Recruitment of Matrix Metalloproteinase-9 (MMP-9) to the Fibroblast Cell Surface by Lysyl Hydroxylase 3 (LH3) Triggers Transforming Growth Factor-β (TGF-β) Activation and Fibroblast Differentiation

Cancer-associated fibroblasts: heterogeneity, tumorigenicity and therapeutic targets

Cancer, characterized by its immune evasion, active metabolism, and heightened proliferation, comprises both stroma and cells. Although the research has always focused on parenchymal cells, the non-parenchymal components must not be overlooked. Targeting cancer parenchymal cells has proven to be a formidable challenge, yielding limited success on a broad scale. The tumor microenvironment(TME), a critical niche for cancer cell survival, presents a novel way for cancer treatment. Cancer-associated fibroblast (CAF), as a main component of TME, is a dynamically evolving, dual-functioning stromal cell. Furthermore, their biological activities span the entire spectrum of tumor development, metastasis, drug resistance, and prognosis. A thorough understanding of CAFs functions and therapeutic advances holds significant clinical implications. In this review, we underscore the heterogeneity of CAFs by elaborating on their origins, types and function. Most importantly, by elucidating the direct or indirect crosstalk between CAFs and immune cells, the extracellular matrix, and cancer cells, we emphasize the tumorigenicity of CAFs in cancer. Finally, we highlight the challenges encountered in the exploration of CAFs and list targeted therapies for CAF, which have implications for clinical treatment.

The dysadherin/MMP9 axis modifies the extracellular matrix to accelerate colorectal cancer progression

The dynamic alteration of the tumor microenvironment (TME) serves as a driving force behind the progression and metastasis of colorectal cancer (CRC). Within the intricate TME, a pivotal player is the extracellular matrix (ECM), where modifications in components, degradation, and stiffness are considered critical factors in tumor development. In this study, we find that the membrane glycoprotein dysadherin directly targets matrix metalloprotease 9 (MMP9), initiating ECM remodeling within the TME and amplifying cancer progression. Mechanistically, the dysadherin/MMP9 axis not only enhances CRC cell invasiveness and ECM proteolytic activity but also activates cancer-associated fibroblasts, orchestrating the restructuring of the ECM through the synthesis of its components in human CRC cells, patient samples, and mouse models. Notably, disruption of ECM reorganization by dysadherin knockout results in a discernible reduction in the immunosuppressive and proangiogenic milieu in a humanized mouse model. Intriguingly, these effects are reversed upon the overexpression of MMP9, highlighting the intricate and pivotal role of the dysadherin/MMP9 axis in shaping the development of a malignant TME. Therefore, our findings not only highlight that dysadherin contributes to CRC progression by influencing the TME through ECM remodeling but also suggest that dysadherin may be a potential therapeutic target for CRC.

Differential effects of angiotensin II and aldosterone on human neutrophil adhesion and concomitant secretion of proteins, free amino acids and reactive oxygen and nitrogen species

Invasion and adhesion of neutrophils into tissues and their concomitant secretion play an important role in the development of vascular pathologies, including abdominal aortic aneurysm (AAA). Chronic administration of angiotensin II is used to initiate AAA formation in mice. The role of aldosterone in this process is being studied. We conducted for the first time a complex comparative study of the effects of angiotensin II and aldosterone on the adhesion of human neutrophils to fibronectin and the concomitant secretion of proteins, free amino acids as well as reactive oxygen (ROS) and nitrogen (NO) species. Neither angiotensin II nor aldosterone affected the attachment of neutrophils to fibronectin and the concomitant production of ROS. We showed for the first time that aldosterone stimulated the release of amino acid hydroxylysine, a product of lysyl hydroxylase, the activity of which is positively correlated with cell invasiveness. Aldosterone also initiates the secretion of matrix metalloproteinase 9 (MMP-9) and cathepsin G, which may reorganize the extracellular matrix and stimulate the recruitment and adhesion of neutrophils to the aortic walls. Angiotensin II did not affect protein secretion. It may contribute to neutrophil-induced vascular injury by inhibiting the production of NO or by increasing the secretion of isoleucine. Our results suggest that it is aldosterone-induced neutrophil secretion that may play a significant role in neutrophil-induced vascular wall destruction in angiotensin II-induced AAA or other vascular complications.

Extracellular glucose triggers metabolic reprogramming of cultured human bronchial epithelial cells and indirect fibroblast activation

Glucose is essential for energy metabolism, and its usage can determine other cellular functions, depending on the cell type. In some pathological conditions, cells are exposed to high concentrations of glucose for extended periods. In this study, we investigated metabolic, oxidative stress, and cellular senescence pathways in human bronchial epithelial cells (HBECs) cultured in media with physiologically low (5 mm) and high (12.5 mm) glucose concentrations. HBECs exposed to 12.5 mm glucose showed increased glucose routing toward the pentose phosphate pathway, lactate synthesis, and glycogen, but not triglyceride synthesis. These metabolic shifts were not associated with changes in cell proliferation rates, oxidative stress, or cellular senescence pathways. Since hyperglycemia is associated with fibrosis in the lung, we asked whether HBECS could activate fibroblasts. Primary human lung fibroblasts cultured in media conditioned by 12.5 mm glucose-exposed HBECs showed a 1.3-fold increase in the gene expression of COL1A1 and COL1A2, along with twofold increased protein levels of smooth muscle cell actin and 2.4-fold of COL1A1. Consistently, HBECs cultured with 12.5 mm glucose secreted proteins associated with inflammation and fibrosis, such as interleukins IL-1β, IL-10, and IL-13, CC chemokine ligands CCL2 and CCL24, and with extracellular matrix remodeling, such as metalloproteinases (MMP)-1, MMP-3, MMP-9, and MMP-13 and tissue inhibitors of MMPs (TIMP)-1 and -2. This study shows that HBECs undergo metabolic reprogramming and increase the secretion of profibrotic mediators following exposure to high concentrations of glucose, and it contributes to the understanding of the metabolic crosstalk of neighboring cells in diabetes-associated pulmonary fibrosis.

Proteolytic Vesicles Derived from Salmonella enterica Serovar Typhimurium-Infected Macrophages: Enhancing MMP-9-Mediated Invasion and EV Accumulation

Proteolysis of the extracellular matrix (ECM) by matrix metalloproteinases (MMPs) plays a crucial role in the immune response to bacterial infections. Here we report the secretion of MMPs associated with proteolytic extracellular vesicles (EVs) released by macrophages in response to Salmonella enterica serovar Typhimurium infection. Specifically, we used global proteomics, in vitro, and in vivo approaches to investigate the composition and function of these proteolytic EVs. Using a model of S. Typhimurium infection in murine macrophages, we isolated and characterized a population of small EVs. Bulk proteomics analysis revealed significant changes in protein cargo of naïve and S. Typhimurium-infected macrophage-derived EVs, including the upregulation of MMP-9. The increased levels of MMP-9 observed in immune cells exposed to S. Typhimurium were found to be regulated by the toll-like receptor 4 (TLR-4)-mediated response to bacterial lipopolysaccharide. Macrophage-derived EV-associated MMP-9 enhanced the macrophage invasion through Matrigel as selective inhibition of MMP-9 reduced macrophage invasion. Systemic administration of fluorescently labeled EVs into immunocompromised mice demonstrated that EV-associated MMP activity facilitated increased accumulation of EVs in spleen and liver tissues. This study suggests that macrophages secrete proteolytic EVs to enhance invasion and ECM remodeling during bacterial infections, shedding light on an essential aspect of the immune response.

Effect of Dexamethasone on Adhesion of Human Neutrophils and Concomitant Secretion

Neutrophils play a dual role in protecting the body. They are able to penetrate infected tissues and destroy pathogens there by releasing aggressive bactericidal substances. While into the surrounding tissues, the aggressive products secreted by neutrophils initiate development of inflammatory processes. Invasion of neutrophils into tissues is observed during the development of pneumonia in the patients with lung diseases of various etiologies, including acute respiratory distress syndrome caused by coronavirus disease. Synthetic corticosteroid hormone dexamethasone has a therapeutic effect in treatment of lung diseases, including reducing mortality in the patients with severe COVID-19. The acute (short-term) effect of dexamethasone on neutrophil adhesion to fibrinogen and concomitant secretion was studied. Dexamethasone did not affect either attachment of neutrophils to the substrate or their morphology. Production of reactive oxygen species (ROS) and nitric oxide (NO) by neutrophils during adhesion also did not change in the presence of dexamethasone. Dexamethasone stimulated release of metalloproteinases in addition to the proteins secreted by neutrophils during adhesion under control conditions, and selectively stimulated release of free amino acid hydroxylysine, a product of lysyl hydroxylase. Metalloproteinases play a key role and closely interact with lysyl hydroxylase in the processes of modification of the extracellular matrix. Therapeutic effect of dexamethasone could be associated with its ability to reorganize extracellular matrix in the tissues by changing composition of the neutrophil secretions, which could result in the improved gas exchange in the patients with severe lung diseases.

Knockdown of HMGB1 inhibits the crosstalk between oral squamous cell carcinoma cells and tumor-associated macrophages

Tumor-associated macrophages (TAMs), the major component of the tumor microenvironment (TME), play distinctly different roles in different tumors. High mobility group box 1 (HMGB1), a nonhistone protein in the nucleus, can perform functions during inflammation and cancers. However, the role of HMGB1 in the crosstalk between oral squamous cell carcinoma (OSCC) cells and TAMs remains unclear. Here, we established a coculture system of TAMs and OSCC cells to explore the bidirectional effect and potential mechanism of HMGB1 in OSCC cell-TAM interactions. Our results showed that HMGB1 was significantly upregulated in OSCC tissues and positively associated with tumor progression, immune cell infiltration and macrophage polarization. Then, knocking down HMGB1 in OSCC cells inhibited the recruitment and polarization of cocultured TAMs. Moreover, the knockdown of HMGB1 in macrophages not only suppressed polarization, but also inhibited cocultured OSCC cell proliferation, migration and invasion in vitro and in vivo. Mechanistically, macrophages secreted higher levels of HMGB1 than OSCC cells, and dampening endogenous HMGB1 reduced HMGB1 secretion. Both OSCC cell-generated and macrophage-endogenous HMGB1 may regulate TAM polarization by promoting receptor TLR4 expression and NF-κB/p65 activation and enhancing IL-10/TGF-β expression. HMGB1 in OSCC cells may regulate macrophage recruitment via IL-6/STAT3. In addition, TAM-derived HMGB1 may affect aggressive phenotypes of cocultured OSCC cells by regulating the immunosuppressive microenvironment through the IL-6/STAT3/PD-L1 and IL-6/NF-κB/MMP-9 pathways. In conclusion, HMGB1 may regulate the crosstalk between OSCC cells and TAMs, including modulating macrophage polarization and attraction, enhancing cytokine secretion, and remodeling and creating an immunosuppressive TME to further affect OSCC progression.

The BAP31/miR-181a-5p/RECK axis promotes angiogenesis in colorectal cancer via fibroblast activation

Background

B-cell receptor-associated protein 31 (BAP31) has been recognized as a tumor-associated protein and has largely been shown to promote metastasis in a variety of cancers. Cancer metastasis arises through multistep pathways, and the induction of angiogenesis is shown to be a rate-limiting step in the process of tumor metastasis.

Methods and results

This study explored the effect of BAP31 on colorectal cancer (CRC) angiogenesis by regulating the tumor microenvironment. First, exosomes from BAP31-regulated CRCs affected the transition of normal fibroblasts to proangiogenic cancer-associated fibroblasts (CAFs) in vivo and in vitro. Next, microRNA sequencing was performed to analyze the microRNA expression profile of exosomes secreted from BAP31- overexpressing CRCs. The results indicated that the expression of BAP31 in CRCs significantly altered the levels of exosomal microRNAs, such as miR-181a- 5p. Meanwhile, an in vitro tube formation assay showed that fibroblasts with high levels of miR-181a-5p significantly promoted endothelial cell angiogenesis. Critically, we first identified that miR-181a-5p directly targeted the 3'-untranslated region (3'UTR) of reversion-inducing cysteine-rich protein with kazal motifs (RECK) using the dual-luciferase activity assay, which drove fibroblast transformation into proangiogenic CAFs by upregulating matrix metalloproteinase-9 (MMP-9) and phosphorylation of mothers against decapentaplegic homolog 2/Mothers against decapentaplegic homolog 3 (Smad2/3).

Conclusion

Exosomes from BAP31-overexpressing/BAP31-knockdown CRCs are found to manipulate the transition of fibroblasts into proangiogenic CAFs by the miR-181a-5p/RECK axis.

Innate Immunity, Epithelial Plasticity, and Remodeling in Asthma

Innate immune responses (IIR) of the epithelium play a critical role in the initiation and progression of asthma. The core of the IIR is an intracellular signaling pathway activated by pattern recognition receptors (PRRs) to limit the spread of infectious organisms. This chapter will focus on the epithelium as the major innate sentinel cell and its role in acute exacerbations (AEs). Although the pathways of how the IIR activates the NFκB transcription factor, triggering cytokine secretion, dendritic cell activation, and Th2 polarization are well-described, recent exciting work has developed mechanistic insights into how chronic activation of the IIR is linked to mucosal adaptive responses. These adaptations include changes in cell state, now called epithelial-mesenchymal plasticity (EMP). EMP is a coordinated, genomic response to airway injury disrupting epithelial barrier function, expanding the basal lamina, and producing airway remodeling. EMP is driven by activation of the unfolded protein response (UPR), a transcriptional response producing metabolic shunting of glucose through the hexosamine biosynthetic pathway (HBP) to protein N-glycosylation. NFκB signaling and UPR activation pathways potentiate each other in remodeling the basement membrane. Understanding of injury-repair process of epithelium provides new therapeutic targets for precision approaches to the treatment of asthma exacerbations and their sequelae.

Ivermectin Affects Neutrophil-Induced Inflammation through Inhibition of Hydroxylysine but Stimulation of Cathepsin G and Phenylalanine Secretion

The invasion and integrin-dependent adhesion of neutrophils to lung tissues and their secretion lead to the development of pneumonia in various pulmonary pathologies, including acute respiratory distress syndrome in coronavirus disease. We studied the effect of ivermectin, a possible therapeutic agent for inflammation and cancer, on integrin-dependent neutrophil adhesion to fibronectin and the concomitant secretion. Ivermectin did not affect the attachment of neutrophils to the substrate and the reactive oxygen species production but sharply inhibited the adhesion-induced release of hydroxylysine and stimulated the release of phenylalanine and cathepsin G. Hydroxylysine is a product of lysyl hydroxylase, which is overexpressed in tumor cells with an increased ability to invade and metastasize. The inhibition of hydroxylysine release by ivermectin, by analogy, may indicate the suppression of neutrophil invasion into tissue. The increase in the release of phenylalanine in our experiments coincided with the secretion of cathepsin G, which indicates the possible role of this enzyme in the cleavage of phenylalanine. What is the substrate in such a reaction is unknown. We demonstrated that exogenously added angiotensin II (1-8) can serve as a substrate for phenylalanine cleavage. Mass spectrometry revealed the formation of angiotensin II (1-7) in the secretion of neutrophils, which attached to fibronectin in the presence of ivermectin and exogenous angiotensin II (1-8), indicating a possible involvement of ivermectin in the inactivation of angiotensin II.

Transforming Growth Factor-β Receptor-Mediated, p38 Mitogen-Activated Protein Kinase-Dependent Signaling Drives Enhanced Myofibroblast Differentiation during Skin Wound Healing in Mice Lacking Hyaluronan Synthases 1 and 3

Normal myofibroblast differentiation is critical for proper skin wound healing. Neoexpression of α-smooth muscle actin (α-SMA), a marker for myofibroblast differentiation, is driven by transforming growth factor (TGF)-β receptor-mediated signaling. Hyaluronan and its three synthesizing enzymes, hyaluronan synthases (Has 1, 2, and 3), also participate in this process. Closure of skin wounds is significantly accelerated in Has1/3 double-knockout (Has1/3-null) mice. Herein, TGF-β activity and dermal collagen maturation were increased in Has1/3-null healing skin. Cultures of primary skin fibroblasts isolated from Has1/3-null mice had higher levels of TGF-β activity, α-SMA expression, and phosphorylation of p38 mitogen-activated protein kinase at Thr180/Tyr182, compared with wild-type fibroblasts. p38α mitogen-activated protein kinase was a necessary element in a noncanonical TGF-β receptor signaling pathway driving α-SMA expression in Has1/3-null fibroblasts. Myocardin-related transcription factor (MRTF), a cofactor that binds to the transcription factor serum response factor (SRF), was also critical. Nuclear localization of MRTF was increased, and MRTF binding to SRF was enhanced in Has1/3-null fibroblasts. Inhibition of MRTF or SRF expression by RNA interference suppresses α-SMA expression at baseline and diminished its overexpression in Has1/3-null fibroblasts. Interestingly, total matrix metalloproteinase activity was increased in healing skin and fibroblasts from Has1/3-null mice, possibly explaining the increased TGF-β activation.

CD147 contributes to SARS-CoV-2-induced pulmonary fibrosis

COVID-19 patients can develop clinical and histopathological features associated with fibrosis, but the pathogenesis of fibrosis remains poorly understood. CD147 has been identified as a universal receptor for SARS-CoV-2 and its variants, which could initiate COVID-19-related cytokine storm. Here, we systemically analyzed lung pathogenesis in SARS-CoV-2- and its delta variant-infected humanized CD147 transgenic mice. Histopathology and Transmission Electron Microscopy revealed inflammation, fibroblast expansion and pronounced fibrotic remodeling in SARS-CoV-2-infected lungs. Consistently, RNA-sequencing identified a set of fibrosis signature genes. Furthermore, we identified CD147 as a crucial regulator for fibroblast activation induced by SARS-CoV-2. We found conditional knockout of CD147 in fibroblast suppressed activation of fibroblasts, decreasing susceptibility to bleomycin-induced pulmonary fibrosis. Meplazumab, a CD147 antibody, was able to inhibit the accumulation of activated fibroblasts and the production of ECM proteins, thus alleviating the progression of pulmonary fibrosis caused by SARS-CoV-2. In conclusion, we demonstrated that CD147 contributed to SARS-CoV-2-triggered progressive pulmonary fibrosis and identified CD147 as a potential therapeutic target for treating patients with post-COVID-19 pulmonary fibrosis.

Matrix Metalloproteinases and Their Inhibitors in Pulmonary Fibrosis: EMMPRIN/CD147 Comes into Play

Pulmonary fibrosis (PF) is characterized by aberrant extracellular matrix (ECM) deposition, activation of fibroblasts to myofibroblasts and parenchymal disorganization, which have an impact on the biomechanical traits of the lung. In this context, the balance between matrix metalloproteinases (MMPs) and their tissue inhibitors of metalloproteinases (TIMPs) is lost. Interestingly, several MMPs are overexpressed during PF and exhibit a clear profibrotic role (MMP-2, -3, -8, -11, -12 and -28), but a few are antifibrotic (MMP-19), have both profibrotic and antifibrotic capacity (MMP7), or execute an unclear (MMP-1, -9, -10, -13, -14) or unknown function. TIMPs are also overexpressed in PF; hence, the modulation and function of MMPs and TIMP are more complex than expected. EMMPRIN/CD147 (also known as basigin) is a transmembrane glycoprotein from the immunoglobulin superfamily (IgSF) that was first described to induce MMP activity in fibroblasts. It also interacts with other molecules to execute non-related MMP aactions well-described in cancer progression, migration, and invasion. Emerging evidence strongly suggests that CD147 plays a key role in PF not only by MMP induction but also by stimulating fibroblast myofibroblast transition. In this review, we study the structure and function of MMPs, TIMPs and CD147 in PF and their complex crosstalk between them.

Advances in Immunomodulation and Immune Engineering Approaches to Improve Healing of Extremity Wounds

Delayed healing of traumatic wounds often stems from a dysregulated immune response initiated or exacerbated by existing comorbidities, multiple tissue injury or wound contamination. Over decades, approaches towards alleviating wound inflammation have been centered on interventions capable of a collective dampening of various inflammatory factors and/or cells. However, a progressive understanding of immune physiology has rendered deeper knowledge on the dynamic interplay of secreted factors and effector cells following an acute injury. There is a wide body of literature, both in vitro and in vivo, abstracted on the immunomodulatory approaches to control inflammation. Recently, targeted modulation of the immune response via biotechnological approaches and biomaterials has gained attention as a means to restore the pro-healing phenotype and promote tissue regeneration. In order to fully realize the potential of these approaches in traumatic wounds, a critical and nuanced understanding of the relationships between immune dysregulation and healing outcomes is needed. This review provides an insight on paradigm shift towards interventional approaches to control exacerbated immune response following a traumatic injury from an agonistic to a targeted path. We address such a need by (1) providing a targeted discussion of the wound healing processes to assist in the identification of novel therapeutic targets and (2) highlighting emerging technologies and interventions that utilize an immunoengineering-based approach. In addition, we have underscored the importance of immune engineering as an emerging tool to provide precision medicine as an option to modulate acute immune response following a traumatic injury. Finally, an overview is provided on how an intervention can follow through a successful clinical application and regulatory pathway following laboratory and animal model evaluation.

MMP9: A Tough Target for Targeted Therapy for Cancer

Having the capability to proteolyze diverse structural and signaling proteins, matrix metalloproteinase 9 (MMP9), one of the best-studied secretory endopeptidases, has been identified as a crucial mediator of processes closely associated with tumorigenesis, such as the extracellular matrix reorganization, epithelial to mesenchymal transition, cell migration, new blood vessel formation, and immune response. In this review, we present the current state of knowledge on MMP9 and its role in cancer growth in the context of cell adhesion/migration, cancer-related inflammation, and tumor microenvironment formation. We also summarize recent achievements in the development of selective MMP9 inhibitors and the limitations of using them as anticancer drugs.

Matrix Metalloproteinases in Helicobacter pylori-Associated Gastritis and Gastric Cancer

Gastric cancer is one of the leading causes of the cancer-related mortality worldwide. The etiology of this disease is complex and involves genetic predisposition and environmental factors, including Helicobacter pylori. Infection of the stomach with H. pylori leads to gastritis and gastric atrophy, which can progress stepwise to gastric cancer. Matrix metalloproteinases (MMPs) actively participate in the pathology development. The further progression of gastric cancer seems to be less dependent on bacteria but of intra-tumor cell dynamics. Bioinformatics data confirmed an important role of the extracellular matrix constituents and specific MMPs in stomach carcinoma invasion and metastasis, and revised their potential as predictors of the disease outcome. In this review, we describe, in detail, the impact of MMPs in H. pylori-associated gastritis and gastric cancer.

Inhibitor of Hyaluronic Acid Synthesis 4-Methylumbelliferone Suppresses the Secretory Processes That Ensure the Invasion of Neutrophils into Tissues and Induce Inflammation

Integrin-dependent adhesion of neutrophils to tissue, accompanied by the development of neutrophil-induced inflammation, occurs both in the focus of infection and in the absence of infection in metabolic disorders such as reperfusion after ischemia, diabetes mellitus, or the development of pneumonia in patients with cystic fibrosis or viral diseases. Hyaluronic acid (HA) plays an important role in the recruitment of neutrophils to tissues. 4-methylumbilliferon (4-MU), an inhibitor of HA synthesis, is used to treat inflammation, but its mechanism of action is unknown. We studied the effect of 4-MU on neutrophil adhesion and concomitant secretion using adhesion to fibronectin as a model for integrin-dependent adhesion. 4-MU reduced the spreading of neutrophils on the substrate and the concomitant secretion of granule proteins, including pro-inflammatory components. 4-MU also selectively blocked adhesion-induced release of the free amino acid hydroxylysine, a product of lysyl hydroxylase, which can influence cell invasion by modifying the extracellular matrix. Finally, 4-MU inhibited the formation of cytonemes, the extracellular membrane secretory structures containing the pro-inflammatory bactericides of the primary granules. The anti-inflammatory effect of 4-MU may be associated with the suppression of secretory processes that ensure the neutrophil invasion and initiate inflammation. We suggest that HA, due to the peculiarities of its synthesis, can promote the release of secretory carriers from the cell and 4-MU can block this process.

Role of Cytokines on the Progression of Liver Fibrosis in Mice Infected with Echinococcus multilocularis

Background

Liver fibrosis is a significant pathological change of Echinococcus multilocularis (E. multilocularis) infection. This study aimed to explore the role of cytokines on the progression of liver fibrosis in mice infected with E. multilocularis.

Methods

Liver histopathological features at 2, 8, 30, 90 and 180 d were quantified by inflammatory severity score. The expression levels of inflammatory cytokines, fibrosis-related cytokines and hepatic cell apoptosis were measured using qRT-PCR and immunohistochemistry.

Results

At the early stage of infection, parasite stimulation triggers the rapid recruitment of immune cells, such as macrophages and neutrophils. These infiltrated immune cells then produce a large number of cytokines, such as iNOS (inducible nitric oxide synthase), a pro-inflammatory cytokine; TGF-β (transforming growth factor) activated HSCs (hepatic stellate cells) to promote the proliferation of fibroblasts and secretion of ECM (extracellular matrix); MMP9 (matrix metalloproteinase 9) degraded basal ECM and facilitated its replacement by a highly dense interstitial matrix. At the middle and late stages of infection, the expression of IL-10 (interleukin-10) with general inhibitory effect was increased. The imbalance of fiber formation and degradation aggravated liver fibrosis. Meanwhile, the whole process of E. multilocularis infection was accompanied by the necrosis and apoptosis of hepatic cells.

Conclusion

Along with the expansion of parasitic infection, dynamic changes in cytokine expression were observed on the liver fibrosis progression, which is helpful to provide some new ideas for the prevention and treatment of liver fibrosis in mice infected with E. multilocularis.

The Hexosamine Biosynthetic Pathway Links Innate Inflammation With Epithelial-Mesenchymal Plasticity in Airway Remodeling

Disruption of the lower airway epithelial barrier plays a major role in the initiation and progression of chronic lung disease. Here, repetitive environmental insults produced by viral and allergens triggers metabolic adaptations, epithelial-mesenchymal plasticity (EMP) and airway remodeling. Epithelial plasticity disrupts epithelial barrier function, stimulates release of fibroblastic growth factors, and remodels the extracellular matrix (ECM). This review will focus on recent work demonstrating how the hexosamine biosynthetic pathway (HBP) links innate inflammation to airway remodeling. The HBP is a core metabolic pathway of the unfolded protein response (UPR) responsible for protein N-glycosylation, relief of proteotoxic stress and secretion of ECM modifiers. We will overview findings that the IκB kinase (IKK)-NFκB pathway directly activates expression of the SNAI-ZEB1 mesenchymal transcription factor module through regulation of the Bromodomain Containing Protein 4 (BRD4) chromatin modifier. BRD4 mediates transcriptional elongation of SNAI1-ZEB as well as enhancing chromatin accessibility and transcription of fibroblast growth factors, ECM and matrix metalloproteinases (MMPs). In addition, recent exciting findings that IKK cross-talks with the UPR by controlling phosphorylation and nuclear translocation of the autoregulatory XBP1s transcription factor are presented. HBP is required for N glycosylation and secretion of ECM components that play an important signaling role in airway remodeling. This interplay between innate inflammation, metabolic reprogramming and lower airway plasticity expands a population of subepithelial myofibroblasts by secreting fibroblastic growth factors, producing changes in ECM tensile strength, and fibroblast stimulation by MMP binding. Through these actions on myofibroblasts, EMP in lower airway cells produces expansion of the lamina reticularis and promotes airway remodeling. In this manner, metabolic reprogramming by the HBP mediates environmental insult-induced inflammation with remodeling in chronic airway diseases.

Nitrosylation of Tissue Transglutaminase enhances fibroblast migration and regulates MMP activation

In wound healing, the TG2 enzyme plays a dual functional role. TG2 has been shown to regulate extracellular matrix (ECM) stabilization by its transamidase activity while increasing cell migration by acting as a cell adhesion molecule. In this process, nitric oxide (NO) plays a particularly important role by nitrosylation of free cysteine ​​residues on TG2, leading to the irreversible inactivation of the catalytic activity. In this study, transfected fibroblasts expressing TG2 under the control of the tetracycline-off promoter were treated with NO donor s-nitroso-n-acetyl penicillamine (SNAP) to analyze the interplay between NO and TG2 in the regulation of cell migration/invasion as well as TGF-β1-dependent MMP activation. Our results demonstrated that inhibition of TG2 cross-linking activity by SNAP promoted the migration and invasion capacity of fibroblasts by hindering TG2-mediated TGF-β1 activation. While the inhibition of TG2 activity by NO downregulated the biosynthesis and activity of MMP-2 and MMP-9, that of MMP-1a and MMP-13 shown to be upregulated in a TGF-β1-dependent manner under the same conditions. In the presence of SNAP, interaction of TG2 with its cell surface binding partners Integrin-β1 and Syndecan-4 was reduced, which was paralleled by an increase in TG2 and PDGF association. These findings suggests that migratory phenotype of fibroblasts can be regulated by the interplay between nitric oxide and TG2 activity.

A functional polymorphism at the miR‑491‑5p binding site in the 3'‑untranslated region of the MMP‑9 gene increases the risk of developing ventilator‑associated pneumonia

Matrix metalloproteinase (MMP)‑9 is associated with the severity of ventilator‑associated pneumonia (VAP), while an rs1056629 SNP located in the 3'‑untranslated region (UTR) of MMP‑9 affects the microRNA (miRNA/miR)‑491‑mediated regulation of MMP‑9 expression. In the present study, the effect of rs1056629 on the development of VAP in patients with chronic obstructive pulmonary disease (COPD) was investigated. Patients with COPD were enrolled in the study and their genotypes of rs1056629 (CC, CA or AA) were determined. ELISA was used to analyze the levels of TNF‑α and IL‑6 in the monocytes of patients with COPD carrying differential genotypes of rs1056629. Reverse transcription‑quantitative PCR was carried out to evaluate the expression of miR‑491 and MMP‑9 mRNA in the different groups of patients with COPD. Luciferase assay was used to confirm the inhibitory role of miR‑491 in MMP‑9 expression. Western blot analysis was carried out to assess the expression of MMP‑9 protein in A549 and H1299 cells transfected with miR‑491 mimics. The risk and severity of VAP were significantly elevated in patients with COPD carrying the CC and AC genotypes of rs1056629. Although there was no difference in the expression of miR‑491 in patients carrying different genotypes of rs1056629, the expression levels of TNF‑α, IL‑6 and MMP‑9 were increased in patients with COPD carrying the CC and AC genotypes of rs1056629. The results of luciferase assay revealed that miR‑491 inhibited the expression of MMP‑9 through direct binding to the 3'UTR of MMP‑9. Transfection of miR‑491 mimics into A549 and H1299 cells markedly suppressed the expression of MMP‑9 in a concentration‑dependent manner. On the whole, the findings of the present study confirm that the CC and AC genotypes of rs1056629 increase the risk of developing VAP in patients with COPD by increasing the expression of MMP‑9.

Polypeptide N-acetylgalactosaminyltransferase 18 retains in endoplasmic reticulum depending on its luminal regions interacting with ER resident UGGT1, PLOD3 and LPCAT1

Mucin-type O-glycosylation is initiated by the polypeptide: N-acetylgalactosaminyltransferase (ppGalNAc-T) family of enzymes, which consists of 20 members in humans. Among them, unlike other ppGalNAc-Ts located in Golgi apparatus, ppGalNAc-T18 distributes primarily in the endoplasmic reticulum (ER) and non-catalytically regulates ER homeostasis and O-glycosylation. Here, we report the mechanism for ppGalNAc-T18 ER localization and the function of each structural domain of ppGalNAc-T18. By using ppGalNAc-T18 truncation mutants, we revealed that the luminal stem region and catalytic domain of ppGalNAc-T18 are essential for ER localization, whereas the lectin domain and N-glycosylation of ppGalNAc-T18 are not required. In the absence of the luminal region (i.e., stem region, catalytic and lectin domains), the conserved Golgi retention motif RKTK within the cytoplasmic tail combined with the transmembrane domain ensure ER export and Golgi retention, as observed for other Golgi resident ppGalNAc-Ts. Results from coimmunoprecipitation assays showed that the luminal region interacts with ER resident proteins UGGT1, PLOD3 and LPCAT1. Furthermore, flow cytometry analysis showed that the entire luminal region is required for the non-catalytic O-GalNAc glycosylation activity of ppGalNAc-T18. The findings reveal a novel subcellular localization mechanism of ppGalNAc-Ts and provide a foundation to further characterize the function of ppGalNAc-T18 in the ER.

Collagen hydroxylysine glycosylation: non-conventional substrates for atypical glycosyltransferase enzymes

Collagen is a major constituent of the extracellular matrix (ECM) that confers fundamental mechanical properties to tissues. To allow proper folding in triple-helices and organization in quaternary super-structures, collagen molecules require essential post-translational modifications (PTMs), including hydroxylation of proline and lysine residues, and subsequent attachment of glycan moieties (galactose and glucose) to specific hydroxylysine residues on procollagen alpha chains. The resulting galactosyl-hydroxylysine (Gal-Hyl) and less abundant glucosyl-galactosyl-hydroxylysine (Glc-Gal-Hyl) are amongst the simplest glycosylation patterns found in nature and are essential for collagen and ECM homeostasis. These collagen PTMs depend on the activity of specialized glycosyltransferase enzymes. Although their biochemical reactions have been widely studied, several key biological questions about the possible functions of these essential PTMs are still missing. In addition, the lack of three-dimensional structures of collagen glycosyltransferase enzymes hinders our understanding of the catalytic mechanisms producing this modification, as well as the impact of genetic mutations causing severe connective tissue pathologies. In this mini-review, we summarize the current knowledge on the biochemical features of the enzymes involved in the production of collagen glycosylations and the current state-of-the-art methods for the identification and characterization of this important PTM.

Neutrophil Adhesion and the Release of the Free Amino Acid Hydroxylysine

During infection or certain metabolic disorders, neutrophils can escape from blood vessels, invade and attach to other tissues. The invasion and adhesion of neutrophils is accompanied and maintained by their own secretion. We have previously found that adhesion of neutrophils to fibronectin dramatically and selectively stimulates the release of the free amino acid hydroxylysine. The role of hydroxylysine and lysyl hydroxylase in neutrophil adhesion has not been studied, nor have the processes that control them. Using amino acid analysis, mass spectrometry and electron microscopy, we found that the lysyl hydroxylase inhibitor minoxidil, the matrix metalloproteinase inhibitor doxycycline, the PI3K/Akt pathway inhibitors wortmannin and the Akt1/2 inhibitor and drugs that affect the actin cytoskeleton significantly and selectively block the release of hydroxylysine and partially or completely suppress spreading of neutrophils. The actin cytoskeleton effectors and the Akt 1/2 inhibitor also increase the phenylalanine release. We hypothesize that hydroxylysine release upon adhesion is the result of the activation of lysyl hydroxylase in interaction with matrix metalloproteinase, the PI3K/Akt pathway and intact actin cytoskeleton, which play important roles in the recruitment of neutrophils into tissue through extracellular matrix remodeling.

The SWI/SNF-Related, Matrix Associated, Actin-Dependent Regulator of Chromatin A4 Core Complex Represses Respiratory Syncytial Virus-Induced Syncytia Formation and Subepithelial Myofibroblast Transition

Epigenetics plays an important role in the priming the dynamic response of airway epithelial cells to infectious and environmental stressors. Here, we examine the epigenetic role of the SWI/SNF Related, Matrix Associated, Actin Dependent Regulator of Chromatin A4 (SMARCA4) in the epithelial response to RSV infection. Depletion of SMARCA4 destabilized the abundance of the SMARCE1/ARID1A SWI/SNF subunits, disrupting the innate response and triggering a hybrid epithelial/mesenchymal (E/M) state. Assaying SMARCA4 complex-regulated open chromatin domains by transposase cleavage -next generation sequencing (ATAC-Seq), we observed that the majority of cleavage sites in uninfected cells have reduced chromatin accessibility. Paradoxically, SMARCA4 complex-depleted cells showed enhanced RSV-inducible chromatin opening and gene expression in the EMT pathway genes, MMP9, SNAI1/2, VIM, and CDH2. Focusing on the key MMP9, we observed that SMARCA4 complex depletion reduced basal BRD4 and RNA Polymerase II binding, but enhanced BRD4/Pol II binding in response to RSV infection. In addition, we observed that MMP9 secretion in SMARCA4 complex deficient cells contributes to mesenchymal transition, cellular fusion (syncytia) and subepithelial myofibroblast transition. We conclude the SMARCA4 complex is a transcriptional repressor of epithelial plasticity, whose depletion triggers a hybrid E/M state that affects the dynamic response of the small airway epithelial cell in mucosal remodeling via paracrine MMP9 activity.

Differential Responses to Targeting Matrix Metalloproteinase 9 in Idiopathic Pulmonary Fibrosis

Rationale: Aberrant lung remodeling in idiopathic pulmonary fibrosis (IPF) is characterized by elevated MMP9 (matrix metalloproteinase 9) expression, but the precise role of this matrix metalloproteinase in this disease has yet to be fully elucidated.Objectives: To evaluate antifibrotic effects of MMP9 inhibition on IPF.Methods: Quantitative genomic, proteomic, and functional analyses both in vitro and in vivo were used to determine MMP9 expression in IPF cells and the effects of MMP9 inhibition on profibrotic mechanisms.Measurements and Main Results: In the present study, we demonstrate that MMP9 expression was increased in airway basal cell (ABC)-like cells from IPF lungs compared with ABC cells from normal lungs. The inhibition of MMP9 activity with an anti-MMP9 antibody, andecaliximab, blocked TGF-β1 (transforming growth factor β1)-induced Smad2 phosphorylation. However, in a subset of cells from patients with IPF, TGF-β1 activation in their ABC-like cells was unaffected or enhanced by MMP9 blockade (i.e., nonresponders). Further analysis of nonresponder ABC-like cells treated with andecaliximab revealed an association with type 1 IFN expression, and the addition of IFNα to these cells modulated both MMP9 expression and TGF-β1 activation. Finally, the inhibition of MMP9 ameliorated pulmonary fibrosis induced by responder lung cells but not a nonresponder in a humanized immunodeficient mouse model of IPF.Conclusions: Together, these data demonstrate that MMP9 regulates the activation of ABC-like cells in IPF and that targeting this MMP might be beneficial to a subset of patients with IPF who show sufficient expression of type 1 IFNs.

Vascular PDGFR-alpha protects against BBB dysfunction after stroke in mice

Blood-brain barrier (BBB) dysfunction underlies the pathogenesis of many neurological diseases. Platelet-derived growth factor receptor-alpha (PDGFRα) induces hemorrhagic transformation (HT) downstream of tissue plasminogen activator in thrombolytic therapy of acute stroke. Thus, PDGFs are attractive therapeutic targets for BBB dysfunction. In the present study, we examined the role of PDGF signaling in the process of tissue remodeling after middle cerebral arterial occlusion (MCAO) in mice. Firstly, we found that imatinib increased lesion size after permanent MCAO in wild-type mice. Moreover, imatinib-induced HT only when administrated in the subacute phase of MCAO, but not in the acute phase. Secondly, we generated genetically mutated mice (C-KO mice) that showed decreased expression of perivascular PDGFRα. Additionally, transient MCAO experiments were performed in these mice. We found that the ischemic lesion size was not affected; however, the recruitment of PDGFRα/type I collagen-expressing perivascular cells was significantly downregulated, and HT and IgG leakage was augmented only in the subacute phase of stroke in C-KO mice. In both experiments, we found that the expression of tight junction proteins and PDGFRβ-expressing pericyte coverage was not significantly affected in imatinib-treated mice and in C-KO mice. The specific implication of PDGFRα signaling was suggestive of protective effects against BBB dysfunction during the subacute phase of stroke. Vascular TGF-β1 expression was downregulated in both imatinib-treated and C-KO mice, along with sustained levels of MMP9. Therefore, PDGFRα effects may be mediated by TGF-β1 which exerts potent protective effects in the BBB.

PI4KIIIβ is a therapeutic target in chromosome 1q-amplified lung adenocarcinoma

Heightened secretion of protumorigenic effector proteins is a feature of malignant cells. Yet, the molecular underpinnings and therapeutic implications of this feature remain unclear. Here, we identify a chromosome 1q region that is frequently amplified in diverse cancer types and encodes multiple regulators of secretory vesicle biogenesis and trafficking, including the Golgi-dedicated enzyme phosphatidylinositol (PI)-4-kinase IIIβ (PI4KIIIβ). Molecular, biochemical, and cell biological studies show that PI4KIIIβ-derived PI-4-phosphate (PI4P) synthesis enhances secretion and accelerates lung adenocarcinoma progression by activating Golgi phosphoprotein 3 (GOLPH3)-dependent vesicular release from the Golgi. PI4KIIIβ-dependent secreted factors maintain 1q-amplified cancer cell survival and influence prometastatic processes in the tumor microenvironment. Disruption of this functional circuitry in 1q-amplified cancer cells with selective PI4KIIIβ antagonists induces apoptosis and suppresses tumor growth and metastasis. These results support a model in which chromosome 1q amplifications create a dependency on PI4KIIIβ-dependent secretion for cancer cell survival and tumor progression.

Low-density lipoprotein receptor-related protein 6 regulates cardiomyocyte-derived paracrine signaling to ameliorate cardiac fibrosis

Rationale: Maladaptive cardiac remodeling is a critical step in the progression of heart failure. Low-density lipoprotein receptor-related protein 6 (LRP6), a co-receptor of Wnt, has been implicated in cardiac protection. We aimed to study the role of cardiomyocyte-expressed LRP6 in cardiac remodeling under chronic pressure overload.

Methods: Cardiac parameters were analyzed in inducible cardiac-specific LRP6 overexpressing and control mice subjected to transverse aortic constriction (TAC).

Results: Cardiac LRP6 was increased at an early phase after TAC. Cardiomyocyte-specific LRP6 overexpression improved cardiac function and inhibited cardiac hypertrophy and fibrosis four weeks after TAC. The overexpression significantly inhibited β-catenin activation, likely contributing to the inhibitory effect on cardiac hypertrophy after TAC. LRP6 overexpression reduced the expression and secretion of Wnt5a and Wnt11 by cardiomyocytes, and knockdown of Wnt5a and Wnt11 greatly inhibited cardiac fibrosis and dysfunction under pressure overload in vitro and in vivo. Cardiomyocyte-expressed LRP6 interacted with cathepsin D (CTSD, a protease) and promoted the degradation of Wnt5a and Wnt11, inhibiting cardiac fibrosis and dysfunction induced by TAC. The protease inhibitor leupeptin attenuated the interaction between LRP6 and CTSD, enhanced the expression of Wnt5a and Wnt11, and deteriorated cardiac function and fibrosis in cardiomyocyte-specific LRP6-overexpressing mice under pressure overload. Mutants from human patients, P1427Q of LRP6 and G316R of CTSD significantly inhibited the interaction between LRP6 and CTSD and increased Wnt5a and Wnt11 expression.

Conclusion: Cardiomyocyte-expressed LRP6 promoted the degradation of Wnt5a and Wnt11 by regulating CTSD and inhibited cardiac fibrosis under pressure overload. Our study demonstrated a novel role of LRP6 as an anti-fibrosis regulator.

Extracellular Matrix in Ischemic Heart Disease, Part 4/4: JACC Focus Seminar

Myocardial ischemia and infarction, both in the acute and chronic phases, are associated with cardiomyocyte loss and dramatic changes in the cardiac extracellular matrix (ECM). It has long been appreciated that these changes in the cardiac ECM result in altered mechanical properties of ischemic or infarcted myocardial segments. However, a growing body of evidence now clearly demonstrates that these alterations of the ECM not only affect the structural properties of the ischemic and post-infarct heart, but they also play a crucial and sometimes direct role in mediating a range of biological pathways, including the orchestration of inflammatory and reparative processes, as well as the pathogenesis of adverse remodeling. This final part of a 4-part JACC Focus Seminar reviews the evidence on the role of the ECM in relation to the ischemic and infarcted heart, as well as its contribution to cardiac dysfunction and adverse clinical outcomes.

Tissue Inhibitor of Metalloproteinase (TIMP) Peptidomimetic as an Adjunctive Therapy for Infectious Keratitis

Matrix metalloproteinase 9 (MMP-9) has a key role in many biological processes, and while it is crucial for a normal immune response, excessive release of this enzyme can lead to severe tissue damage, as evidenced by proteolytic digestion and perforation of the cornea during infectious keratitis. Current medical management strategies for keratitis mostly focus on antibacterial effects, but largely neglect the role of excess MMP activity. Here, a cyclic tissue inhibitor of metalloproteinase (TIMP) peptidomimetic, which downregulated MMP-9 expression both at the mRNA and protein levels as well as MMP-9 activity in THP-1-derived macrophages, is reported. A similar downregulating effect could also be observed on α smooth muscle actin (α-SMA) expression in fibroblasts. Furthermore, the TIMP peptidomimetic reduced Pseudomonas aeruginosa-induced MMP-9 activity in an ex vivo porcine infectious keratitis model and histological examinations demonstrated that a decrease of corneal thickness, associated with keratitis progression, was inhibited upon peptidomimetic treatment. The presented approach to reduce MMP-9 activity thus holds great potential to decrease corneal tissue damage and improve the clinical success of current treatment strategies for infectious keratitis.

Transforming Growth Factor-β: A Multifunctional Regulator of Cancer Immunity

Transforming growth factor-β (TGF-β) was originally identified as an anti-tumour cytokine. However, there is increasing evidence that it has important roles in the tumour microenvironment (TME) in facilitating cancer progression. TGF-β actively shapes the TME via modulating the host immunity. These actions are highly cell-type specific and complicated, involving both canonical and non-canonical pathways. In this review, we systemically update how TGF-β signalling acts as a checkpoint regulator for cancer immunomodulation. A better appreciation of the underlying pathogenic mechanisms at the molecular level can lead to the discovery of novel and more effective therapeutic strategies for cancer.

Transforming Growth Factor-β: A Multifunctional Regulator of Cancer Immunity

Simple Summary

Transforming growth factor beta (TGF-β) is a multifunctional cytokine that can restrict cancer onset but also promote cancer progression at late stages of cancer. The ability of TGF-β in producing diverse and sometimes opposing effects relies on its potential to control different cellular signalling and gene expression in distinct cell types, and environmental settings. The tumour promoting role of TGF-β is primarily mediated through its effects on the local tumour microenvironment (TME) of the cancer cells. In this review, we discuss the most recent research on the role and regulation of TGF-β, with a specific focus on its functions on promoting cancer progression through targeting different immune cells in the TME as well as its therapeutic perspectives.

Abstract

Transforming growth factor-β (TGF-β) was originally identified as an anti-tumour cytokine. However, there is increasing evidence that it has important roles in the tumour microenvironment (TME) in facilitating cancer progression. TGF-β actively shapes the TME via modulating the host immunity. These actions are highly cell-type specific and complicated, involving both canonical and non-canonical pathways. In this review, we systemically update how TGF-β signalling acts as a checkpoint regulator for cancer immunomodulation. A better appreciation of the underlying pathogenic mechanisms at the molecular level can lead to the discovery of novel and more effective therapeutic strategies for cancer.

Small-molecule MMP2/MMP9 inhibitor SB-3CT modulates tumor immune surveillance by regulating PD-L1

BACKGROUND

Immune checkpoint blockade (ICB) therapy has demonstrated considerable clinical benefit in several malignancies, but has shown favorable response in only a small proportion of cancer patients. Recent studies have shown that matrix metalloproteinases (MMPs) are highly associated with the microenvironment of tumors and immune cells. However, it is unknown whether MMPs are involved in immunotherapy.

METHODS

Here, we used integrative analysis to explore the expression landscape of the MMP family and its association with immune features across multiple cancer types. We used T cell cytotoxicity-mediated tumor killing assay to determine the co-cultured T cell activity of SB-3CT, an MMP2/9 inhibitor. We then used in vitro assays to examine the regulating roles of SB-3CT on PD-L1. We further characterized the efficacy of SB-3CT, in combination with anti-PD-1 and/or anti-CTLA4 treatment in mouse models with melanoma and lung cancer.

RESULTS

Our computational analysis demonstrated a strong association between MMP2/9 and immune features. We demonstrated that inhibition of MMP2/9 by SB-3CT significantly reduced the tumor burden and improved survival time by promoting anti-tumor immunity. Mechanistically, we showed that SB-3CT treatment significantly diminished both mRNA and protein levels of PD-L1 in cancer cells. Pre-clinically, SB-3CT treatment enhanced the therapeutic efficacy of PD-1 or CTLA-4 blockade in the treatment of both primary and metastatic tumors.

CONCLUSIONS

Our study unraveled novel molecular mechanisms regarding the regulation of tumor PD-L1 and provided a novel combination therapeutic strategy of SB-3CT and ICB therapy to enhance the efficacy of immunotherapy.

Cancer-Associated Fibroblasts: Versatile Players in the Tumor Microenvironment

Simple Summary

Cancer-associated fibroblasts (CAFs) are key players in the tumor microenvironment. They are responsible for potentiating growth and metastasis through versatile functions, including maintenance of the extracellular matrix, blood vessel formation, modulation of tumor metabolism, suppression of antitumor immunity, and promotion of chemotherapy resistance. As such, CAFs are associated with poor prognosis and have emerged as a focus of anticancer research. In this review, we discuss the origins of CAFs, their heterogenous subtypes and their properties. We then detail the current state of preclinical and clinical research targeting CAF activities. We believe the limited efficacy of current cancer therapeutic approaches is driven by an incomplete understanding of CAF functions and by a nonstandardized CAF classification system. Therefore, we suggest a unified CAF classification based on specific functions to develop a new class of therapies that will focus on targeting the pro-tumorigenic properties of CAFs during tumor progression.

Abstract

Cancer-associated fibroblasts (CAFs) are indispensable architects of the tumor microenvironment. They perform the essential functions of extracellular matrix deposition, stromal remodeling, tumor vasculature modulation, modification of tumor metabolism, and participation in crosstalk between cancer and immune cells. In this review, we discuss our current understanding of the principal differences between normal fibroblasts and CAFs, the origin of CAFs, their functions, and ultimately, highlight the intimate connection of CAFs to virtually all of the hallmarks of cancer. We address the remarkable degree of functional diversity and phenotypic plasticity displayed by CAFs and strive to stratify CAF biology among different tumor types into practical functional groups. Finally, we summarize the status of recent and ongoing trials of CAF-directed therapies and contend that the paucity of trials resulting in Food and Drug Administration (FDA) approvals thus far is a consequence of the failure to identify targets exclusive of pro-tumorigenic CAF phenotypes that are mechanistically linked to specific CAF functions. We believe that the development of a unified CAF nomenclature, the standardization of functional assays to assess the loss-of-function of CAF properties, and the establishment of rigorous definitions of CAF subpopulations and their mechanistic functions in cancer progression will be crucial to fully realize the promise of CAF-targeted therapies.

SOX2Mediates Carbon Nanotube-Induced Fibrogenesis and Fibroblast Stem Cell Acquisition

Certain nanosized particles like carbon nanotubes (CNTs) are known to induce pulmonary fibrosis, but the underlying mechanisms are unclear, and efforts to prevent this disease are lacking. Fibroblast-associated stem cells (FSCs) have been suggested as a critical driver of fibrosis induced by CNTs by serving as a renewable source of extracellular matrix-producing cells; however, a detailed understanding of this process remains obscure. Here, we demonstrated that single-walled CNTs induced FSC acquisition and fibrogenic responses in primary human lung fibroblasts. This was indicated by increased expression of stem cell markers (e.g., CD44 and ABCG2) and fibrogenic markers (e.g., collagen and α-SMA) in CNT-exposed cells. These cells also showed increased sphere formation, anoikis resistance, and aldehyde dehydrogenase (ALDH) activities, which are characteristics of stem cells. Mechanistic studies revealed sex-determining region Y-box 2 (SOX2), a self-renewal associated transcription factor, as a key driver of FSC acquisition and fibrogenesis. Upregulation and colocalization of SOX2 and COL1 were found in the fibrotic lung tissues of CNT-exposed mice via oropharyngeal aspiration after 56 days. The knockdown of SOX2 by gene silencing abrogated the fibrogenic and FSC-inducing effects of CNTs. Chromatin immunoprecipitation assays identified SOX2-binding sites on COL1A1 and COL1A2, indicating SOX2 as a transcription factor in collagen synthesis. SOX2 was also found to play a critical role in TGF-β-induced fibrogenesis through its collagen- and FSC-inducing effects. Since many nanomaterials are known to induce TGF-β, our findings that SOX2 regulate FSCs and fibrogenesis may have broad implications on the fibrogenic mechanisms and treatment strategies of various nanomaterial-induced fibrotic disorders.

Effects of DSPP and MMP20 Silencing on Adhesion, Metastasis, Angiogenesis, and Epithelial-Mesenchymal Transition Proteins in Oral Squamous Cell Carcinoma Cells

Recent reports highlight the potential tumorigenic role of Dentin Sialophosphoprotein (DSPP) and its cognate partner Matrix Metalloproteinase 20 (MMP-20) in Oral Squamous Cell Carcinomas (OSCCs). However, the function/mechanism of these roles is yet to be fully established. The present study aimed to investigate the effects of DSPP and MMP20 silencing on specific proteins involved in oral cancer cell adhesion, angiogenesis, metastasis, and epithelial-mesenchymal transition (EMT). Stable lines of DSPP/MMP20 silenced OSCC cell line (OSC2), previously established via lentiviral-mediated shRNA transduction, were analyzed for the effects of DSPP, MMP20, and combined DSPP–MMP20 silencing on MMP2, MMP9, integrins αvβ3 and αvβ6, VEGF, Kallikerin- 4,-5,-8,-10, E-cadherin, N-cadherin, Vimentin, met, src, snail, and Twist by Western blot. Results show a significant decrease (p < 0.05) in the expression of MMP2, MMP9, integrin αvβ3, αvβ6, VEGF, Kallikerins -4, -5, -8, -10, N-cadherin, vimentin met, src, snail and twist following DSPP and MMP20 silencing, individually and in combination. On the other hand, the expression of E-cadherin was found to be significantly increased (p < 0.05). These results suggest that the tumorigenic effect of DSPP and MMP20 on OSC2 cells is mediated via the upregulation of the genes involved in invasion, metastasis, angiogenesis, and epithelial-mesenchymal transition (EMT).

Impaired ECM Remodeling and Macrophage Activity Define Necrosis and Regeneration Following Damage in Aged Skeletal Muscle

Regenerative capacity of skeletal muscle declines with age, the cause of which remains largely unknown. We investigated extracellular matrix (ECM) proteins and their regulators during early regeneration timepoints to define a link between aberrant ECM remodeling, and impaired aged muscle regeneration. The regeneration process was compared in young (three month old) and aged (18 month old) C56BL/6J mice at 3, 5, and 7 days following cardiotoxin-induced damage to the tibialis anterior muscle. Immunohistochemical analyses were performed to assess regenerative capacity, ECM remodeling, and the macrophage response in relation to plasminogen activator inhibitor-1 (PAI-1), matrix metalloproteinase-9 (MMP-9), and ECM protein expression. The regeneration process was impaired in aged muscle. Greater intracellular and extramyocellular PAI-1 expression was found in aged muscle. Collagen I was found to accumulate in necrotic regions, while macrophage infiltration was delayed in regenerating regions of aged muscle. Young muscle expressed higher levels of MMP-9 early in the regeneration process that primarily colocalized with macrophages, but this expression was reduced in aged muscle. Our results indicate that ECM remodeling is impaired at early time points following muscle damage, likely a result of elevated expression of the major inhibitor of ECM breakdown, PAI-1, and consequent suppression of the macrophage, MMP-9, and myogenic responses.

The In Vitro Inhibitory Effect of Sivelestat on Elastase Induced Collagen and Metallopeptidase Expression in Equine Endometrium

Neutrophil extracellular traps (NETs) fight endometritis, and elastase (ELA), a protease found in NETs, might induce collagen type I (COL1) accumulation in equine endometrium. Metallopeptidases (MMPs) are involved in extracellular matrix balance. The aim was to evaluate the effects of ELA and sivelestat (selective elastase inhibitor) on MMP-2 and MMP-9 expression and gelatinolytic activity, as well as the potential inhibitory effect of sivelestat on ELA-induced COL1 in equine endometrium. Endometrial explants from follicular (FP) and mid-luteal (MLP) phases were treated for 24 or 48 h with ELA, sivelestat, and their combination. Transcripts of COL1A2, MMP2, and MMP9 were evaluated by qPCR; COL1 protein relative abundance by Western blot, and MMP-2 and MMP-9 gelatinolytic activity by zymography. In response to ELA treatment, there was an increase in MMP2 mRNA transcription (24 h) in active MMP-2 (48 h), both in FP, and in MMP9 transcripts in FP (48 h) and MLP (24 h) (p < 0.05). Sivelestat inhibited ELA-induced COL1A2 transcripts in FP (24 h) and MLP (24 h, 48 h) (p < 0.05). The sivelestat inhibitory effect was detected in MMP9 transcripts in FP at 48 h (p < 0.05), but proteases activity was unchanged. Thus, MMP-2 and MMP-9 might be implicated in endometrium fibrotic response to ELA. In mare endometrium, sivelestat may decrease ELA-induced COL1 deposition and hinder endometrosis development.

Prostaglandins effect on matrix metallopeptidases and collagen in mare endometrial fibroblasts

An increasing number of studies have shown that prostaglandins (PGs) exert multiple regulatory actions in the processes associated to tissue remodeling and fibrosis. Extracellular matrix (ECM) turnover is mediated by matrix metallopeptidases (MMPs). The knowledge about the regulation of their expression in mare endometrium is still limited. Thus, the aim of this study was to investigate whether: (i) profibrotic transforming growth factor (TGF)-β1 modulates PG production in equine endometrium; and (ii) PGE₂ and PGF_2α modulate MMPs, their tissue inhibitors (TIMPs), and collagen 1 (COL1) expression. In experiment 1, the effect of TGF-β1 (5 ng/mL) on PG secretion and PG synthases mRNA transcription, after 24 and 48 h treatment of mare endometrial fibroblast and epithelial cells was investigated using ELISA and qPCR. In experiment 2, the effects of PGE₂ and PGF_2α in doses 10^_-7M and 10^-8M on secretion and MMP1, 2, 9, 13, TIMP1, 2, and COL1A1 mRNA transcription in mare endometrial fibroblasts were assessed. Transforming growth factor-β1 treatment decreased secretion of PGF_2α by endometrial fibroblasts (P < 0.05) and PGF_2α and PGE₂ by endometrial epithelial cells (P < 0.05). Prostaglandin E₂ increased MMP-2 and MMP-9, and decreased MMP-13 secretion by endometrial fibroblasts (P < 0.05). Additionally, PGF_2α treatment increased MMP-2, MMP-13 and COL1, but decreased MMP-1 secretion by endometrial fibroblasts (P < 0.05). Prostaglandins may be involved in the processes associated to pathological endometrial remodeling by their effect on MMP expression. The effect of PGF_2α on COL1 secretion from fibroblasts suggests its profibrotic role in pathological endometrial remodeling.

Matrix metallopeptidase expression and modulation by transforming growth factor-β1 in equine endometrosis

Equine endometrial fibrosis (endometrosis) is described as a degenerative chronic condition in the uterus. Its characteristic feature is excessive deposition of extracellular matrix (ECM) components around the endometrial glands and stroma. Although matrix metallopeptidases (MMPs) that mediate ECM turnover are important factors in the process of fibrosis, knowledge of their expression and regulation in endometrosis is limited. In other species, one of the important regulators of MMPs and tissue inhibitors of MMPs (TIMPs) is transforming growth factor (TGF)-β1. The goal of this study was to determine (i) endometrial expression of MMPs and TIMPs during endometrosis and (ii) the effect of TGF-β1 on expression of MMPs and TIMPs in equine endometrial fibroblasts and epithelial cells. In the follicular phase of the estrous cycle, MMP-1, -2, -9, and TIMP concentrations were higher during endometrosis than in healthy endometrium (P < 0.05). In the midluteal phase, MMP-3 concentration was lower in severe endometrosis compared to healthy endometrium (P < 0.05). In fibroblasts, TGF-β1 upregulated MMP-1, -9, -13, and TIMP1, but downregulated MMP-3 secretion (P < 0.05). In epithelial cells, TGF-β1 upregulated MMP-1, -9, -13, and TIMP secretion (P < 0.05). Endometrial expression of MMPs and TIMPs is altered during endometrosis. TGF-β1 is a regulator of endometrial ECM remodeling via its effect on MMPs and TIMPs in equine endometrial fibroblasts and epithelial cells.

Dynamic features of liver fibrogenesis and fibrosis resolution in the absence of matrix metalloproteinase‑9

The two‑edged effect of matrix metalloproteinase‑9 (MMP9) makes it difficult to understand its role in liver fibrogenesis and fibrosis resolution. The present study aimed to investigate the dynamic features of liver fibrogenesis and fibrosis resolution in the absence of MMP9. MMP9‑/‑ mice were used to induce liver fibrosis by thioacetamide. The degrees of liver fibrogenesis and fibrosis resolution were designated by the levels of collagen I, III and IV, which were determined via western blotting. Liver injury and the transcriptional levels of MMPs and tissue inhibitor of metalloproteinases (TIMPs) were also determined. It was revealed that, in the absence of MMP9, acute liver injury was attenuated and the expression of collagen was alleviated at the early stage of liver fibrosis, particularly in the first 3 weeks. However, their levels increased to levels as high as those in the control group by week 8. During liver fibrosis resolution, in the absence of MMP9, the ratio of (MMP9 + MMP13)/TIMP1 and the ratio of (MMP2+ MMP14)/TIMP2 were decreased, and the collagen levels were increased. The present study revealed the dynamic features of liver fibrogenesis and fibrosis resolution in the absence of MMP9. The information obtained here will improve current understanding of the effect that MMP9 has in liver fibrogenesis and fibrosis resolution.

Mechanical strain promotes skin fibrosis through LRG-1 induction mediated by ELK1 and ERK signalling

Biomechanical force and pathological angiogenesis are dominant features in fibro-proliferative disorders. Understanding the role and regulation of the mechanical microenvironment in which pathological angiogenesis occurs is an important challenge when investigating numerous angiogenesis-related diseases. In skin fibrosis, dermal fibroblasts and vascular endothelial cells are integral to hypertrophic scar formation. However, few studies have been conducted to closely investigate their relationship. Here we show, that leucine-rich-alpha-2-glycoprotein 1 (LRG-1) a regulator of pathological angiogenesis, links biomechanical force to angiogenesis in skin fibrosis. We discover that LRG-1 is overexpressed in hypertrophic scar tissues, and that depletion of Lrg-1 in mouse skin causes mild neovascularization and skin fibrosis formation in a hypertrophic scarring model. Inhibition of FAK or ERK attenuates LRG-1 expression through the ELK1 transcription factor, which binds to the LRG-1 promoter region after transcription initiation by mechanical force. Using LRG-1 to uncouple mechanical force from angiogenesis may prove clinically successful in treating fibro-proliferative disorders.

Effect of proinflammatory cytokines on endometrial collagen and metallopeptidase expression during the course of equine endometrosis

Equine endometrosis (endometrial fibrosis) is a degenerative chronic process that occurs in the uterus of the mare and disturbs proper endometrial function. Fibrosis is attributed to excessive deposition of extracellular matrix (ECM) components. The turnover of ECM is mediated by matrix metallopeptidases (MMP). Previously, it was shown that cytokines modulate MMP expression in other tissues and may regulate fibrosis indirectly by attracting inflammatory cells to the site of inflammation and directly on various tissues. However, the regulation of MMP expression in equine endometrosis is still relatively unknown. Thus, our aim was to determine if interleukin (IL)-1β and IL-6 regulate ECM, MMPs, or their inhibitors (TIMPs) and whether this regulation differs during endometrosis in the mare. Endometrial fibrosis was divided into four categories according to severity: I (no degenerative changes), IIA (mild degenerative changes), IIB (moderate degenerative changes) and III (severe degenerative changes) according to Kenney and Doig classification. Endometrial explants (n = 5 for category I, IIA, IIB and III according to Kenney and Doig) were incubated with IL-1β (10 ng/ml) or IL-6 (10 ng/ml) for 24 h. Secretion and mRNA transcription of collagen type 1 (Col1a1) and type 3 (Col3a1), fibronectin (Fn1), Mmp-1, -2, -3, -9, -13, Timp-1, -2 were analyzed by real-time PCR and ELISA, respectively. IL-1β treatment up-regulated secretion of COL1, MMP-2, TIMP1, and TIMP2 in category I endometrial fibrosis tissues (P < 0.05). IL-6 treatment up-regulated secretion of ECM, MMP-2, and MMP-3 and down-regulated secretion of MMP-9 in category I tissues (P < 0.05). In category IIA tissues, IL-1β and IL-6 treatment up-regulated secretion of COL3 (P < 0.05; P < 0.05), and IL-6 treatment also down-regulated secretion of MMP-9 (P < 0.05). In category IIB tissues, IL-1β treatment down-regulated secretion of COL3 (P < 0.05) and up-regulated secretion of MMP-3 (P < 0.01), while IL-6 treatment up-regulated secretion of MMP-3, MMP-9, and MMP-13 (P < 0.05). In category III tissues, IL-1β treatment up-regulated secretion of COL1, MMP-1, MMP-9 and TIMP-2 (P < 0.05), and IL-6 up-regulated secretion of all investigated ECM components, MMPs and TIMPs. These results reveal that the effect of IL-1β and IL-6 on equine endometrium differs depending on the severity of endometrial fibrosis. Our findings indicate an association between inflammation and development of endometrosis through the effect of IL-1β and IL-6 on expression of ECM components, MMPs, and TIMPs in the mare.

Cardioprotection of salvianolic acid B and ginsenoside Rg1 combination on subacute myocardial infarction and the underlying mechanism

BACKGROUND

Following myocardial infarction (MI), a series of structural and functional changes evolves in the myocardium, collectively defined as cardiac remodeling.

PURPOSE

The aim of present study was to investigate the cardioprotection of salvianolicacid B (SalB) and ginsenoside Rg1 (Rg1) combination against cardiac remodeling in a rat model at the subacute phase of MI and further elucidate the underlying mechanism.

METHODS

Rat heart was exposed via a left thoracotomy at the fourth intercostal space and MI was induced by a ligature below the left descending coronary artery. Hemodynamic assay was conducted using a Mikro-tipped SPR-320 catheter which was inserted through the right carotid artery into left ventricle.Myocardial infarct size was detected using 3,5-triphenyltetrazolium chloride (TTC) staining. Haematoxylin and eosin (HE) stain and picric sirius red stain were conducted for histopathological detection. Immunohistochemistry was used to detect the expression of α-smooth muscle actin (α-SMA) and gelatin zymography was used to evaluate the activities of matrix metalloproteinase-9 (MMP-9).

RESULTS

Comparing with MI rats, 30 mg/kg SalB-Rg1 improved cardiac function verified by maximum rate of pressure development for contraction (+dp/dt_max, p < 0.01) and maximum rate of pressure development for relaxation (-dp/dt_max, p < 0.05); reduced myocardial infarct size (p < 0.05) verified by TTC staining, improved cardiac structure based on HE stain; decreased collagen volume fraction (p < 0.05) and collagen I/III ratio (p < 0.05) according picrosirius red staining. The underlying mechanism of SalB-Rg1 against cardiac remodeling was associated with its down-regulation on α-SMA expression according immunohistochemistry (p < 0.01) and inhibition on MMP-9 activity based on in-gel zymography (p < 0.05).

CONCLUSION

All above study indicated the potential therapeutic effects of SalB-Rg1 on heart.

Mitochondrial Dysfunction-Associated Arrhythmogenic Substrates in Diabetes Mellitus

There is increasing evidence that diabetic cardiomyopathy increases the risk of cardiac arrhythmia and sudden cardiac death. While the detailed mechanisms remain incompletely understood, the loss of mitochondrial function, which is often observed in the heart of patients with diabetes, has emerged as a key contributor to the arrhythmogenic substrates. In this mini review, the pathophysiology of mitochondrial dysfunction in diabetes mellitus is explored in detail, followed by descriptions of several mechanisms potentially linking mitochondria to arrhythmogenesis in the context of diabetic cardiomyopathy.

1,25 Dihydroxyvitamin D3 Enhances the Antifibroid Effects of Ulipristal Acetate in Human Uterine Fibroids

BACKGROUND

Both European and American trials showed superior effect of ulipristal acetate (UPA) to placebo. However, the latter, which included black patients with known higher vitaminD3 deficiency risk, showed lower rate of amenorrhea responders and insignificant uterine fibroid (UF) size reduction. Our objective is to investigate whether adding vitamin D₃ to UPA can enhance UPA potency on UF phenotype in vitro.

METHODS

We screened the antiproliferative effect of different (UPA/vitaminD3) combinations on UF cell proliferation using dimethylthiazolyl diphenyltetrazolium bromide assay. Cells then were treated with UPA 100 nM in the presence or absence of vitamin D₃ 100 nM, and expression level of several markers related to proliferation, apoptosis, fibrosis, inflammation, and angiogenesis was measured on RNA or at protein level using quantitative real-time polymerase chain reaction, Western blot, immunofluorescence, or multiplex enzyme-linked immunosorbent assay techniques.

RESULTS

Significant dose- and time-dependent growth inhibitory effects of UPA/vitamin D₃ combinations were observed compared to untreated cells at 2 and 4 days (P < .05). Importantly, vitamin D₃/UPA combination significantly reduced cell proliferation as compared to UPA at 2, 4, 6, and 8 days (P < .05). Combination treatment significantly decreased protein expression of proliferation markers Ki-67, PCNA, and CyclinD1 by more than 50% compared to UPA (P < .05) along with a significant increase in apoptosis induction. Combination treatment resulted in a 2-fold decrease in protein levels of extracellular matrix markers collagen-1 and fibronectin besides pro-fibrogenic cytokine transforming growth factor β3 (P < .05). Moreover, it significantly decreased the production of pro-inflammatory cytokines interleukins 6, 8, 1α, and 1β compared to UPA (P < .05).

CONCLUSION

Combination of vitamin D₃ with UPA exhibits additional and orchestrated anti-UF effects, therefore might offer a more favorable clinical option.