019; 23:408-413. [PMID: 31021357 PMCID: PMC6544369 DOI: 10.1007/s12603-019-1167-0] [Citation(s) in RCA: 1] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/29/2022]
Abstract
OBJECTIVE Postprandial hypotension (PPH) is a common phenomenon among older adults. The degree to which individuals experience PPH is related to cerebrovascular risk factors and the presence of neurodegenerative diseases such as Alzheimer's disease (AD). Carrier status of the E4 allele of the apolipoprotein E (APOE) gene is a risk factor for AD and influences a variety of responses to metabolic and dietary interventions. However, it is unknown whether APOE genotype influences the risk of PPH and whether type of meal can mediate that response. DESIGN Acute meal study with a crossover design. PARTICIPANTS 32 cognitively healthy older adults with (n=18) and without (n=14) E4+ carrier status. INTERVENTION As a part of an ongoing meal study we examined the postprandial blood pressure response after ingestion of a high carbohydrate (HCM) and high fat meal (HFM). MEASUREMENTS Blood pressure measurements were taken at 7 time points and change scores, area under the curve (AUC) scores were calculated. Data were analyzed by repeated measures ANOVA as well as Pearson correlation. RESULTS Both meals produced a sustained drop in systolic (SBP) and diastolic (DBP) blood pressure, with 37.5% of participants meeting criteria for PPH. Participants carrying the E4+ risk gene experienced a larger decrease in SBP than E4- participants, and this was significantly different after the HFM (E4+ AUC = -30.8 ± 7.6, E4- AUC = -0.2 ± 8.7, p=0.015). Increasing age was associated with a larger drop in postprandial blood pressure but only for the E4+ group after the HFM (p=0.002). CONCLUSIONS These data suggest that E4+ individuals experience a greater postprandial blood pressure response particularly following high fat feeding, and this effect becomes more pronounced with age. The prevalence of PPH may play a role in the development of AD and may be mediated by diet.
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Affiliation(s)
- K C Stewart
- Angela J Hanson, MD, Assistant Professor, Geriatric Medicine, University of Washington School of Medicine, 325 9th Ave, Box 359755, Seattle, WA, USA 98104, Phone: 206-897-5393, Fax: 206-744-9976,
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34
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Cao J, Hou J, Ping J, Cai D. Advances in developing novel therapeutic strategies for Alzheimer's disease. Mol Neurodegener 2018; 13:64. [PMID: 30541602 PMCID: PMC6291983 DOI: 10.1186/s13024-018-0299-8] [Citation(s) in RCA: 156] [Impact Index Per Article: 26.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 11/15/2018] [Accepted: 11/28/2018] [Indexed: 12/16/2022] Open
Abstract
Alzheimer's Disease (AD), the most prevalent neurodegenerative disease of aging, affects one in eight older Americans. Nearly all drug treatments tested for AD today have failed to show any efficacy. There is a great need for therapies to prevent and/or slow the progression of AD. The major challenge in AD drug development is lack of clarity about the mechanisms underlying AD pathogenesis and pathophysiology. Several studies support the notion that AD is a multifactorial disease. While there is abundant evidence that amyloid plays a role in AD pathogenesis, other mechanisms have been implicated in AD such as tangle formation and spread, dysregulated protein degradation pathways, neuroinflammation, and loss of support by neurotrophic factors. Therefore, current paradigms of AD drug design have been shifted from single target approach (primarily amyloid-centric) to developing drugs targeted at multiple disease aspects, and from treating AD at later stages of disease progression to focusing on preventive strategies at early stages of disease development. Here, we summarize current strategies and new trends of AD drug development, including pre-clinical and clinical trials that target different aspects of disease (mechanism-based versus non-mechanism based, e.g. symptomatic treatments, lifestyle modifications and risk factor management).
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Affiliation(s)
- Jiqing Cao
- James J Peters VA Medical Center, Research & Development, Bronx, NY 10468 USA
- Department of Neurology, Alzheimer Disease Research Center, Icahn School of Medicine at Mount Sinai, New York, NY 10029 USA
- The Central Hospital of The Hua Zhong University of Science and Technology, Wuhan, China
| | - Jianwei Hou
- James J Peters VA Medical Center, Research & Development, Bronx, NY 10468 USA
- Department of Neurology, Alzheimer Disease Research Center, Icahn School of Medicine at Mount Sinai, New York, NY 10029 USA
| | - Jing Ping
- The Central Hospital of The Hua Zhong University of Science and Technology, Wuhan, China
| | - Dongming Cai
- James J Peters VA Medical Center, Research & Development, Bronx, NY 10468 USA
- Department of Neurology, Alzheimer Disease Research Center, Icahn School of Medicine at Mount Sinai, New York, NY 10029 USA
- The Central Hospital of The Hua Zhong University of Science and Technology, Wuhan, China
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35
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Chernick D, Ortiz-Valle S, Jeong A, Swaminathan SK, Kandimalla KK, Rebeck GW, Li L. High-density lipoprotein mimetic peptide 4F mitigates amyloid-β-induced inhibition of apolipoprotein E secretion and lipidation in primary astrocytes and microglia. J Neurochem 2018; 147:647-662. [PMID: 30028014 DOI: 10.1111/jnc.14554] [Citation(s) in RCA: 29] [Impact Index Per Article: 4.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 01/29/2018] [Revised: 06/26/2018] [Accepted: 07/14/2018] [Indexed: 01/06/2023]
Abstract
The apolipoprotein E (apoE) ε4 allele is the primary genetic risk factor for late-onset Alzheimer's disease (AD). ApoE in the brain is produced primarily by astrocytes; once secreted from these cells, apoE binds lipids and forms high-density lipoprotein (HDL)-like particles. Accumulation of amyloid-β protein (Aβ) in the brain is a key hallmark of AD, and is thought to initiate a pathogenic cascade leading to neurodegeneration and dementia. The level and lipidation state of apoE affect Aβ aggregation and clearance pathways. Elevated levels of plasma HDL are associated with lower risk and severity of AD; the underlying mechanisms, however, have not been fully elucidated. This study was designed to investigate the impact of an HDL mimetic peptide, 4F, on the secretion and lipidation of apoE. We found that 4F significantly increases apoE secretion and lipidation in primary human astrocytes as well as in primary mouse astrocytes and microglia. Aggregated Aβ inhibits glial apoE secretion and lipidation, causing accumulation of intracellular apoE, an effect that is counteracted by co-treatment with 4F. Pharmacological and gene editing approaches show that 4F mediates its effects partially through the secretory pathway from the endoplasmic reticulum to the Golgi apparatus and requires the lipid transporter ATP-binding cassette transporter A1. We conclude that the HDL mimetic peptide 4F promotes glial apoE secretion and lipidation and mitigates the detrimental effects of Aβ on proper cellular trafficking and functionality of apoE. These findings suggest that treatment with such an HDL mimetic peptide may provide therapeutic benefit in AD. Read the Editorial Highlight for this article on page 580.
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Affiliation(s)
- Dustin Chernick
- Department of Pharmacology, University of Minnesota, Minneapolis, Minnesota, USA
| | | | - Angela Jeong
- Department of Experimental and Clinical Pharmacology, University of Minnesota, Minneapolis, Minnesota, USA
| | - Suresh K Swaminathan
- Department of Pharmaceutics, University of Minnesota, Minneapolis, Minnesota, USA
| | - Karunya K Kandimalla
- Department of Pharmaceutics, University of Minnesota, Minneapolis, Minnesota, USA
| | - G William Rebeck
- Department of Neuroscience, Georgetown University, Washington, District of Columbia, USA
| | - Ling Li
- Department of Pharmacology, University of Minnesota, Minneapolis, Minnesota, USA.,Department of Experimental and Clinical Pharmacology, University of Minnesota, Minneapolis, Minnesota, USA.,Graduate Program in Neuroscience, University of Minnesota, Minneapolis, Minnesota, USA
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36
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Mishra A, Brinton RD. Inflammation: Bridging Age, Menopause and APOEε4 Genotype to Alzheimer's Disease. Front Aging Neurosci 2018; 10:312. [PMID: 30356809 PMCID: PMC6189518 DOI: 10.3389/fnagi.2018.00312] [Citation(s) in RCA: 41] [Impact Index Per Article: 6.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 08/08/2018] [Accepted: 09/18/2018] [Indexed: 12/19/2022] Open
Abstract
Neuro-inflammatory processes that contribute to development of Alzheimer’s are evident early in the latent prodromal phase and worsen during the course of the disease. Despite substantial mechanistic and clinical evidence of inflammation, therapeutic approaches targeting inflammation have failed to alter the course of the disease. Disparate results from epidemiological and clinical trials targeting inflammation, highlight the complexity of the inflammatory process. Herein we review the dynamics of the inflammatory process across aging, midlife endocrine transitions, and the APOEε4 genotype and their contribution to progression of Alzheimer’s disease (AD). We discuss the chronic inflammatory processes that are activated during midlife chronological and endocrine aging, which ultimately limit the clearance capacity of microglia and lead to immune senescence. Aging, menopause, and APOEε4 combine the three hits of a compromised bioenergetic system of menopause with the chronic low grade innate inflammation of aging with the APOEε4 dyslipidemia and adaptive immune response. The inflammatory immune response is the unifying factor that bridges across each of the risk factors for AD. Immune system regulators that are specific to stage of disease and inflammatory phenotype would provide a therapeutic strategy to disconnect the bridge that drives disease. Outcomes of this analysis provide plausible mechanisms underlying failed clinical trials of anti-inflammatory agents in Alzheimer’s patients. Further, they highlight the need for stratifying AD clinical trial cohorts based on inflammatory phenotype. Combination therapies that include targeted use of anti-inflammatory agent’s specific to the immune phenotype are considered.
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Affiliation(s)
- Aarti Mishra
- Titus Family Department of Clinical Pharmacy, School of Pharmacy, University of Southern California, Los Angeles, CA, United States.,Center for Innovation in Brain Science, University of Arizona, Tucson, AZ, United States
| | - Roberta D Brinton
- Center for Innovation in Brain Science, University of Arizona, Tucson, AZ, United States.,Department of Pharmacology, College of Medicine, University of Arizona, Tucson, AZ, United States.,Department of Neurology, College of Medicine, University of Arizona, Tucson, AZ, United States
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37
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Mullane K, Williams M. Alzheimer's disease (AD) therapeutics - 2: Beyond amyloid - Re-defining AD and its causality to discover effective therapeutics. Biochem Pharmacol 2018; 158:376-401. [PMID: 30273552 DOI: 10.1016/j.bcp.2018.09.027] [Citation(s) in RCA: 18] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 08/01/2018] [Accepted: 09/24/2018] [Indexed: 12/25/2022]
Abstract
Compounds targeted for the treatment of Alzheimer's Disease (AD) have consistently failed in clinical trials despite evidence for target engagement and pharmacodynamic activity. This questions the relevance of compounds acting at current AD drug targets - the majority of which reflect the seminal amyloid and, to a far lesser extent, tau hypotheses - and limitations in understanding AD causality as distinct from general dementia. The preeminence of amyloid and tau led to many alternative approaches to AD therapeutics being ignored or underfunded to the extent that their causal versus contributory role in AD remains unknown. These include: neuronal network dysfunction; cerebrovascular disease; chronic, local or systemic inflammation involving the innate immune system; infectious agents including herpes virus and prion proteins; neurotoxic protein accumulation associated with sleep deprivation, circadian rhythm and glymphatic/meningeal lymphatic system and blood-brain-barrier dysfunction; metabolic related diseases including diabetes, obesity hypertension and hypocholesterolemia; mitochondrial dysfunction and environmental factors. As AD has become increasingly recognized as a multifactorial syndrome, a single treatment paradigm is unlikely to work in all patients. However, the biomarkers required to diagnose patients and parse them into mechanism/disease-based sub-groups remain rudimentary and unvalidated as do non-amyloid, non-tau translational animal models. The social and economic impact of AD is also discussed in the context of new FDA regulatory draft guidance and a proposed biomarker-based Framework (re)-defining AD and its stages as part of the larger landscape of treating dementia via the 2013 G8 initiative to identify a disease-modifying therapy for dementia/AD by 2025.
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Affiliation(s)
- Kevin Mullane
- Gladstone Institutes, San Francisco, CA, United States
| | - Michael Williams
- Department of Biological Chemistry and Pharmacology, College of Medicine, Ohio State University, Columbus, OH, United States.
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38
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Dheer Y, Chitranshi N, Gupta V, Abbasi M, Mirzaei M, You Y, Chung R, Graham SL, Gupta V. Bexarotene Modulates Retinoid-X-Receptor Expression and Is Protective Against Neurotoxic Endoplasmic Reticulum Stress Response and Apoptotic Pathway Activation. Mol Neurobiol 2018; 55:9043-9056. [PMID: 29637440 DOI: 10.1007/s12035-018-1041-9] [Citation(s) in RCA: 33] [Impact Index Per Article: 5.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 08/15/2017] [Accepted: 03/27/2018] [Indexed: 12/21/2022]
Abstract
Retinoid X-receptors (RXRs) are members of the ligand-dependent transcription factor family of nuclear receptors that have gained recent research focus as potential targets for neurodegenerative disorders. Bexarotene is an RXR pharmacological agonist that is shown to be neuroprotective through its effects in promoting amyloid beta (Aβ) uptake by the glial cells in the brain. This study aimed to evaluate the dose-dependent effects of bexarotene on RXR expression in SH-SY5Y neuroblastoma cells and validate the drug effects in the brain in vivo. The protein expression studies were carried out using a combination of various drug treatment paradigms followed by expression analysis using Western blotting and immunofluorescence. Our study demonstrated that bexarotene promoted the expression of RXR α, β and γ isoforms at optimal concentrations in the cells and in the mice brain. Interestingly, a decreased RXR expression was identified in Alzheimer's disease mouse model and in the cells that were treated with Aβ. Bexarotene treatment not only rescued the RXR expression loss caused by Aβ treatment (p < 0.05) but also protected the cells against Aβ-induced ER stress (p < 0.05) and pro-apoptotic BAD protein activation (p < 0.05). In contrast, higher concentrations of bexarotene upregulated the ER stress proteins and led to BAD activation. Our study revealed that these downstream neurotoxic effects of high drug concentrations could be prevented by pharmacological targeting of the TrkB receptor. The ER stress and BAD activation induced by high concentrations of bexarotene were rescued by the TrkB agonist, 7,8 dihydroxyflavone (p < 0.05) while TrkB inhibitor CTX-B treatment further exacerbated these effects. Together, these findings suggest a cross-talk of TrkB signalling with downstream effects of bexarotene toxicity and indicate that therapeutic targeting of RXRs could prevent the Aβ-induced molecular neurotoxic effects.
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Affiliation(s)
- Yogita Dheer
- Faculty of Medicine and Health Sciences, Macquarie University, F10A, 2 Technology Place, North Ryde, NSW, 2109, Australia.
| | - Nitin Chitranshi
- Faculty of Medicine and Health Sciences, Macquarie University, F10A, 2 Technology Place, North Ryde, NSW, 2109, Australia
| | - Veer Gupta
- School of Medical Sciences, Edith Cowan University, Perth, Australia
| | - Mojdeh Abbasi
- Faculty of Medicine and Health Sciences, Macquarie University, F10A, 2 Technology Place, North Ryde, NSW, 2109, Australia
| | - Mehdi Mirzaei
- Department of Chemistry and Biomolecular Sciences, Macquarie University, North Ryde, NSW, 2109, Australia
| | - Yuyi You
- Save Sight Institute, Sydney University, Sydney, NSW, 2000, Australia
| | - Roger Chung
- Faculty of Medicine and Health Sciences, Macquarie University, F10A, 2 Technology Place, North Ryde, NSW, 2109, Australia
| | - Stuart L Graham
- Faculty of Medicine and Health Sciences, Macquarie University, F10A, 2 Technology Place, North Ryde, NSW, 2109, Australia.,Save Sight Institute, Sydney University, Sydney, NSW, 2000, Australia
| | - Vivek Gupta
- Faculty of Medicine and Health Sciences, Macquarie University, F10A, 2 Technology Place, North Ryde, NSW, 2109, Australia
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Dorey E, Bamji-Mirza M, Najem D, Li Y, Liu H, Callaghan D, Walker D, Lue LF, Stanimirovic D, Zhang W. Apolipoprotein E Isoforms Differentially Regulate Alzheimer's Disease and Amyloid-β-Induced Inflammatory Response in vivo and in vitro. J Alzheimers Dis 2018; 57:1265-1279. [PMID: 28372324 DOI: 10.3233/jad-160133] [Citation(s) in RCA: 20] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/12/2022]
Abstract
Neuroinflammation plays a critical role in neuronal dysfunction and death of Alzheimer's disease (AD). ApoE4 is a major risk factor of AD, while ApoE2 is neuroprotective. Little is known about the roles of ApoE isoforms in the neuroinflammation seen in AD. Their roles and mechanisms in Aβ-induced/neuroinflammation were investigated in this study using in vivo and in vitro models. Rat astrocytes were treated with lipid-poor recombinant hApoE and/or Aβ42. Mouse astrocyte lines-expressing lipidated hApoE were treated with Aβ42 and/or vitamin D receptor (VDR) agonist, 1α,25-dihydroxyvitamin D3. Cells and media were harvested for cytokine ELISA, RNA isolated for qRT-PCR, and nuclear protein for transcription factor (TF) arrays and EMSA. hApoE-transgenic and AD mice were mated to generate hApoE2/AD and hApoE4/AD mice. Mice were euthanized at 6 months of age. Brain tissues were collected for cytokine ELISA array, Aβ ELISA, immunoblotting, and immunohistochemistry. hApoE4/AD mice had significantly higher levels of inflammatory cytokines than hApoE2/AD mice. Lipidated hApoE4 significantly promoted inflammatory gene expression induced by Aβ42 but not recombinant hApoE4 in astrocytes as compared to controls. Lipidated hApoE3 provided a certain degree of protection against Aβ42-induced inflammatory response but not recombinant hApoE3 as compared to controls. Both lipidated and recombinant hApoE2 provided protection against Aβ42-induced inflammatory response compared to controls. TF array revealed that ApoE2 strongly activated VDR in Aβ42-treated astrocytes. Application of 1α,25-dihydroxyvitamin D3 completely inhibited Aβ-induced inflammatory gene expression in hApoE4-expressing astrocytes. The results suggest that ApoE4 promotes, but ApoE2 inhibits, AD/Aβ-induced neuroinflammation via VDR signaling. Targeting VDR signaling or active form of VD3 may relieve AD neuroinflammation or/and neurodegeneration.
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Affiliation(s)
- Evan Dorey
- Faculty of Medicine, University of Ottawa, Ottawa, Canada.,Human Health Therapeutics, National Research Council Canada, Ottawa, Canada
| | - Michelle Bamji-Mirza
- Faculty of Medicine, University of Ottawa, Ottawa, Canada.,Human Health Therapeutics, National Research Council Canada, Ottawa, Canada
| | - Dema Najem
- Faculty of Medicine, University of Ottawa, Ottawa, Canada.,Human Health Therapeutics, National Research Council Canada, Ottawa, Canada
| | - Yan Li
- Faculty of Medicine, University of Ottawa, Ottawa, Canada.,Human Health Therapeutics, National Research Council Canada, Ottawa, Canada
| | - Hong Liu
- Human Health Therapeutics, National Research Council Canada, Ottawa, Canada
| | - Debbie Callaghan
- Human Health Therapeutics, National Research Council Canada, Ottawa, Canada
| | | | - Lih-Fen Lue
- Banner Sun Health Research Institute, Sun City, AZ, USA
| | - Danica Stanimirovic
- Faculty of Medicine, University of Ottawa, Ottawa, Canada.,Human Health Therapeutics, National Research Council Canada, Ottawa, Canada
| | - Wandong Zhang
- Faculty of Medicine, University of Ottawa, Ottawa, Canada.,Human Health Therapeutics, National Research Council Canada, Ottawa, Canada
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40
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Early Presymptomatic Changes in the Proteome of Mitochondria-Associated Membrane in the APP/PS1 Mouse Model of Alzheimer's Disease. Mol Neurobiol 2018; 55:7839-7857. [PMID: 29468564 DOI: 10.1007/s12035-018-0955-6] [Citation(s) in RCA: 41] [Impact Index Per Article: 6.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 10/16/2017] [Accepted: 02/05/2018] [Indexed: 12/20/2022]
Abstract
Intracellular β-amyloid (Aβ) accumulation is an early event in Alzheimer's disease (AD) progression. Recently, it has been uncovered that presenilins (PSs), the key components of the amyloid precursor protein (APP) processing and the β-amyloid producing γ-secretase complex, are highly enriched in a special sub-compartment of the endoplasmic reticulum (ER) functionally connected to mitochondria, called mitochondria-associated ER membrane (MAM). A current hypothesis of pathogenesis of Alzheimer's diseases (AD) suggests that MAM is involved in the initial phase of AD. Since MAM supplies mitochondria with essential proteins, the increasing level of PSs and β-amyloid could lead to metabolic dysfunction because of the impairment of ER-mitochondrion crosstalk. To reveal the early molecular changes of this subcellular compartment in AD development MAM fraction was isolated from the cerebral cortex of 3 months old APP/PS1 mouse model of AD and age-matched C57BL/6 control mice, then mass spectrometry-based quantitative proteome analysis was performed. The enrichment and purity of MAM preparations were validated with EM, LC-MS/MS and protein enrichment analysis. Label-free LC-MS/MS was used to reveal the differences between the proteome of the transgenic and control mice. We obtained 77 increased and 49 decreased protein level changes in the range of - 6.365 to + 2.988, which have mitochondrial, ER or ribosomal localization according to Gene Ontology database. The highest degree of difference between the two groups was shown by the ATP-binding cassette G1 (Abcg1) which plays a crucial role in cholesterol metabolism and suppresses Aβ accumulation. Most of the other protein changes were associated with increased protein synthesis, endoplasmic-reticulum-associated protein degradation (ERAD), oxidative stress response, decreased mitochondrial protein transport and ATP production. The interaction network analysis revealed a strong relationship between the detected MAM protein changes and AD. Moreover, it explored several MAM proteins with hub position suggesting their importance in Aβ induced early MAM dysregulation. Our identified MAM protein changes precede the onset of dementia-like symptoms in the APP/PS1 model, suggesting their importance in the development of AD.
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41
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Monacelli F, Cea M, Borghi R, Odetti P, Nencioni A. Do Cancer Drugs Counteract Neurodegeneration? Repurposing for Alzheimer's Disease. J Alzheimers Dis 2018; 55:1295-1306. [PMID: 27834781 DOI: 10.3233/jad-160840] [Citation(s) in RCA: 19] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 01/28/2023]
Abstract
In spite of in depth investigations in the field of the amyloid cascade hypothesis, so far, no disease modifying therapy has been developed for Alzheimer's disease (AD). The pathophysiology provides some evidence of the inverse correlation between cancer and AD. Both AD and cancer are characterized by abnormal cellular behaviors; trigger factors along with a meta synchronously action is expected to drive cancer or neurodegeneration, supporting, respectively, progressive neuronal loss or uncontrolled cell proliferation in cancer cells. So far, cancer and AD are seemingly two opposite ends of the same biological spectrum. Basic science increasingly indicates shared molecular mechanisms between cancer and AD and gives weight to key relevant biological theories; according to them, the inverse tuning of clustered gene expression, the sharing of mutual independent pathway or the deregulated unfolded proteins system (UPR) may count for this inverse association. Additionally, the common biological background gave credibility to the recent discovery of a repurposing role for cancer drugs in AD. It refers to the development of new uses for existing pharmaceuticals having the same role as the original mechanism or to the discovery of a new drug action with disease modifying effects. The present review summarizes the most important biological theories that link neurodegeneration and cancer and provides an up-to-date revision of the repurposing cancer agents for AD. The review also addresses the gap of knowledge, since drug cancer repositioning holds an important promise but further investigations are warranted to ascertain the clinical relevance of such attractive clinical candidate compounds for AD.
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Affiliation(s)
- Fiammetta Monacelli
- Section of Geriatrics, Department of Internal Medicine and Medical Specialties (DIMI), University of Genoa, Genoa, Italy
| | - Michele Cea
- Section of Haematology, Department of Internal Medicine and Medical Specialties, (DIMI), University of Genoa, Genoa, Italy
| | - Roberta Borghi
- Section of Geriatrics, Department of Internal Medicine and Medical Specialties (DIMI), University of Genoa, Genoa, Italy
| | - Patrizio Odetti
- Section of Geriatrics, Department of Internal Medicine and Medical Specialties (DIMI), University of Genoa, Genoa, Italy
| | - Alessio Nencioni
- Section of Geriatrics, Department of Internal Medicine and Medical Specialties (DIMI), University of Genoa, Genoa, Italy
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42
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Zhao N, Liu CC, Qiao W, Bu G. Apolipoprotein E, Receptors, and Modulation of Alzheimer's Disease. Biol Psychiatry 2018; 83:347-357. [PMID: 28434655 PMCID: PMC5599322 DOI: 10.1016/j.biopsych.2017.03.003] [Citation(s) in RCA: 230] [Impact Index Per Article: 38.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Submit a Manuscript] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 02/01/2017] [Revised: 03/07/2017] [Accepted: 03/08/2017] [Indexed: 12/31/2022]
Abstract
Apolipoprotein E (apoE) is a lipid carrier in both the peripheral and the central nervous systems. Lipid-loaded apoE lipoprotein particles bind to several cell surface receptors to support membrane homeostasis and injury repair in the brain. Considering prevalence and relative risk magnitude, the ε4 allele of the APOE gene is the strongest genetic risk factor for late-onset Alzheimer's disease (AD). ApoE4 contributes to AD pathogenesis by modulating multiple pathways, including but not limited to the metabolism, aggregation, and toxicity of amyloid-β peptide, tauopathy, synaptic plasticity, lipid transport, glucose metabolism, mitochondrial function, vascular integrity, and neuroinflammation. Emerging knowledge on apoE-related pathways in the pathophysiology of AD presents new opportunities for AD therapy. We describe the biochemical and biological features of apoE and apoE receptors in the central nervous system. We also discuss the evidence and mechanisms addressing differential effects of apoE isoforms and the role of apoE receptors in AD pathogenesis, with a particular emphasis on the clinical and preclinical studies related to amyloid-β pathology. Finally, we summarize the current strategies of AD therapy targeting apoE, and postulate that effective strategies require an apoE isoform-specific approach.
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Affiliation(s)
- Na Zhao
- Department of Neuroscience, Mayo Clinic, Jacksonville, FL, 32224, USA
| | - Chia-Chen Liu
- Department of Neuroscience, Mayo Clinic, Jacksonville, FL, 32224, USA
| | - Wenhui Qiao
- Department of Neuroscience, Mayo Clinic, Jacksonville, FL, 32224, USA
| | - Guojun Bu
- Department of Neuroscience, Mayo Clinic, Jacksonville, Florida; Fujian Provincial Key Laboratory of Neurodegenerative Disease and Aging Research, Institute of Neuroscience, College of Medicine, Xiamen University, Xiamen, Fujian, China.
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43
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Differential Binding of Human ApoE Isoforms to Insulin Receptor is Associated with Aberrant Insulin Signaling in AD Brain Samples. Neuromolecular Med 2018; 20:124-132. [PMID: 29450841 DOI: 10.1007/s12017-018-8480-3] [Citation(s) in RCA: 9] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 01/01/2018] [Accepted: 02/03/2018] [Indexed: 01/26/2023]
Abstract
Apolipoprotein E4 (ApoE4) is the strongest genetic risk factor for sporadic Alzheimer's disease (AD), where inheritance of this isoform predisposes development of AD in a gene dose-dependent manner. Although the mode of action of ApoE4 on AD onset and progression remains unknown, we have previously shown that ApoE4, and not ApoE3 expression, resulted in insulin signaling deficits in the presence of amyloid beta (Aβ). However, these reports were not conducted with clinical samples that more accurately reflect human disease. In this study, we investigated the effect of ApoE genotype on the insulin signaling pathway in control and AD human brain samples. We found that targets of the insulin signaling pathway were attenuated in AD cases, regardless of ApoE isoform. We also found a decrease in GluR1 subunit expression, and an increase NR2B subunit expression in AD cases, regardless of ApoE isoform. Lastly, we observed that more insulin receptor (IR) was immunoprecipitated in control cases, and more Aβ was immunoprecipitated with AD cases. But, when comparing among AD cases, we found that more IR was immunoprecipitated with ApoE3 than ApoE4, and more Aβ was immunoprecipitated with ApoE4 than ApoE3. Our results suggest that the difference in IR binding and effect on protein expression downstream of the IR may affect onset and progression of AD.
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Casali BT, Reed-Geaghan EG, Landreth GE. Nuclear receptor agonist-driven modification of inflammation and amyloid pathology enhances and sustains cognitive improvements in a mouse model of Alzheimer's disease. J Neuroinflammation 2018; 15:43. [PMID: 29448961 PMCID: PMC5815248 DOI: 10.1186/s12974-018-1091-y] [Citation(s) in RCA: 16] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 11/21/2017] [Accepted: 02/07/2018] [Indexed: 12/21/2022] Open
Abstract
BACKGROUND Alzheimer's disease (AD) is a highly prevalent neurodegenerative disorder characterized by pathological hallmarks of beta-amyloid plaque deposits, tau pathology, inflammation, and cognitive decline. Treatment remains a clinical obstacle due to lack of effective therapeutics. Agonists targeting nuclear receptors, such as bexarotene, reversed cognitive deficits regardless of treatment duration and age in murine models of AD. While bexarotene demonstrated marked efficacy in decreasing plaque levels following short-term treatment, prolonged treatment did not modulate plaque burden. This suggested that plaques might reform in mice treated chronically with bexarotene and that cessation of bexarotene treatment before plaques reform might alter amyloid pathology, inflammation, and cognition in AD mice. METHODS We utilized one-year-old APP/PS1 mice that were divided into two groups. We treated one group of mice for 2 weeks with bexarotene. The other group of mice was treated for 2 weeks with bexarotene followed by withdrawal of drug treatment for an additional 2 weeks. Cognition was evaluated using the novel-object recognition test either at the end of bexarotene treatment or the end of the withdrawal period. We then analyzed amyloid pathology and microgliosis at the conclusion of the study in both groups. RESULTS Bexarotene treatment enhanced cognition in APP/PS1 mice similar to previous findings. Strikingly, we observed sustained cognitive improvements in mice in which bexarotene treatment was discontinued for 2 weeks. We observed a sustained reduction in microgliosis and plaque burden following drug withdrawal exclusively in the hippocampus. CONCLUSIONS Our findings demonstrate that bexarotene selectively modifies aspects of neuroinflammation in a region-specific manner to reverse hippocampal-dependent cognitive deficits in AD mice and may provide insight to inform future studies with nuclear receptor agonists.
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Affiliation(s)
- Brad T. Casali
- Department of Neurosciences, Case Western Reserve University School of Medicine, Cleveland, OH 44106 USA
- Stark Neurosciences Research Institute, Indiana University School of Medicine, Indianapolis, IN 46202 USA
| | - Erin G. Reed-Geaghan
- Department of Neurosciences, Case Western Reserve University School of Medicine, Cleveland, OH 44106 USA
| | - Gary E. Landreth
- Department of Neurosciences, Case Western Reserve University School of Medicine, Cleveland, OH 44106 USA
- Stark Neurosciences Research Institute, Indiana University School of Medicine, Indianapolis, IN 46202 USA
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Boehm-Cagan A, Bar R, Liraz O, Bielicki JK, Johansson JO, Michaelson DM. ABCA1 Agonist Reverses the ApoE4-Driven Cognitive and Brain Pathologies. J Alzheimers Dis 2018; 54:1219-1233. [PMID: 27567858 DOI: 10.3233/jad-160467] [Citation(s) in RCA: 69] [Impact Index Per Article: 11.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/14/2022]
Abstract
The allele ɛ4 of apolipoprotein E (apoE4) is the most prevalent genetic risk factor for Alzheimer's disease (AD) and is therefore a promising therapeutic target. Human and animal model studies suggest that apoE4 is hypolipidated; accordingly, we have previously shown that the retinoid X receptor (RXR) agonist bexarotene upregulates ABCA1, the main apoE-lipidating protein, resulting in increased lipidation of apoE4, and the subsequent reversal of the pathological effects of apoE4, namely: accumulation of Aβ42 and hyperphosphorylated tau, as well as reduction in the levels of synaptic markers and cognitive deficits. Since the RXR system has numerous other targets, it is important to devise the means of activating ABCA1 selectively. We presently utilized CS-6253, a peptide shown to directly activate ABCA1 in vitro, and examined the extent to which it can affect the degree of lipidation of apoE4 in vivo and counteract the associated brain and behavioral pathologies. This revealed that treatment of young apoE4-targeted replacement mice with CS-6253 increases the lipidation of apoE4. This was associated with a reversal of the apoE4-driven Aβ42 accumulation and tau hyperphosphorylation in hippocampal neurons, as well as of the synaptic impairments and cognitive deficits. These findings suggest that the pathological effects of apoE4 in vivo are associated with decreased activation of ABCA1 and impaired lipidation of apoE4 and that the downstream brain-related pathology and cognitive deficits can be counteracted by treatment with the ABCA1 agonist CS-6253. These findings have important clinical ramifications and put forward ABCA1 as a promising target for apoE4-related treatment of AD.
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Affiliation(s)
- Anat Boehm-Cagan
- The Department of Neurobiology, The George S. Wise Faculty of Life Sciences, The Sagol School of Neuroscience, Tel Aviv University, Tel Aviv, Israel
| | - Roni Bar
- The Department of Neurobiology, The George S. Wise Faculty of Life Sciences, The Sagol School of Neuroscience, Tel Aviv University, Tel Aviv, Israel
| | - Ori Liraz
- The Department of Neurobiology, The George S. Wise Faculty of Life Sciences, The Sagol School of Neuroscience, Tel Aviv University, Tel Aviv, Israel
| | - John K Bielicki
- Life Sciences Division, Lawrence Berkeley National Laboratory, University of California, Berkeley, CA, USA
| | | | - Daniel M Michaelson
- The Department of Neurobiology, The George S. Wise Faculty of Life Sciences, The Sagol School of Neuroscience, Tel Aviv University, Tel Aviv, Israel
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Clayton KA, Van Enoo AA, Ikezu T. Alzheimer's Disease: The Role of Microglia in Brain Homeostasis and Proteopathy. Front Neurosci 2017; 11:680. [PMID: 29311768 PMCID: PMC5733046 DOI: 10.3389/fnins.2017.00680] [Citation(s) in RCA: 95] [Impact Index Per Article: 13.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 10/01/2017] [Accepted: 11/21/2017] [Indexed: 01/15/2023] Open
Abstract
Brain aging is central to late-onset Alzheimer's disease (LOAD), although the mechanisms by which it occurs at protein or cellular levels are not fully understood. Alzheimer's disease is the most common proteopathy and is characterized by two unique pathologies: senile plaques and neurofibrillary tangles, the former accumulating earlier than the latter. Aging alters the proteostasis of amyloid-β peptides and microtubule-associated protein tau, which are regulated in both autonomous and non-autonomous manners. Microglia, the resident phagocytes of the central nervous system, play a major role in the non-autonomous clearance of protein aggregates. Their function is significantly altered by aging and neurodegeneration. This is genetically supported by the association of microglia-specific genes, TREM2 and CD33, and late onset Alzheimer's disease. Here, we propose that the functional characterization of microglia, and their contribution to proteopathy, will lead to a new therapeutic direction in Alzheimer's disease research.
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Affiliation(s)
- Kevin A Clayton
- Department of Pharmacology and Experimental Therapeutics, Medical School, Boston University, Boston, MA, United States
| | - Alicia A Van Enoo
- Department of Pharmacology and Experimental Therapeutics, Medical School, Boston University, Boston, MA, United States
| | - Tsuneya Ikezu
- Department of Pharmacology and Experimental Therapeutics, Medical School, Boston University, Boston, MA, United States.,Department of Neurology, Medical School, Boston University, Boston, MA, United States
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Tai LM, Balu D, Avila-Munoz E, Abdullah L, Thomas R, Collins N, Valencia-Olvera AC, LaDu MJ. EFAD transgenic mice as a human APOE relevant preclinical model of Alzheimer's disease. J Lipid Res 2017; 58:1733-1755. [PMID: 28389477 PMCID: PMC5580905 DOI: 10.1194/jlr.r076315] [Citation(s) in RCA: 54] [Impact Index Per Article: 7.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 03/15/2017] [Revised: 04/06/2017] [Indexed: 01/12/2023] Open
Abstract
Identified in 1993, APOE4 is the greatest genetic risk factor for sporadic Alzheimer's disease (AD), increasing risk up to 15-fold compared with APOE3, with APOE2 decreasing AD risk. However, the functional effects of APOE4 on AD pathology remain unclear and, in some cases, controversial. In vivo progress to understand how the human (h)-APOE genotypes affect AD pathology has been limited by the lack of a tractable familial AD-transgenic (FAD-Tg) mouse model expressing h-APOE rather than mouse (m)-APOE. The disparity between m- and h-apoE is relevant for virtually every AD-relevant pathway, including amyloid-β (Aβ) deposition and clearance, neuroinflammation, tau pathology, neural plasticity and cerebrovascular deficits. EFAD mice were designed as a temporally useful preclinical FAD-Tg-mouse model expressing the h-APOE genotypes for identifying mechanisms underlying APOE-modulated symptoms of AD pathology. From their first description in 2012, EFAD mice have enabled critical basic and therapeutic research. Here we review insights gleaned from the EFAD mice and summarize future directions.
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Affiliation(s)
- Leon M Tai
- Department of Anatomy and Cell Biology, University of Illinois at Chicago, Chicago, IL 60612
| | - Deebika Balu
- Department of Anatomy and Cell Biology, University of Illinois at Chicago, Chicago, IL 60612
| | - Evangelina Avila-Munoz
- Department of Anatomy and Cell Biology, University of Illinois at Chicago, Chicago, IL 60612
| | | | - Riya Thomas
- Department of Anatomy and Cell Biology, University of Illinois at Chicago, Chicago, IL 60612
| | - Nicole Collins
- Department of Anatomy and Cell Biology, University of Illinois at Chicago, Chicago, IL 60612
| | | | - Mary Jo LaDu
- Department of Anatomy and Cell Biology, University of Illinois at Chicago, Chicago, IL 60612.
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Yeh FL, Hansen DV, Sheng M. TREM2, Microglia, and Neurodegenerative Diseases. Trends Mol Med 2017; 23:512-533. [DOI: 10.1016/j.molmed.2017.03.008] [Citation(s) in RCA: 180] [Impact Index Per Article: 25.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 12/24/2016] [Revised: 02/15/2017] [Accepted: 03/26/2017] [Indexed: 01/17/2023]
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Moutinho M, Landreth GE. Therapeutic potential of nuclear receptor agonists in Alzheimer's disease. J Lipid Res 2017; 58:1937-1949. [PMID: 28264880 DOI: 10.1194/jlr.r075556] [Citation(s) in RCA: 43] [Impact Index Per Article: 6.1] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 02/07/2017] [Revised: 03/03/2017] [Indexed: 11/20/2022] Open
Abstract
Alzheimer's disease (AD) is characterized by an extensive accumulation of amyloid-β (Aβ) peptide, which triggers a set of deleterious processes, including synaptic dysfunction, inflammation, and neuronal injury, leading to neuronal loss and cognitive impairment. A large body of evidence supports that nuclear receptor (NR) activation could be a promising therapeutic approach for AD. NRs are ligand-activated transcription factors that regulate gene expression and have cell type-specific effects. In this review, we discuss the mechanisms that underlie the beneficial effects of NRs in AD. Moreover, we summarize studies reported in the last 10-15 years and their major outcomes arising from the pharmacological targeting of NRs in AD animal models. The dissection of the pathways regulated by NRs in the context of AD is of importance in identifying novel and effective therapeutic strategies.
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Affiliation(s)
- Miguel Moutinho
- Department of Neurosciences, Case Western Reserve University, Cleveland, OH 44106 and Stark Neuroscience Research Institute, Indiana University School of Medicine, Indianapolis, IN 46202
| | - Gary E Landreth
- Department of Neurosciences, Case Western Reserve University, Cleveland, OH 44106 and Stark Neuroscience Research Institute, Indiana University School of Medicine, Indianapolis, IN 46202
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Neuronally-directed effects of RXR activation in a mouse model of Alzheimer's disease. Sci Rep 2017; 7:42270. [PMID: 28205585 PMCID: PMC5311933 DOI: 10.1038/srep42270] [Citation(s) in RCA: 73] [Impact Index Per Article: 10.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 06/15/2016] [Accepted: 01/04/2017] [Indexed: 12/13/2022] Open
Abstract
Alzheimer’s disease (AD) is characterized by extensive neuron loss that accompanies profound impairments in memory and cognition. We examined the neuronally directed effects of the retinoid X receptor agonist bexarotene in an aggressive model of AD. We report that a two week treatment of 3.5 month old 5XFAD mice with bexarotene resulted in the clearance of intraneuronal amyloid deposits. Importantly, neuronal loss was attenuated by 44% in the subiculum in mice 4 months of age and 18% in layer V of the cortex in mice 8 months of age. Moreover, bexarotene treatment improved remote memory stabilization in fear conditioned mice and improved olfactory cross habituation. These improvements in neuron viability and function were correlated with significant increases in the levels of post-synaptic marker PSD95 and the pre-synaptic marker synaptophysin. Moreover, bexarotene pretreatment improved neuron survival in primary 5XFAD neurons in vitro in response to glutamate-induced excitotoxicity. The salutary effects of bexarotene were accompanied by reduced plaque burden, decreased astrogliosis, and suppression of inflammatory gene expression. Collectively, these data provide evidence that bexarotene treatment reduced neuron loss, elevated levels of markers of synaptic integrity that was linked to improved cognition and in an aggressive model of AD.
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