Biochemical characterization of yeast mitochondrial Grx5 monothiol glutaredoxin

Glutathione-Related Enzymes and Proteins: A Review

The tripeptide glutathione is found in all eukaryotic cells, and due to the compartmentalization of biochemical processes, its synthesis takes place exclusively in the cytosol. At the same time, its functions depend on its transport to/from organelles and interorgan transport, in which the liver plays a central role. Glutathione is determined as a marker of the redox state in many diseases, aging processes, and cell death resulting from its properties and reactivity. It also uses other enzymes and proteins, which enables it to engage and regulate various cell functions. This paper approximates the role of these systems in redox and detoxification reactions such as conjugation reactions of glutathione-S-transferases, glyoxylases, reduction of peroxides through thiol peroxidases (glutathione peroxidases, peroxiredoxins) and thiol-disulfide exchange reactions catalyzed by glutaredoxins.

Relationships between the Reversible Oxidation of the Single Cysteine Residue and the Physiological Function of the Mitochondrial Glutaredoxin S15 from Arabidopsis thaliana

Glutaredoxins (GRXs) are widespread proteins catalyzing deglutathionylation or glutathionylation reactions or serving for iron-sulfur (Fe-S) protein maturation. Previous studies highlighted a role of the Arabidopsis thaliana mitochondrial class II GRXS15 in Fe-S cluster assembly, whereas only a weak glutathione-dependent oxidation activity was detected with the non-physiological roGFP2 substrate in vitro. Still, the protein must exist in a reduced form for both redox and Fe-S cluster binding functions. Therefore, this study aimed at examining the redox properties of AtGRXS15. The acidic pKa of the sole cysteine present in AtGRXS15 indicates that it should be almost totally under a thiolate form at mitochondrial pH and thus possibly subject to oxidation. Oxidizing treatments revealed that this cysteine reacts with H₂O₂ or with oxidized glutathione forms. This leads to the formation of disulfide-bridge dimers and glutathionylated monomers which have redox midpoint potentials of -304 mV and -280 mV, respectively. Both oxidized forms are reduced by glutathione and mitochondrial thioredoxins. In conclusion, it appears that AtGRXS15 is prone to oxidation, forming reversible oxidation forms that may be seen either as a catalytic intermediate of the oxidoreductase activity and/or as a protective mechanism preventing irreversible oxidation and allowing Fe-S cluster binding upon reduction.

Glutaredoxin: Discovery, redox defense and much more

Glutaredoxin, Grx, is a small protein containing an active site cysteine pair and was discovered in 1976 by Arne Holmgren. The Grx system, comprised of Grx, glutathione, glutathione reductase, and NADPH, was first described as an electron donor for Ribonucleotide Reductase but, from the first discovery in E.coli, the Grx family has impressively grown, particularly in the last two decades. Several isoforms have been described in different organisms (from bacteria to humans) and with different functions.

The unique characteristic of Grxs is their ability to catalyse glutathione-dependent redox regulation via glutathionylation, the conjugation of glutathione to a substrate, and its reverse reaction, deglutathionylation. Grxs have also recently been enrolled in iron sulphur cluster formation. These functions have been implied in various physiological and pathological conditions, from immune defense to neurodegeneration and cancer development thus making Grx a possible drug target.

This review aims to give an overview on Grxs, starting by a phylogenetic analysis of vertebrate Grxs, followed by an analysis of the mechanisms of action, the specific characteristics of the different human isoforms and a discussion on aspects related to human physiology and diseases.

The Arabidopsis Mitochondrial Glutaredoxin GRXS15 Provides [2Fe-2S] Clusters for ISCA-Mediated [4Fe-4S] Cluster Maturation

Iron-sulfur (Fe-S) proteins are crucial for many cellular functions, particularly those involving electron transfer and metabolic reactions. An essential monothiol glutaredoxin GRXS15 plays a key role in the maturation of plant mitochondrial Fe-S proteins. However, its specific molecular function is not clear, and may be different from that of the better characterized yeast and human orthologs, based on known properties. Hence, we report here a detailed characterization of the interactions between Arabidopsis thaliana GRXS15 and ISCA proteins using both in vivo and in vitro approaches. Yeast two-hybrid and bimolecular fluorescence complementation experiments demonstrated that GRXS15 interacts with each of the three plant mitochondrial ISCA1a/1b/2 proteins. UV-visible absorption/CD and resonance Raman spectroscopy demonstrated that coexpression of ISCA1a and ISCA2 resulted in samples with one [2Fe-2S]²⁺ cluster per ISCA1a/2 heterodimer, but cluster reconstitution using as-purified [2Fe-2S]-ISCA1a/2 resulted in a [4Fe-4S]²⁺ cluster-bound ISCA1a/2 heterodimer. Cluster transfer reactions monitored by UV-visible absorption and CD spectroscopy demonstrated that [2Fe-2S]-GRXS15 mediates [2Fe-2S]²⁺ cluster assembly on mitochondrial ferredoxin and [4Fe-4S]²⁺ cluster assembly on the ISCA1a/2 heterodimer in the presence of excess glutathione. This suggests that ISCA1a/2 is an assembler of [4Fe-4S]²⁺ clusters, via two-electron reductive coupling of two [2Fe-2S]²⁺ clusters. Overall, the results provide new insights into the roles of GRXS15 and ISCA1a/2 in effecting [2Fe-2S]²⁺ to [4Fe-4S]²⁺ cluster conversions for the maturation of client [4Fe-4S] cluster-containing proteins in plants.

Role of GSH and Iron-Sulfur Glutaredoxins in Iron Metabolism-Review

Glutathione (GSH) was initially identified and characterized for its redox properties and later for its contributions to detoxification reactions. Over the past decade, however, the essential contributions of glutathione to cellular iron metabolism have come more and more into focus. GSH is indispensable in mitochondrial iron-sulfur (FeS) cluster biosynthesis, primarily by co-ligating FeS clusters as a cofactor of the CGFS-type (class II) glutaredoxins (Grxs). GSH is required for the export of the yet to be defined FeS precursor from the mitochondria to the cytosol. In the cytosol, it is an essential cofactor, again of the multi-domain CGFS-type Grxs, master players in cellular iron and FeS trafficking. In this review, we summarize the recent advances and progress in this field. The most urgent open questions are discussed, such as the role of GSH in the export of FeS precursors from mitochondria, the physiological roles of the CGFS-type Grx interactions with BolA-like proteins and the cluster transfer between Grxs and recipient proteins.

Quantitative assessment of the determinant structural differences between redox-active and inactive glutaredoxins

Class I glutaredoxins are enzymatically active, glutathione-dependent oxidoreductases, whilst class II glutaredoxins are typically enzymatically inactive, Fe-S cluster-binding proteins. Enzymatically active glutaredoxins harbor both a glutathione-scaffold site for reacting with glutathionylated disulfide substrates and a glutathione-activator site for reacting with reduced glutathione. Here, using yeast ScGrx7 as a model protein, we comprehensively identified and characterized key residues from four distinct protein regions, as well as the covalently bound glutathione moiety, and quantified their contribution to both interaction sites. Additionally, we developed a redox-sensitive GFP2-based assay, which allowed the real-time assessment of glutaredoxin structure-function relationships inside living cells. Finally, we employed this assay to rapidly screen multiple glutaredoxin mutants, ultimately enabling us to convert enzymatically active and inactive glutaredoxins into each other. In summary, we have gained a comprehensive understanding of the mechanistic underpinnings of glutaredoxin catalysis and have elucidated the determinant structural differences between the two main classes of glutaredoxins.

Glutaredoxins play a central role in numerous biological processes including cellular redox homeostasis and Fe-S cluster biogenesis. Here the authors establish the molecular basis for glutaredoxin redox catalysis through comprehensive biochemical and structural analyses.

Role of rockfish (Sebastes schlegelii) glutaredoxin 1 in innate immunity, and alleviation of cellular oxidative stress: Insights into localization, molecular characteristics, transcription, and function

Glutaredoxins are a group of heat stable oxidoreductases ubiquitously found in prokaryotes and eukaryotes. They are widely known for GSH (glutathione)-dependent protein disulfide reduction and cellular redox homeostasis. This study was performed to identify and characterize rockfish (Sebastes schlegelii) glutaredoxin 1 (SsGrx1) at molecular, transcriptional, and functional levels. The coding sequence of SsGrx1 was 318 bp in length and encoded a protein containing 106 amino acids. The molecular weight and theoretical isoelectric point of the putative SsGrx1 protein were 11.6 kDa and 6.71 kDa, respectively. The amino acid sequence of SsGrx1 comprised a CPYC redox active motif surrounded by several conserved GSH binding sites. The modeled protein structure was found to consist of five α-helices and four β-sheets, similar to human Grx1. SsGrx1 showed a tissue specific expression in all the tissues tested, with the highest expression in the kidney. Immune stimulation by lipopolysaccharides (LPS), polyinosinic:polycytidylic acid (polyI:C), and Streptococcus iniae (S. iniae) could significantly modulate the SsGrx1 expression pattern in the blood and gills. Analysis of its subcellular localization disclosed that SsGrx1 was prominently localized in the cytosol. Recombinant SsGrx1 (rSsGrx1) exhibited significant activity in insulin disulfide reduction assay and HED (β-Hydroxyethyl Disulfide) assay. Furthermore, transient overexpression of SsGrx1 in FHM (fathead minnow) cells significantly enhanced cell survival upon H₂O₂-induced apoptosis. Collectively, our findings strongly suggest that SsGrx1 plays a crucial role in providing rockfish immune protection against pathogens and oxidative stress.

Phylogenetic distribution and structural analyses of cyanobacterial glutaredoxins (Grxs)

Glutaredoxins (Grxs), the oxidoreductase proteins, are involved in several cellular processes, including maintenance of cellular redox potential and iron-sulfur homeostasis. The analysis of 503 amino acid sequences from 167 cyanobacterial species led to the identification of four classes of cyanobacterial Grxs, i.e., class I, II, V, and VI Grxs. Class III and IV Grxs were absent in cyanobacteria. Class I and II Grxs are single module oxidoreductase while class V and VI Grxs are multimodular proteins having additional modules at their C-terminal and N-terminal end, respectively. Furthermore, class VI Grxs were exclusively present in marine cyanobacteria. We also report the identification of class VI Grxs with two novel active site motif compositions. Detailed phylogenetic analysis of all four classes of Grxs revealed the presence of several subgroups within each class of Grx having variable dithiol and/or monothiol catalytic active site motif and putative glutathione binding sites. However, class II Grxs possess CGFS-type highly conserved monothiol catalytic active site motif. Sequence analysis confirmed the highly diverse nature of Grx proteins in terms of their amino acid composition; though, sequence diversity does not affect the overall 3D structure of cyanobacterial Grxs. The active site residues and putative GSH binding residues are uncharged amino acids which are present on the surface of the protein. Additionally, the presence of hydrophilic residues at the surface of Grxs confirms their solubility. Protein-ligand interaction analysis identified novel glutathione binding sites on Grxs. Regulation of Grxs encoding genes expression by light quality and quantity as well as salinity suggests their role in determining the fitness of organisms under abiotic factors.

Dysregulation of the glutaredoxin/S-glutathionylation redox axis in lung diseases

Glutathione is a major redox buffer, reaching millimolar concentrations within cells and high micromolar concentrations in airways. While glutathione has been traditionally known as an antioxidant defense mechanism that protects the lung tissue from oxidative stress, glutathione more recently has become recognized for its ability to become covalently conjugated to reactive cysteines within proteins, a modification known as S-glutathionylation (or S-glutathiolation or protein mixed disulfide). S-glutathionylation has the potential to change the structure and function of the target protein, owing to its size (the addition of three amino acids) and charge (glutamic acid). S-glutathionylation also protects proteins from irreversible oxidation, allowing them to be enzymatically regenerated. Numerous enzymes have been identified to catalyze the glutathionylation/deglutathionylation reactions, including glutathione S-transferases and glutaredoxins. Although protein S-glutathionylation has been implicated in numerous biological processes, S-glutathionylated proteomes have largely remained unknown. In this paper, we focus on the pathways that regulate GSH homeostasis, S-glutathionylated proteins, and glutaredoxins, and we review methods required toward identification of glutathionylated proteomes. Finally, we present the latest findings on the role of glutathionylation/glutaredoxins in various lung diseases: idiopathic pulmonary fibrosis, asthma, and chronic obstructive pulmonary disease.

Characterization of Xi-class mycothiol S-transferase from Corynebacterium glutamicum and its protective effects in oxidative stress

Background

Oxidative stress caused by inevitable hostile conditions during fermentative process was the most serious threat to the survival of the well-known industrial microorganism Corynebacterium glutamicum. To survive, C. glutamicum developed several antioxidant defenses including millimolar concentrations of mycothiol (MSH) and protective enzymes. Glutathione (GSH) S-transferases (GSTs) with essentially defensive role in oxidative stress have been well defined in numerous microorganisms, while their physiological and biochemical functions remained elusive in C. glutamicum thus far.

Results

In the present study, we described protein NCgl1216 belonging to a novel MSH S-transferase Xi class (MstX), considered as the equivalent of GST Xi class (GSTX). MstX had a characteristic conserved catalytic motif (Cys-Pro-Trp-Ala, C-P-W-A). MstX was active as thiol transferase, dehydroascorbate reductase, mycothiolyl-hydroquinone reductase and MSH peroxidase, while it showed null activity toward canonical GSTs substrate as 1-chloro-2,4-dinitrobenzene (CDNB) and GST Omega’s specific substance glutathionyl-acetophenones, indicating MstX had some biochemical characteristics related with mycoredoxin (Mrx). Site-directed mutagenesis showed that, among the two cysteine residues of the molecule, only the residue at position 67 was required for the activity. Moreover, the residues adjacent to the active Cys67 were also important for activity. These results indicated that the thiol transferase of MstX operated through a monothiol mechanism. In addition, we found MstX played important role in various stress resistance. The lack of C. glutamicum mstX gene resulted in significant growth inhibition and increased sensitivity under adverse stress condition. The mstX expression was induced by stress.

Conclusion

Corynebacterium glutamicum MstX might be critically involved in response to oxidative conditions, thereby giving new insight in how C. glutamicum survived oxidative stressful conditions.

Understanding the Cross-Talk of Redox Metabolism and Fe-S Cluster Biogenesis in Leishmania Through Systems Biology Approach

Leishmania parasites possess an exceptional oxidant and chemical defense mechanism, involving a very unique small molecular weight thiol, trypanothione (T[SH]₂), that helps the parasite to manage its survival inside the host macrophage. The reduced state of T[SH]₂ is maintained by NADPH-dependent trypanothione reductase (TryR) by recycling trypanothione disulfide (TS₂). Along with its most important role as central reductant, T[SH]₂ have also been assumed to regulate the activation of iron-sulfur cluster proteins (Fe/S). Fe/S clusters are versatile cofactors of various proteins and execute a much broader range of essential biological processes viz., TCA cycle, redox homeostasis, etc. Although, several Fe/S cluster proteins and their roles have been identified in Leishmania, some of the components of how T[SH]₂ is involved in the regulation of Fe/S proteins remains to be explored. In pursuit of this aim, a systems biology approach was undertaken to get an insight into the overall picture to unravel how T[SH]₂ synthesis and reduction is linked with the regulation of Fe/S cluster proteins and controls the redox homeostasis at a larger scale. In the current study, we constructed an in silico kinetic model of T[SH]₂ metabolism. T[SH]₂ reduction reaction was introduced with a perturbation in the form of its inhibition to predict the overall behavior of the model. The main control of reaction fluxes were exerted by TryR reaction rate that affected almost all the important reactions in the model. It was observed that the model was more sensitive to the perturbation introduced in TryR reaction, 5 to 6-fold. Furthermore, due to inhibition, the T[SH]₂ synthesis rate was observed to be gradually decreased by 8 to 14-fold. This has also caused an elevated level of free radicals which apparently affected the activation of Fe/S cluster proteins. The present kinetic model has demonstrated the importance of T[SH]₂ in leishmanial cellular redox metabolism. Hence, we suggest that, by designing highly potent and specific inhibitors of TryR enzyme, inhibition of T[SH]₂ reduction and overall inhibition of most of the downstream pathways including Fe/S protein activation reactions, can be accomplished.

Characterization of a protozoan Phosducin-like protein-3 (PhLP-3) reveals conserved redox activity

We recently identified three novel thioredoxin-like genes in the genome of the protozoan parasite Plasmodium that belong to the Phosducin-like family of proteins (PhLP). PhLPs are small cytosolic proteins hypothesized to function in G-protein signaling and protein folding. Although PhLPs are highly conserved in eukaryotes from yeast to mammals, only a few representatives have been experimentally characterized to date. In addition, while PhLPs contain a thioredoxin domain, they lack a CXXC motif, a strong indicator for redox activity, and it is unclear whether members of the PhLP family are enzymatically active. Here, we describe PbPhLP-3 as the first phosducin-like protein of a protozoan organism, Plasmodium berghei. Initial transcription analysis revealed continuous low-level expression of pbphlp-3 throughout the complex Plasmodium life cycle. Attempts to knockout pbphlp-3 in P. berghei did not yield live parasites, suggesting an essential role for the gene in Plasmodium. We cloned, expressed and purified PbPhLP-3 and determined that the recombinant protein is redox active in vitro in a thioredoxin-coupled redox assay. It also has the capacity to reduce the organic compound tert-Butyl hydroperoxide (TBHP) in vitro, albeit at low efficiency. Sequence analysis, structural modeling, and site-directed mutagenesis revealed a conserved cysteine in the thioredoxin domain to be the redox active residue. Lastly, we provide evidence that recombinant human PhLP-3 exhibits redox activity similar to that of PbPhLP-3 and suggest that redox activity may be conserved in PhLP-3 homologs of other species. Our data provide new insight into the function of PhLP-3, which is hypothesized to act as co-chaperones in the folding and regulation of cytoskeletal proteins. We discuss the potential implications of PhLP-3 as a thioredoxin-target protein and possible links between the cellular redox network and the eukaryotic protein folding machinery.

Dimers of glutaredoxin 2 as mitochondrial redox sensors in selenite-induced oxidative stress

Grx2 coordinates an iron–sulfur cluster, forming inactive dimers. In mitochondria, Grx2 monomerization, after oxidative stress, determines iron release triggering apoptosis.

The thioredoxin-mediated recycling of Arabidopsis thaliana GRXS16 relies on a conserved C-terminal cysteine

BACKGROUND

Glutaredoxins (GRXs) are oxidoreductases involved in diverse cellular processes through their capacity to reduce glutathionylated proteins and/or to coordinate iron‑sulfur (Fe-S) clusters. Among class II GRXs, the plant-specific GRXS16 is a bimodular protein formed by an N-terminal endonuclease domain fused to a GRX domain containing a ¹⁵⁸CGFS signature.

METHODS

The biochemical properties (redox activity, sensitivity to oxidation, pK_a of cysteine residues, midpoint redox potential) of Arabidopsis thaliana GRXS16 were investigated by coupling oxidative treatments to alkylation shift assays, activity measurements and mass spectrometry analyses.

RESULTS

Activity measurements using redox-sensitive GFP2 (roGFP2) as target protein did not reveal any significant glutathione-dependent reductase activity of A. thaliana GRXS16 whereas it was able to catalyze the oxidation of roGFP2 in the presence of glutathione disulfide. Accordingly, Arabidopsis GRXS16 reacted efficiently with oxidized forms of glutathione, leading to the formation of an intramolecular disulfide between Cys¹⁵⁸ and the semi-conserved Cys²¹⁵, which has a midpoint redox potential of - 298 mV at pH 7.0 and is reduced by plastidial thioredoxins (TRXs) but not GSH. By promoting the formation of this disulfide, Cys²¹⁵ modulates GRXS16 oxidoreductase activity.

CONCLUSION

The reduction of AtGRXS16, which is mandatory for its oxidoreductase activity and the binding of Fe-S clusters, depends on light through the plastidial FTR/TRX system. Hence, disulfide formation may constitute a redox switch mechanism controlling GRXS16 function in response to day/night transition or oxidizing conditions.

GENERAL SIGNIFICANCE

From the in vitro data obtained with roGFP2, one can postulate that GRXS16 would mediate protein glutathionylation/oxidation in plastids but not their deglutathionylation.

Iron-dependent cleavage of ribosomal RNA during oxidative stress in the yeast Saccharomyces cerevisiae

Stress-induced strand breaks in rRNA have been observed in many organisms, but the mechanisms by which they originate are not well-understood. Here we show that a chemical rather than an enzymatic mechanism initiates rRNA cleavages during oxidative stress in yeast (Saccharomyces cerevisiae). We used cells lacking the mitochondrial glutaredoxin Grx5 to demonstrate that oxidant-induced cleavage formation in 25S rRNA correlates with intracellular iron levels. Sequestering free iron by chemical or genetic means decreased the extent of rRNA degradation and relieved the hypersensitivity of grx5Δ cells to the oxidants. Importantly, subjecting purified ribosomes to an in vitro iron/ascorbate reaction precisely recapitulated the 25S rRNA cleavage pattern observed in cells, indicating that redox activity of the ribosome-bound iron is responsible for the strand breaks in the rRNA. In summary, our findings provide evidence that oxidative stress-associated rRNA cleavages can occur through rRNA strand scission by redox-active, ribosome-bound iron that potentially promotes Fenton reaction-induced hydroxyl radical production, implicating intracellular iron as a key determinant of the effects of oxidative stress on ribosomes. We propose that iron binding to specific ribosome elements primes rRNA for cleavages that may play a role in redox-sensitive tuning of the ribosome function in stressed cells.

Glutaredoxin catalysis requires two distinct glutathione interaction sites

Glutaredoxins are key players in cellular redox homoeostasis and exert a variety of essential functions ranging from glutathione-dependent catalysis to iron metabolism. The exact structure–function relationships and mechanistic differences among glutaredoxins that are active or inactive in standard enzyme assays have so far remained elusive despite numerous kinetic and structural studies. Here, we elucidate the enzymatic mechanism showing that glutaredoxins require two distinct glutathione interaction sites for efficient redox catalysis. The first site interacts with the glutathione moiety of glutathionylated disulfide substrates. The second site activates glutathione as the reducing agent. We propose that the requirement of two distinct glutathione interaction sites for the efficient reduction of glutathionylated disulfide substrates explains the deviating structure–function relationships, activities and substrate preferences of different glutaredoxin subfamilies as well as thioredoxins. Our model also provides crucial insights for the design or optimization of artificial glutaredoxins, transition-state inhibitors and glutaredoxin-coupled redox sensors.

Glutaredoxins have important roles in redox processes. Here the authors show that the enzymatic activity of glutaredoxins requires two distinct glutathione interactions sites, one recognizing the glutathione disulfide substrate and one activating glutathione as a reducing agent.

A New Class of Thioredoxin-Related Protein Able to Bind Iron-Sulfur Clusters

AIMS

Members of the thioredoxin (Trx) protein family participate mainly in redox pathways and have not been associated with Fe/S binding, in contrast to some closely related glutaredoxins (Grxs). Cestode parasites possess an unusual diversity of Trxs and Trx-related proteins with unexplored functions. In this study, we addressed the biochemical characterization of a new class of Trx-related protein (IsTRP) and a classical monothiol Grx (EgGrx5) from the human pathogen Echinococcus granulosus.

RESULTS

The dimeric form of IsTRP coordinates Fe₂S₂ in a glutathione-independent manner; instead, Fe/S binding relies on the CXXC motif conserved among Trxs. This novel binding mechanism allows holo-IsTRP to be highly resistant to oxidation. IsTRP lacks canonical reductase activities. Mitochondrially targeted IsTRP aids growth of a Grx5 null yeast strain. Similar complementation assays performed with EgGrx5 revealed functional conservation for class II Grxs, despite the presence of nonconserved structural elements. IsTRP is a cestode lineage-specific protein highly expressed in the gravid adult worm, which releases the infective stage critical for dissemination.

INNOVATION

IsTRP is the first member from the Trx family to be reported to bind Fe/S. We disclose a novel mechanism of Fe/S coordination within the Trx folding unit, which renders the cluster highly resistant to oxidation-mediated disassembly.

CONCLUSION

We demonstrate that IsTRP defines a new protein family within the Trx superfamily, confirm the conservation of function for class II Grx from nonphylogenetically related species, and highlight the versatility of the Trx folding unit to acquire Fe/S binding as a recurrent emergent function. Antioxid. Redox Signal. 00, 000-000.

The mitochondrial monothiol glutaredoxin S15 is essential for iron-sulfur protein maturation in Arabidopsis thaliana

The iron-sulfur cluster (ISC) is an ancient and essential cofactor of many proteins involved in electron transfer and metabolic reactions. In Arabidopsis, three pathways exist for the maturation of iron-sulfur proteins in the cytosol, plastids, and mitochondria. We functionally characterized the role of mitochondrial glutaredoxin S15 (GRXS15) in biogenesis of ISC containing aconitase through a combination of genetic, physiological, and biochemical approaches. Two Arabidopsis T-DNA insertion mutants were identified as null mutants with early embryonic lethal phenotypes that could be rescued by GRXS15. Furthermore, we showed that recombinant GRXS15 is able to coordinate and transfer an ISC and that this coordination depends on reduced glutathione (GSH). We found the Arabidopsis GRXS15 able to complement growth defects based on disturbed ISC protein assembly of a yeast Δgrx5 mutant. Modeling of GRXS15 onto the crystal structures of related nonplant proteins highlighted amino acid residues that after mutation diminished GSH and subsequently ISC coordination, as well as the ability to rescue the yeast mutant. When used for plant complementation, one of these mutant variants, GRXS15K83/A, led to severe developmental delay and a pronounced decrease in aconitase activity by approximately 65%. These results indicate that mitochondrial GRXS15 is an essential protein in Arabidopsis, required for full activity of iron-sulfur proteins.

Systematic re-evaluation of the bis(2-hydroxyethyl)disulfide (HEDS) assay reveals an alternative mechanism and activity of glutaredoxins

The sequential kinetic patterns of mono- and dithiol glutaredoxins in the HEDS assay reflect an alternative enzymatic mechanism for the glutathione-dependent reduction of disulfide substrates.

The reduction of bis(2-hydroxyethyl)disulfide (HEDS) by reduced glutathione (GSH) is the most commonly used assay to analyze the presence and properties of enzymatically active glutaredoxins (Grx), a family of central redox proteins in eukaryotes and glutathione-utilizing prokaryotes. Enzymatically active Grx usually prefer glutathionylated disulfide substrates. These are converted via a ping-pong mechanism. Sequential kinetic patterns for the HEDS assay have therefore been puzzling since 1991. Here we established a novel assay and used the model enzyme ScGrx7 from yeast and PfGrx from Plasmodium falciparum to test several possible causes for the sequential kinetics such as pre-enzymatic GSH depletion, simultaneous binding of a glutathionylated substrate and GSH, as well as substrate or product inhibition. Furthermore, we analyzed the non-enzymatic reaction between HEDS and GSH by HPLC and mass spectrometry suggesting that such a reaction is too slow to explain high Grx activities in the assay. The most plausible interpretation of our results is a direct Grx-catalyzed reduction of HEDS. Physiological implications of this alternative mechanism and of the Grx-catalyzed reduction of non-glutathione disulfide substrates are discussed.

Monothiol glutaredoxins can bind linear [Fe3S4]+ and [Fe4S4]2+ clusters in addition to [Fe2S2]2+ clusters: spectroscopic characterization and functional implications

Saccharomyces cerevisiae mitochondrial glutaredoxin 5 (Grx5) is the archetypical member of a ubiquitous class of monothiol glutaredoxins with a strictly conserved CGFS active-site sequence that has been shown to function in biological [Fe2S2](2+) cluster trafficking. In this work, we show that recombinant S. cerevisiae Grx5 purified aerobically, after prolonged exposure of the cell-free extract to air or after anaerobic reconstitution in the presence of glutathione, predominantly contains a linear [Fe3S4](+) cluster. The excited-state electronic properties and ground-state electronic and vibrational properties of the linear [Fe3S4](+) cluster have been characterized using UV-vis absorption/CD/MCD, EPR, Mössbauer, and resonance Raman spectroscopies. The results reveal a rhombic S = 5/2 linear [Fe3S4](+) cluster with properties similar to those reported for synthetic linear [Fe3S4](+) clusters and the linear [Fe3S4](+) clusters in purple aconitase. Moreover, the results indicate that the Fe-S cluster content previously reported for many monothiol Grxs has been misinterpreted exclusively in terms of [Fe2S2](2+) clusters, rather than linear [Fe3S4](+) clusters or mixtures of linear [Fe3S4](+) and [Fe2S2](2+) clusters. In the absence of GSH, anaerobic reconstitution of Grx5 yields a dimeric form containing one [Fe4S4](2+) cluster that is competent for in vitro activation of apo-aconitase, via intact cluster transfer. The ligation of the linear [Fe3S4](+) and [Fe4S4](2+) clusters in Grx5 has been assessed by spectroscopic, mutational, and analytical studies. Potential roles for monothiol Grx5 in scavenging and recycling linear [Fe3S4](+) clusters released during protein unfolding under oxidative stress conditions and in maturation of [Fe4S4](2+) cluster-containing proteins are discussed in light of these results.

Mono- and dithiol glutaredoxins in the trypanothione-based redox metabolism of pathogenic trypanosomes

SIGNIFICANCE

Glutaredoxins are ubiquitous small thiol proteins of the thioredoxin-fold superfamily. Two major groups are distinguished based on their active sites: the dithiol (2-C-Grxs) and the monothiol (1-C-Grxs) glutaredoxins with a CXXC and a CXXS active site motif, respectively. Glutaredoxins are involved in cellular redox and/or iron sulfur metabolism. Usually their functions are closely linked to the glutathione system. Trypanosomatids, the causative agents of several tropical diseases, rely on trypanothione as principal low molecular mass thiol, and their glutaredoxins readily react with the unique bis(glutathionyl) spermidine conjugate.

RECENT ADVANCES

Two 2-C-Grxs and three 1-C-Grxs have been identified in pathogenic trypanosomatids. The 2-C-Grxs catalyze the reduction of glutathione disulfide by trypanothione and display reductase activity towards protein disulfides, as well as protein-glutathione mixed disulfides. In vitro, all three 1-C-Grxs as well as the cytosolic 2-C-Grx of Trypanosoma brucei can complex an iron-sulfur cluster. Recently the structure of the 1-C-Grx1 has been solved by NMR spectroscopy. The structure is very similar to those of other 1-C-Grxs, with some differences in the loop containing the conserved cis-Pro and the surface charge distribution.

CRITICAL ISSUES

Although four of the five trypanosomal glutaredoxins proved to coordinate an iron-sulfur cluster in vitro, the physiological role of the mitochondrial and cytosolic proteins, respectively, has only started to be unraveled.

FUTURE DIRECTIONS

The use of trypanothione by the glutaredoxins has established a novel role for this parasite-specific dithiol. Future work should reveal if these differences can be exploited for the development of novel antiparasitic drugs.

The Synechocystis PCC6803 MerA-like enzyme operates in the reduction of both mercury and uranium under the control of the glutaredoxin 1 enzyme

In a continuing effort to analyze the selectivity/redundancy of the three glutaredoxin (Grx) enzymes of the model cyanobacterium Synechocystis PCC6803, we have characterized an enzyme system that plays a crucial role in protection against two toxic metal pollutants, mercury and uranium. The present data show that Grx1 (Slr1562 in CyanoBase) selectively interacts with the presumptive mercuric reductase protein (Slr1849). This MerA enzyme plays a crucial role in cell defense against both mercuric and uranyl ions, in catalyzing their NADPH-driven reduction. Like MerA, Grx1 operates in cell protection against both mercury and uranium. The Grx1-MerA interaction requires cysteine 86 (C86) of Grx1 and C78 of MerA, which is critical for its reductase activity. MerA can be inhibited by glutathionylation and subsequently reactivated by Grx1, likely through deglutathionylation. The two Grx1 residues C31, which belongs to the redox active site (CX(2)C), and C86, which operates in MerA interactions, are both required for reactivation of MerA. These novel findings emphasize the role of glutaredoxins in tolerance to metal stress as well as the evolutionary conservation of the glutathionylation process, so far described mostly for eukaryotes.

Mitochondrial energy and redox signaling in plants

SIGNIFICANCE

For a plant to grow and develop, energy and appropriate building blocks are a fundamental requirement. Mitochondrial respiration is a vital source for both. The delicate redox processes that make up respiration are affected by the plant's changing environment. Therefore, mitochondrial regulation is critically important to maintain cellular homeostasis. This involves sensing signals from changes in mitochondrial physiology, transducing this information, and mounting tailored responses, by either adjusting mitochondrial and cellular functions directly or reprogramming gene expression.

RECENT ADVANCES

Retrograde (RTG) signaling, by which mitochondrial signals control nuclear gene expression, has been a field of very active research in recent years. Nevertheless, no mitochondrial RTG-signaling pathway is yet understood in plants. This review summarizes recent advances toward elucidating redox processes and other bioenergetic factors as a part of RTG signaling of plant mitochondria.

CRITICAL ISSUES

Novel insights into mitochondrial physiology and redox-regulation provide a framework of upstream signaling. On the other end, downstream responses to modified mitochondrial function have become available, including transcriptomic data and mitochondrial phenotypes, revealing processes in the plant that are under mitochondrial control.

FUTURE DIRECTIONS

Drawing parallels to chloroplast signaling and mitochondrial signaling in animal systems allows to bridge gaps in the current understanding and to deduce promising directions for future research. It is proposed that targeted usage of new technical approaches, such as quantitative in vivo imaging, will provide novel leverage to the dissection of plant mitochondrial signaling.

Glutaredoxins in thiol/disulfide exchange

SIGNIFICANCE

Glutaredoxins (Grxs) are small oxidoreductases of the thioredoxin family of proteins regulating the thiol redox state of several proteins. Thereby, Grxs are key elements in redox signaling.

RECENT ADVANCES

Redox signaling via protein thiols depends on reversible oxidative modifications induced mainly by reactive oxygen/nitrogen species and glutathione (GSH) in form of its oxidized disulfide or S-nitroso-glutathione. Grxs contribute to redox signaling by the catalysis of glutathionylation, de-glutathionylation, as well as reduction of disulfide bridges via two distinct enzymatic mechanisms. The dithiol mechanism utilizes both active site cysteines to reduce disulfides, whereas the monothiol mechanism utilizes only the N-terminal active site cysteine for the reduction of GSH mixed disulfides. The sphere of action of Grxs continues to grow with the recent identification of novel targets.

CRITICAL ISSUES

Because of limited methodological tools, the identification of new substrates for oxidoreductases in general is one of the biggest challenges in this research area.

FUTURE DIRECTIONS

With this review, we provide a condensed summary of the current knowledge of thiol/disulfide exchange reactions catalyzed by Grxs regarding the mechanistic, structural, and functional aspects. The latter will be of high importance for future research directions, gaining novel insights into redox signaling in general, and the role of Grxs in particular.

BOLA1 is an aerobic protein that prevents mitochondrial morphology changes induced by glutathione depletion

AIMS

The BolA protein family is widespread among eukaryotes and bacteria. In Escherichia coli, BolA causes a spherical cell shape and is overexpressed during oxidative stress. Here we aim to elucidate the possible role of its human homolog BOLA1 in mitochondrial morphology and thiol redox potential regulation.

RESULTS

We show that BOLA1 is a mitochondrial protein that counterbalances the effect of L-buthionine-(S,R)-sulfoximine (BSO)-induced glutathione (GSH) depletion on the mitochondrial thiol redox potential. Furthermore, overexpression of BOLA1 nullifies the effect of BSO and S-nitrosocysteine on mitochondrial morphology. Conversely, knockdown of the BOLA1 gene increases the oxidation of mitochondrial thiol groups. Supporting a role of BOLA1 in controlling the mitochondrial thiol redox potential is that BOLA1 orthologs only occur in aerobic eukaryotes. A measured interaction of BOLA1 with the mitochondrial monothiol glutaredoxin GLRX5 provides hints for potential mechanisms behind BOLA1's effect on mitochondrial redox potential. Nevertheless, we have no direct evidence for a role of GLRX5 in BOLA1's function.

INNOVATION

We implicate a new protein, BOLA1, in the regulation of the mitochondrial thiol redox potential.

CONCLUSION

BOLA1 is an aerobic, mitochondrial protein that prevents mitochondrial morphology aberrations induced by GSH depletion and reduces the associated oxidative shift of the mitochondrial thiol redox potential.

Toward a refined classification of class I dithiol glutaredoxins from poplar: biochemical basis for the definition of two subclasses

Glutaredoxins (Grxs) are small oxidoreductases particularly specialized in the reduction of protein-glutathione adducts. Compared to other eukaryotic organisms, higher plants present an increased diversity of Grxs which are organized into four classes. This work presents a thorough comparative analysis of the biochemical and catalytic properties of dithiol class I Grxs from poplar, namely GrxC1, GrxC2, GrxC3, and GrxC4. By evaluating the in vitro oxidoreductase activity of wild type and cysteine mutated variants and by determining their dithiol-disulfide redox potentials, pK a values of the catalytic cysteine, redox state changes in response to oxidative treatments, two subgroups can be distinguished. In accordance with their probable quite recent duplication, GrxC1 and GrxC2 are less efficient catalysts for the reduction of dehydroascorbate and hydroxyethyldisulfide compared to GrxC3 and GrxC4, and they can form covalent dimers owing to the presence of an additional C-terminal cysteine (Cys C ). Interestingly, the second active site cysteine (CysB) influences the reactivity of the catalytic cysteine (CysA) in GrxC1 and GrxC2 as already observed with GrxC5 (restricted to A. thaliana), but not in GrxC3 and C4. However, all proteins can form an intramolecular disulfide between the two active site cysteines (CysA-CysB) which could represent either a protective mechanism considering that this second cysteine is dispensable for deglutathionylation reaction or a true catalytic intermediate occurring during the reduction of particular disulfide substrates or in specific conditions or compartments where glutathione levels are insufficient to support Grx regeneration. Overall, in addition to their different sub-cellular localization and expression pattern, the duplication and maintenance along evolution of several class I Grxs in higher plants can be explained by the existence of differential biochemical and catalytic properties.

Divergent molecular evolution of the mitochondrial sulfhydryl:cytochrome C oxidoreductase Erv in opisthokonts and parasitic protists

Mia40 and the sulfhydryl:cytochrome c oxidoreductase Erv1/ALR are essential for oxidative protein import into the mitochondrial intermembrane space in yeast and mammals. Although mitochondrial protein import is functionally conserved in the course of evolution, many organisms seem to lack Mia40. Moreover, except for in organello import studies and in silico analyses, nothing is known about the function and properties of protist Erv homologues. Here we compared Erv homologues from yeast, the kinetoplastid parasite Leishmania tarentolae, and the non-related malaria parasite Plasmodium falciparum. Both parasite proteins have altered cysteine motifs, formed intermolecular disulfide bonds in vitro and in vivo, and could not replace Erv1 from yeast despite successful mitochondrial protein import in vivo. To analyze its enzymatic activity, we established the expression and purification of recombinant full-length L. tarentolae Erv and compared the mechanism with related and non-related flavoproteins. Enzyme assays indeed confirmed an electron transferase activity with equine and yeast cytochrome c, suggesting a conservation of the enzymatic activity in different eukaryotic lineages. However, although Erv and non-related flavoproteins are intriguing examples of convergent molecular evolution resulting in similar enzyme properties, the mechanisms of Erv homologues from parasitic protists and opisthokonts differ significantly. In summary, the Erv-mediated reduction of cytochrome c might be highly conserved throughout evolution despite the apparent absence of Mia40 in many eukaryotes. Nevertheless, the knowledge on mitochondrial protein import in yeast and mammals cannot be generally transferred to all other eukaryotes, and the corresponding pathways, components, and mechanisms remain to be analyzed.

The biological roles of glutaredoxins

Grxs (glutaredoxins) are small ubiquitous redox enzymes. They are generally involved in the reduction of oxidative modifications using glutathione. Grxs are not only able to reduce protein disulfides and the low-molecular-mass antioxidant dehydroascorbate, but also represent the major enzyme class responsible for deglutathionylation reactions. Functional proteomics, including interaction studies, comparative activity measurements using heterologous proteins and structural analysis are combined to provide important insights into the crucial function of Grxs in cellular redox networks. Summarizing the current understanding of Grxs, with a special focus on organelle-localized members across species, genus and kingdom boundaries (including cyanobacteria, plants, bacteria, yeast and humans) lead to two different classifications, one according to sequence structure that gives insights into the diversification of Grxs, and another according to function within the cell that provides a basis for assessing the different roles of Grxs.

Thioredoxin and glutaredoxin systems in plants: molecular mechanisms, crosstalks, and functional significance

Thioredoxins (Trx) and glutaredoxins (Grx) constitute families of thiol oxidoreductases. Our knowledge of Trx and Grx in plants has dramatically increased during the last decade. The release of the Arabidopsis genome sequence revealed an unexpectedly high number of Trx and Grx genes. The availability of several genomes of vascular and nonvascular plants allowed the establishment of a clear classification of the genes and the chronology of their appearance during plant evolution. Proteomic approaches have been developed that identified the putative Trx and Grx target proteins which are implicated in all aspects of plant growth, including basal metabolism, iron/sulfur cluster formation, development, adaptation to the environment, and stress responses. Analyses of the biochemical characteristics of specific Trx and Grx point to a strong specificity toward some target enzymes, particularly within plastidial Trx and Grx. In apparent contradiction with this specificity, genetic approaches show an absence of phenotype for most available Trx and Grx mutants, suggesting that redundancies also exist between Trx and Grx members. Despite this, the isolation of mutants inactivated in multiple genes and several genetic screens allowed the demonstration of the involvement of Trx and Grx in pathogen response, phytohormone pathways, and at several control points of plant development. Cytosolic Trxs are reduced by NADPH-thioredoxin reductase (NTR), while the reduction of Grx depends on reduced glutathione (GSH). Interestingly, recent development integrating biochemical analysis, proteomic data, and genetics have revealed an extensive crosstalk between the cytosolic NTR/Trx and GSH/Grx systems. This crosstalk, which occurs at multiple levels, reveals the high plasticity of the redox systems in plants.

Monothiol CGFS glutaredoxins and BolA-like proteins: [2Fe-2S] binding partners in iron homeostasis

Monothiol glutaredoxins (Grxs) with a signature CGFS active site and BolA-like proteins have recently emerged as novel players in iron homeostasis. Elegant genetic and biochemical studies examining the functional and physical interactions of CGFS Grxs in the fungi Saccharomyces cerevisiae and Schizosaccharomyces pombe have unveiled their essential roles in intracellular iron signaling, iron trafficking, and the maturation of Fe-S cluster proteins. Biophysical and biochemical analyses of the [2Fe-2S] bridging interaction between CGFS Grxs and a BolA-like protein in S. cerevisiae provided the first molecular-level understanding of the iron regulation mechanism in this model eukaryote and established the ubiquitous CGFS Grxs and BolA-like proteins as novel Fe-S cluster-binding regulatory partners. Parallel studies focused on Escherichia coli and human homologues for CGFS Grxs and BolA-like proteins have supported the studies in yeast and provided additional clues about their involvement in cellular iron metabolism. Herein, we review recent progress in uncovering the cellular and molecular mechanisms by which CGFS Grxs and BolA-like proteins help regulate iron metabolism in both eukaryotic and prokaryotic organisms.

Redox regulation in photosynthetic organisms: focus on glutathionylation

SIGNIFICANCE

In photosynthetic organisms, besides the well-established disulfide/dithiol exchange reactions specifically controlled by thioredoxins (TRXs), protein S-glutathionylation is emerging as an alternative redox modification occurring under stress conditions. This modification, consisting of the formation of a mixed disulfide between glutathione and a protein cysteine residue, can not only protect specific cysteines from irreversible oxidation but also modulate protein activities and appears to be specifically controlled by small disulfide oxidoreductases of the TRX superfamily named glutaredoxins (GRXs).

RECENT STUDIES

In recent times, several studies allowed significant progress in this area, mostly due to the identification of several plant proteins undergoing S-glutathionylation and to the characterization of the molecular mechanisms and the proteins involved in the control of this modification.

CRITICAL ISSUES

This article provides a global overview of protein glutathionylation in photosynthetic organisms with particular emphasis on the mechanisms of protein glutathionylation and deglutathionylation and a focus on the role of GRXs. Then, we describe the methods employed for identification of glutathionylated proteins in photosynthetic organisms and review the targets and the possible physiological functions of protein glutathionylation.

FUTURE DIRECTIONS

In order to establish the importance of protein S-glutathionylation in photosynthetic organisms, future studies should be aimed at delineating more accurately the molecular mechanisms of glutathionylation and deglutathionylation reactions, at identifying proteins undergoing S-glutathionylation in vivo under diverse conditions, and at investigating the importance of redoxins, GRX, and TRX, in the control of this redox modification in vivo.

Evaluation of a dithiocarbamate derivative as an inhibitor of human glutaredoxin-1

CONTEXT

Glutaredoxins (GRX) are involved in the regulation of thiol redox state. GRX-1 is a cytosolic enzyme responsible for the catalysis of deglutathionylation of proteins. To date, very few inhibitors of GRX-1 have been reported.

OBJECTIVE

The objective of this paper is to report 2-acetylamino-3-[4-(2-acetylamino-2-carboxyethyl-sulfanylthiocarbonylamino)phenylthiocarbamoylsulfanyl]propionic acid (2-AAPA) as an inhibitor of human GRX-1.

MATERIALS AND METHODS

The mechanism of inhibition of GRX-1 was investigated using dialysis, substrate protection, and mass spectrometry.

RESULTS

2-AAPA inhibits GRX-1 in a time and concentration dependent manner. The activity did not return following dialysis indicating that inhibition is irreversible. Results of substrate protection and mass spectrometry indicate that the inhibition is occurring at the active site. The compound also produced GRX inhibition in human ovarian cancer cells.

DISCUSSION

2-AAPA is an irreversible GRX-1 inhibitor with similar or greater potency compared to previously reported inhibitors.

CONCLUSION

The inhibition of GRX-1 by 2-AAPA could be used as a tool to study thiol redox state.

Glutaredoxin s12: unique properties for redox signaling

AIMS

Cysteines (Cys) made acidic by the protein environment are generally sensitive to pro-oxidant molecules. Glutathionylation is a post-translational modification that can occur by spontaneous reaction of reduced glutathione (GSH) with oxidized Cys as sulfenic acids (-SOH). The reverse reaction (deglutathionylation) is strongly stimulated by glutaredoxins (Grx) and requires a reductant, often GSH.

RESULTS

Here, we show that chloroplast GrxS12 from poplar efficiently reacts with glutathionylated substrates in a GSH-dependent ping pong mechanism. The pK(a) of GrxS12 catalytic Cys is very low (3.9) and makes GrxS12 itself sensitive to oxidation by H(2)O(2) and to direct glutathionylation by nitrosoglutathione. Glutathionylated-GrxS12 (GrxS12-SSG) is temporarily inactive until it is deglutathionylated by GSH. The equilibrium between GrxS12 and glutathione (E(m(GrxS12-SSG))= -315 mV, pH 7.0) is characterized by K(ox) values of 310 at pH 7.0, as in darkened chloroplasts, and 69 at pH 7.9, as in illuminated chloroplasts.

INNOVATION

Based on thermodynamic data, GrxS12-SSG is predicted to accumulate in vivo under conditions of mild oxidation of the GSH pool that may occur under stress. Moreover, GrxS12-SSG is predicted to be more stable in chloroplasts in the dark than in the light.

CONCLUSION

These peculiar catalytic and thermodynamic properties could allow GrxS12 to act as a stress-related redox sensor, thus allowing glutathione to play a signaling role through glutathionylation of GrxS12 target proteins.

The multidomain thioredoxin-monothiol glutaredoxins represent a distinct functional group

Monothiol glutaredoxins (Grxs) with a noncanonical CGFS active site are found in all kingdoms of life. They include members with a single domain and thioredoxin-Grx fusion proteins. In Saccharomyces cerevisiae, the multidomain Grx3 and Grx4 play an essential role in intracellular iron trafficking. This crucial task is mediated by an essential Fe/S cofactor. This study shows that this unique physiological role cannot be executed by single domain Grxs, because the thioredoxin domain is indispensable for function in vivo. Mutational analysis revealed that a CPxS active site motif is fully compatible with Fe/S cluster binding on Grx4, while a dithiol active site results in cofactor destabilization and a moderate impairment of in vivo function. These requirements for Fe/S cofactor stabilization on Grx4 are virtually the opposite of those previously reported for single domain Grxs. Grx4 functions as iron sensor for the iron-sensing transcription factor Aft1 in S. cerevisiae. We found that Aft1 binds to a conserved binding site at the C-terminus of Grx4. This interaction is essential for the regulation of Aft1. Collectively, our analysis demonstrates that the multidomain monothiol Grxs form a unique protein family distinct from that of the single domain Grxs.

Monothiol glutaredoxin cDNA from Taiwanofungus camphorata: a novel CGFS-type glutaredoxin possessing glutathione reductase activity

Glutaredoxins (Grxs) play important roles in the redox system via reduced glutathione as a reductant. A TcmonoGrx cDNA (1039 bp, EU158772) encoding a putative monothiol Grx was cloned from Taiwanofungus camphorata (formerly named Antrodia camphorata). The deduced amino acid sequence is conserved among the reported monothiol Grxs. Two 3-D homology structures of the TcmonoGrx based on known structures of human Grx3 (pdb: 2DIY_A) and Mus musculus Grx3 (pdb: 1WIK_A) have been created. To characterize the TcmonoGrx protein, the coding region was subcloned into an expression vector pET-20b(+) and transformed into E. coli C41(DE3). The recombinant His6-tagged TcmonoGrx was overexpressed and purified by Ni(2+)-nitrilotriacetic acid Sepharose. The purified enzyme showed a predominant band on 10% sodium dodecyl sulfate-polyacrylamide gel electrophoresis (SDS-PAGE). The enzyme exhibited glutathione reductase (GR) activity via dithionitrobenzoate (DTNB) assay. The Michaelis constant (K(M)) values for GSSG and NADPH were 0.064 and 0.041 mM, respectively. The enzyme's half-life of deactivation at 60 °C was 10.5 min, and its thermal inactivation rate constant (k(d)) was 5.37 × 10(-2) min(-1). The enzyme was active under a broad pH range from 6 to 8. The enzyme retained 50% activity after trypsin digestion at 37 °C for 40 min. Both mutants C(40)→S(40) and C(165)→S(165) lost 40-50% GR activity, whereas the mutant S(168)→C(168) showed a 20% increase in its GR activity.

The crystal structure of human GLRX5: iron-sulfur cluster co-ordination, tetrameric assembly and monomer activity

Human GLRX5 (glutaredoxin 5) is an evolutionarily conserved thiol-disulfide oxidoreductase that has a direct role in the maintenance of normal cytosolic and mitochondrial iron homoeostasis, and its expression affects haem biosynthesis and erythropoiesis. We have crystallized the human GLRX5 bound to two [2Fe-2S] clusters and four GSH molecules. The crystal structure revealed a tetrameric organization with the [2Fe-2S] clusters buried in the interior and shielded from the solvent by the conserved β1-α2 loop, Phe⁶⁹ and the GSH molecules. Each [2Fe-2S] cluster is ligated by the N-terminal activesite cysteine (Cys⁶⁷) thiols contributed by two protomers and two cysteine thiols from two GSH. The two subunits co-ordinating the cluster are in a more extended conformation compared with iron-sulfur-bound human GLRX2, and the intersubunit interactions are more extensive and involve conserved residues among monothiol GLRXs. Gel-filtration chromatography and analytical ultracentrifugation support a tetrameric organization of holo-GLRX5, whereas the apoprotein is monomeric. MS analyses revealed glutathionylation of the cysteine residues in the absence of the [2Fe-2S] cluster, which would protect them from further oxidation and possibly facilitate cluster transfer/acceptance. Apo-GLRX5 reduced glutathione mixed disulfides with a rate 100 times lower than did GLRX2 and was active as a glutathione-dependent electron donor for mammalian ribonucleotide reductase.

Determinants of activity in glutaredoxins: an in vitro evolved Grx1-like variant of Escherichia coli Grx3

The Escherichia coli glutaredoxins 1 and 3 (Grx1 and Grx3) are structurally similar (37% sequence identity), yet have different activities in vivo. Unlike Grx3, Grx1 efficiently reduces protein disulfides in proteins such as RR (ribonucleotide reductase), whereas it is poor at reducing S-glutathionylated proteins. An E. coli strain lacking genes encoding thioredoxins 1 and 2 and Grx1 is not viable on either rich or minimal medium; however, a M43V mutation in Grx3 restores growth under these conditions and results in a Grx1-like protein [Ortenberg, Gon, Porat and Beckwith (2004) Proc. Natl. Acad. Sci. U.S.A. 101, 7439–7944]. To uncover the structural basis of this change in activity, we have compared wild-type and mutant Grx3 using CD and NMR spectroscopy. Ligand-induced stability measurements demonstrate that the Grx3(M43V/C65Y) mutant has acquired affinity for RR. Far-UV CD spectra reveal no significant differences, but differences are observed in the near-UV region indicative of tertiary structural changes. NMR 1H-15N HSQC (heteronuclear single quantum coherence) spectra show that approximately half of the 82 residues experience significant (Δδ>0.03 p.p.m.) chemical shift deviations in the mutant, including nine residues experiencing extensive (Δδ≥0.15 p.p.m.) deviations. To test whether the M43V mutation alters dynamic properties of Grx3, H/D (hydrogen/deuterium) exchange experiments were performed demonstrating that the rate at which backbone amides exchange protons with the solvent is dramatically enhanced in the mutant, particularly in the core of the protein. These data suggest that the Grx1-like activity of the Grx3(M43V/C65Y) mutant may be explained by enhanced intrinsic motion allowing for increased specificity towards larger substrates such as RR.

Thioredoxins function as deglutathionylase enzymes in the yeast Saccharomyces cerevisiae

Background

Protein-SH groups are amongst the most easily oxidized residues in proteins, but irreversible oxidation can be prevented by protein glutathionylation, in which protein-SH groups form mixed disulphides with glutathione. Glutaredoxins and thioredoxins are key oxidoreductases which have been implicated in regulating glutathionylation/deglutathionylation in diverse organisms. Glutaredoxins have been proposed to be the predominant deglutathionylase enzymes in many plant and mammalian species, whereas, thioredoxins have generally been thought to be relatively inefficient in deglutathionylation.

Results

We show here that the levels of glutathionylated proteins in yeast are regulated in parallel with the growth cycle, and are maximal during stationary phase growth. This increase in glutathionylation is not a response to increased reactive oxygen species generated from the shift to respiratory metabolism, but appears to be a general response to starvation conditions. Our data indicate that glutathionylation levels are constitutively high in all growth phases in thioredoxin mutants and are unaffected in glutaredoxin mutants. We have confirmed that thioredoxins, but not glutaredoxins, catalyse deglutathionylation of model glutathionylated substrates using purified thioredoxin and glutaredoxin proteins. Furthermore, we show that the deglutathionylase activity of thioredoxins is required to reduce the high levels of glutathionylation in stationary phase cells, which occurs as cells exit stationary phase and resume vegetative growth.

Conclusions

There is increasing evidence that the thioredoxin and glutathione redox systems have overlapping functions and these present data indicate that the thioredoxin system plays a key role in regulating the modification of proteins by the glutathione system.

The thioredoxin-thioredoxin reductase system can function in vivo as an alternative system to reduce oxidized glutathione in Saccharomyces cerevisiae

Cellular mechanisms that maintain redox homeostasis are crucial, providing buffering against oxidative stress. Glutathione, the most abundant low molecular weight thiol, is considered the major cellular redox buffer in most cells. To better understand how cells maintain glutathione redox homeostasis, cells of Saccharomyces cerevisiae were treated with extracellular oxidized glutathione (GSSG), and the effect on intracellular reduced glutathione (GSH) and GSSG were monitored over time. Intriguingly cells lacking GLR1 encoding the GSSG reductase in S. cerevisiae accumulated increased levels of GSH via a mechanism independent of the GSH biosynthetic pathway. Furthermore, residual NADPH-dependent GSSG reductase activity was found in lysate derived from glr1 cell. The cytosolic thioredoxin-thioredoxin reductase system and not the glutaredoxins (Grx1p, Grx2p, Grx6p, and Grx7p) contributes to the reduction of GSSG. Overexpression of the thioredoxins TRX1 or TRX2 in glr1 cells reduced GSSG accumulation, increased GSH levels, and reduced cellular glutathione E(h)'. Conversely, deletion of TRX1 or TRX2 in the glr1 strain led to increased accumulation of GSSG, reduced GSH levels, and increased cellular E(h)'. Furthermore, it was found that purified thioredoxins can reduce GSSG to GSH in the presence of thioredoxin reductase and NADPH in a reconstituted in vitro system. Collectively, these data indicate that the thioredoxin-thioredoxin reductase system can function as an alternative system to reduce GSSG in S. cerevisiae in vivo.

Thioredoxin-related protein 14, a new member of the thioredoxin family with disulfide reductase activity: implication in the redox regulation of TNF-alpha signaling

Thioredoxin-related protein 14 (TRP14) is a novel 14-kDa disulfide reductase with two active site Cys residues in its WCPDC motif, which is comparable to the WCGPC motif of thioredoxin (Trx). Although the active site cysteine of TRP14 is sufficiently nucleophilic, its redox potential is similar to that of Trx1, and it receives the electrons from Trx reductase 1 (TrxR1) as does Trx1. TRP14 does not target the same substrate as Trx1, suggesting that TRP14 and Trx1 might act on distinct substrate proteins. Comparison of the crystal structures of TRP14 and Trx1 reveals distinct surface structures in the vicinity of their active sites. Both TRP14 and Trx1 inhibit the pathways of nuclear factor-kappaB (NF-kappaB), mitogen-activated protein kinases, and apoptosis in cells stimulated with tumor necrosis factor-alpha (TNF-alpha), but they appear to do so by acting on target proteins, some of which do not overlap. TRP14 inhibits the TNF-alpha-induced NF-kappaB activation to a greater extent than Trx1. The dynein light chain LC8 was identified as a new target of disulfide reductase activity of TRP14, and LC8 was shown to bind IkappaBalpha in a redox-dependent manner, thereby preventing its phosphorylation by IkappaB kinase. These findings elucidate the molecular mechanism by which NF-kappaB activation is regulated through TRP14.

Evolution and diversity of glutaredoxins in photosynthetic organisms

The genome sequencing of prokaryotic and eukaryotic photosynthetic organisms enables a comparative genomic study of the glutaredoxin (Grx) family. The analysis of 58 genomes, using a specific motif composed of the active site sequence and of amino acids involved in glutathione binding, led to an updated classification of Grxs into six classes. Only two classes (I and II) are common to all photosynthetic organisms. Eukaryotes and cyanobacteria have two specific Grx classes (classes III and IV and classes V and VI, respectively). The classes IV, V and VI have not yet been identified and contain multimodular Grx fusions. In addition, putative Grx partners were identified from the presence of fusion proteins, the conservation of gene order in bacterial operons, and the gene co-occurrence. The genes encoding class II Grxs and BolA/YrbA proteins are frequently adjacent, in the same transcriptional orientation in prokaryote genomes and present in the same organisms.

Regeneration mechanisms of Arabidopsis thaliana methionine sulfoxide reductases B by glutaredoxins and thioredoxins

Methionine oxidation leads to the formation of S- and R-diastereomers of methionine sulfoxide (MetSO), which are reduced back to methionine by methionine sulfoxide reductases (MSRs) A and B, respectively. MSRBs are classified in two groups depending on the conservation of one or two redox-active Cys; 2-Cys MSRBs possess a catalytic Cys-reducing MetSO and a resolving Cys, allowing regeneration by thioredoxins. The second type, 1-Cys MSRBs, possess only the catalytic Cys. The biochemical mechanisms involved in activity regeneration of 1-Cys MSRBs remain largely elusive. In the present work we used recombinant plastidial Arabidopsis thaliana MSRB1 and MSRB2 as models for 1-Cys and 2-Cys MSRBs, respectively, to delineate the Trx- and glutaredoxin-dependent reduction mechanisms. Activity assays carried out using a series of cysteine mutants and various reductants combined with measurements of free thiols under distinct oxidation conditions and mass spectrometry experiments show that the 2-Cys MSRB2 is reduced by Trx through a dithiol-disulfide exchange involving both redox-active Cys of the two partners. Regarding 1-Cys MSRB1, oxidation of the enzyme after substrate reduction leads to the formation of a stable sulfenic acid on the catalytic Cys, which is subsequently glutathionylated. The deglutathionylation of MSRB1 is achieved by both mono- and dithiol glutaredoxins and involves only their N-terminal conserved catalytic Cys. This study proposes a detailed mechanism of the regeneration of 1-Cys MSRB activity by glutaredoxins, which likely constitute physiological reductants for this type of MSR.

Mechanistic and kinetic details of catalysis of thiol-disulfide exchange by glutaredoxins and potential mechanisms of regulation

Glutaredoxins are small, heat-stable proteins that exhibit a characteristic thioredoxin fold and a CXXC/S active-site motif. A variety of glutathione (GSH)-dependent catalytic activities have been attributed to the glutaredoxins, including reduction of ribonucleotide reductase, arsenate, and dehydroascorbate; assembly of iron sulfur cluster complexes; and protein glutathionylation and deglutathionylation. Catalysis of reversible protein glutathionylation by glutaredoxins has been implicated in regulation of redox signal transduction and sulfhydryl homeostasis in numerous contexts in health and disease. This forum review is presented in two parts. Part I is focused primarily on the mechanism of the deglutathionylation reaction catalyzed by prototypical dithiol glutaredoxins, especially human Grx1 and Grx2. Grx-catalyzed protein deglutathionylation proceeds by a nucleophilic, double-displacement mechanism in which rate enhancement is attributed to special reactivity of the low pK(a) cysteine at its active site, and to increased nucleophilicity of the second substrate, GSH. Glutaredoxins (and Grx domains) have been identified in most organisms, and many exhibit deglutathionylation or other activities or both. Further characterization according to glutathionyl selectivity, physiological substrates, and intracellular roles may lead to subclassification of this family of enzymes. Part II presents potential mechanisms for in vivo regulation of Grx activity, providing avenues for future studies.

Identification of proteins targeted by the thioredoxin superfamily in Plasmodium falciparum

The malarial parasite Plasmodium falciparum possesses a functional thioredoxin and glutathione system comprising the dithiol-containing redox proteins thioredoxin (Trx) and glutaredoxin (Grx), as well as plasmoredoxin (Plrx), which is exclusively found in Plasmodium species. All three proteins belong to the thioredoxin superfamily and share a conserved Cys-X-X-Cys motif at the active site. Only a few of their target proteins, which are likely to be involved in redox reactions, are currently known. The aim of the present study was to extend our knowledge of the Trx-, Grx-, and Plrx-interactome in Plasmodium. Based on the reaction mechanism, we generated active site mutants of Trx and Grx lacking the resolving cysteine residue. These mutants were bound to affinity columns to trap target proteins from P. falciparum cell extracts after formation of intermolecular disulfide bonds. Covalently linked proteins were eluted with dithiothreitol and analyzed by mass spectrometry. For Trx and Grx, we were able to isolate 17 putatively redox-regulated proteins each. Furthermore, the approach was successfully established for Plrx, leading to the identification of 21 potential target proteins. In addition to confirming known interaction partners, we captured potential target proteins involved in various processes including protein biosynthesis, energy metabolism, and signal transduction. The identification of three enzymes involved in S-adenosylmethionine (SAM) metabolism furthermore suggests that redox control is required to balance the metabolic fluxes of SAM between methyl-group transfer reactions and polyamine synthesis. To substantiate our data, the binding of the redoxins to S-adenosyl-L-homocysteine hydrolase and ornithine aminotransferase (OAT) were verified using BIAcore surface plasmon resonance. In enzymatic assays, Trx was furthermore shown to enhance the activity of OAT. Our approach led to the discovery of several putatively redox-regulated proteins, thereby contributing to our understanding of the redox interactome in malarial parasites.

Protection from oxidative stress and efficient redox regulation are essential for malarial parasites which have to grow and multiply rapidly in various environments. As shown by glucose-6 phosphate dehydrogenase deficiency, a genetic variation protecting from malaria, the parasite–host cell unit is very susceptible to disturbances in redox equilibrium. This is the major reason why redox active proteins of Plasmodium currently belong to the most attractive antimalarial drug targets. The dithiol-containing redox proteins thioredoxin (Trx) and glutaredoxin (Grx), as well as plasmoredoxin (Plrx), which is exclusively found in Plasmodium species, represent central players in the redox network of malarial parasites. To extend our knowledge of interacting partners and the functions of these proteins, we carried out pull-down assays with immobilized active site mutants of Trx, Grx, and Plrx and whole cell parasite lysate. After elution of bound proteins and mass spectrometric identification, about 20 interacting partners were identified for each of the redox proteins. Data was supported using BIAcore surface plasmon resonance. The identified interacting proteins, which are likely to be redox-regulated, are involved in important cellular processes including protein biosynthesis, energy metabolism, polyamine synthesis, and signal transduction. Our results contribute to our understanding of the redox interactome in malarial parasites.