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Sharma M, Pal P, Gupta SK. Advances in Alzheimer's disease: A multifaceted review of potential therapies and diagnostic techniques for early detection. Neurochem Int 2024; 177:105761. [PMID: 38723902 DOI: 10.1016/j.neuint.2024.105761] [Citation(s) in RCA: 1] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 11/03/2023] [Revised: 04/20/2024] [Accepted: 05/06/2024] [Indexed: 06/04/2024]
Abstract
Alzheimer's disease (AD) remains one of the most formidable neurological disorders, affecting millions globally. This review provides a holistic overview of the therapeutic strategies, both conventional and novel, aimed at mitigating the impact of AD. Initially, we delve into the conventional approach, emphasizing the role of Acetylcholinesterase (AChE) inhibition, which has been a cornerstone in AD management. As our understanding of AD evolves, several novel potential approaches emerge. We discuss the promising roles of Butyrylcholinesterase (BChE) inhibition, Tau Protein inhibitors, COX-2 inhibition, PPAR-γ agonism, and FAHH inhibition, among others. The potential of the endocannabinoids (eCB) system, cholesterol-lowering drugs, metal chelators, and MMPs inhibitors are also explored, culminating in the exploration of the pivotal role of microRNA in AD progression. Parallel to these therapeutic insights, we shed light on the novel tools and methodologies revolutionizing AD research. From the quantitative analysis of gene expression by qRTPCR to the evaluation of mitochondrial function using induced pluripotent stem cells (iPSCs), the advances in diagnostic and research tools offer renewed hope. Moreover, we explore the current landscape of clinical trials, highlighting the leading drug interventions and their respective stages of development. This comprehensive review concludes with a look into the future perspectives, capturing the potential breakthroughs and innovations on the horizon. Through a synthesis of current knowledge and emerging research, this article aims to provide a consolidated resource for clinicians, researchers, and academicians in the realm of Alzheimer's disease.
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Affiliation(s)
- Monika Sharma
- Faculty of Pharmacy, Department of Pharmacology, Swami Vivekanand Subharti University, Meerut, Uttar Pradesh, India
| | - Pankaj Pal
- Department of Pharmacy, Banasthali Vidyapith, Rajasthan, India.
| | - Sukesh Kumar Gupta
- KIET School of Pharmacy, KIET Group of Institutions, Ghaziabad, Uttar Pradesh, India; Department of Ophthalmology, Visual and Anatomical Sciences (OVAS), School of Medicine, Wayne State University, USA.
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Lee S, Jung GT, Cho M, Lee JW, Eghan K, Lee J, Yoon S, Kim KP, Kim WK. Plausibility of Daphnia magna as an alternative experimental model to evaluate effects on eicosanoid synthesis. ECOTOXICOLOGY AND ENVIRONMENTAL SAFETY 2023; 262:115119. [PMID: 37327520 DOI: 10.1016/j.ecoenv.2023.115119] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 12/23/2022] [Revised: 06/05/2023] [Accepted: 06/06/2023] [Indexed: 06/18/2023]
Abstract
Eicosanoids play important roles in inflammation, allergy, fever, and immune responses. In the eicosanoid pathway, cyclooxygenase (COX) catalyzes the conversion of arachidonic acid to prostaglandins and is a crucial target of nonsteroidal anti-inflammatory drugs (NSAIDs). Thus, toxicological studies on the eicosanoid pathway are important for drug discovery and the evaluation of adverse health outcomes due to environmental contaminants. However, experimental models are limited owing to concerns regarding ethical standards. Thus, new alternative models for evaluating toxic effects on the eicosanoid pathway must be developed. To this end, we adopted an invertebrate species, Daphnia magna, as an alternative model. D. magna was exposed to ibuprofen, a major NSAID, for 6 and 24 h. Transcription of eicosanoid-related genes (pla2, cox, pgd synthase, pgd2r2, ltb4dh, and lox) was analyzed by qPCR, eicosanoids (arachidonic acid, prostaglandin F2, dihydroxy prostaglandin F2, and 5-hydroxyeicosatetraenoate) were quantified by multiple reaction monitoring, and enzyme-linked immunosorbent assay was used to determine protein levels of arachidonic acid and prostaglandin E2 (PGE2). After 6 h of exposure, transcription of the pla2 and cox genes was downregulated. In addition, the whole-body level of arachidonic acid, an upstream of COX pathway, increased by over 1.5-fold. The levels of PGE2, a downstream of COX pathway, decreased after 24 h of exposure. According to our results, it is expected that the eicosanoid pathway might be conserved in D. magna, at least partially. This indicates the plausibility of D. magna as an alternative model for the screening of new drugs or chemical toxicity.
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Affiliation(s)
- Sangwoo Lee
- Department of Predictive Toxicology, Korea Institute of Toxicology, Daejeon 34114, the Republic of Korea
| | - Gun Tae Jung
- Department of Biomedical Science and Technology, Kyung Hee Medical Science Research Institute, Kyung Hee University, Seoul 02453, the Republic of Korea
| | - Mina Cho
- Department of Predictive Toxicology, Korea Institute of Toxicology, Daejeon 34114, the Republic of Korea
| | - Jae Won Lee
- Department of Applied Chemistry, Institute of Natural Science, Global Center for Pharmaceutical Ingredient Materials, Kyung Hee University, Yongin 17104, the Republic of Korea
| | - Kojo Eghan
- Department of Predictive Toxicology, Korea Institute of Toxicology, Daejeon 34114, the Republic of Korea; Human and Environmental Toxicology, University of Science and Technology, Daejeon 34113, the Republic of Korea
| | - Jieon Lee
- Department of Predictive Toxicology, Korea Institute of Toxicology, Daejeon 34114, the Republic of Korea
| | - Seokjoo Yoon
- Department of Predictive Toxicology, Korea Institute of Toxicology, Daejeon 34114, the Republic of Korea; Human and Environmental Toxicology, University of Science and Technology, Daejeon 34113, the Republic of Korea
| | - Kwang Pyo Kim
- Department of Biomedical Science and Technology, Kyung Hee Medical Science Research Institute, Kyung Hee University, Seoul 02453, the Republic of Korea; Department of Applied Chemistry, Institute of Natural Science, Global Center for Pharmaceutical Ingredient Materials, Kyung Hee University, Yongin 17104, the Republic of Korea.
| | - Woo-Keun Kim
- Department of Predictive Toxicology, Korea Institute of Toxicology, Daejeon 34114, the Republic of Korea; Human and Environmental Toxicology, University of Science and Technology, Daejeon 34113, the Republic of Korea.
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Kabir ER, Chowdhury NM, Yasmin H, Kabir MT, Akter R, Perveen A, Ashraf GM, Akter S, Rahman MH, Sweilam SH. Unveiling the Potential of Polyphenols as Anti-Amyloid Molecules in Alzheimer's Disease. Curr Neuropharmacol 2023; 21:787-807. [PMID: 36221865 PMCID: PMC10227919 DOI: 10.2174/1570159x20666221010113812] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 02/23/2022] [Revised: 08/03/2022] [Accepted: 08/15/2022] [Indexed: 11/22/2022] Open
Abstract
Alzheimer's disease (AD) is a devastating neurodegenerative disease that mostly affects the elderly population. Mechanisms underlying AD pathogenesis are yet to be fully revealed, but there are several hypotheses regarding AD. Even though free radicals and inflammation are likely to be linked with AD pathogenesis, still amyloid-beta (Aβ) cascade is the dominant hypothesis. According to the Aβ hypothesis, a progressive buildup of extracellular and intracellular Aβ aggregates has a significant contribution to the AD-linked neurodegeneration process. Since Aβ plays an important role in the etiology of AD, therefore Aβ-linked pathways are mainly targeted in order to develop potential AD therapies. Accumulation of Aβ plaques in the brains of AD individuals is an important hallmark of AD. These plaques are mainly composed of Aβ (a peptide of 39-42 amino acids) aggregates produced via the proteolytic cleavage of the amyloid precursor protein. Numerous studies have demonstrated that various polyphenols (PPHs), including cyanidins, anthocyanins, curcumin, catechins and their gallate esters were found to markedly suppress Aβ aggregation and prevent the formation of Aβ oligomers and toxicity, which is further suggesting that these PPHs might be regarded as effective therapeutic agents for the AD treatment. This review summarizes the roles of Aβ in AD pathogenesis, the Aβ aggregation pathway, types of PPHs, and distribution of PPHs in dietary sources. Furthermore, we have predominantly focused on the potential of food-derived PPHs as putative anti-amyloid drugs.
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Affiliation(s)
- Eva Rahman Kabir
- School of Pharmacy, BRAC University, 66 Mohakhali, Dhaka 1212, Bangladesh
| | | | - Hasina Yasmin
- School of Pharmacy, BRAC University, 66 Mohakhali, Dhaka 1212, Bangladesh
| | - Md. Tanvir Kabir
- School of Pharmacy, BRAC University, 66 Mohakhali, Dhaka 1212, Bangladesh
| | - Rokeya Akter
- Department of Pharmacy, Jagannath University, Dhaka, Bangladesh
| | - Asma Perveen
- Glocal School of Life Sciences, Glocal University, Mirzapur Pole, Saharanpur, Uttar Pradesh, India
| | - Ghulam Md. Ashraf
- Department of Medical Laboratory Sciences, College of Health Sciences, University of Sharjah, Sharjah 27272, United Arab Emirates
| | - Shamima Akter
- Department of Bioinformatics and Computational Biology, George Mason University, Fairfax, Virginia 22030, USA
| | | | - Sherouk Hussein Sweilam
- Department of Pharmacognosy, College of Pharmacy, Prince Sattam Bin Abdulaziz University, Al-Kharj 11942, Saudi Arabia
- Department of Pharmacognosy, Faculty of Pharmacy, Egyptian Russian University, Cairo-Suez Road, Badr City 11829, Egypt
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Rosales-Pérez KE, Elizalde-Velázquez GA, Gómez-Oliván LM, Orozco-Hernández JM, Cardoso-Vera JD, Heredia-García G, Islas-Flores H, García-Medina S, Galar-Martínez M. Brain damage induced by contaminants released in a hospital from Mexico: Evaluation of swimming behavior, oxidative stress, and acetylcholinesterase in zebrafish (Danio rerio). CHEMOSPHERE 2022; 294:133791. [PMID: 35104548 DOI: 10.1016/j.chemosphere.2022.133791] [Citation(s) in RCA: 4] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 11/10/2021] [Revised: 01/12/2022] [Accepted: 01/27/2022] [Indexed: 06/14/2023]
Abstract
Several studies have indicated that hospital effluents can produce genotoxic and mutagenic effects, cytotoxicity, hematological and histological alterations, embryotoxicity, and oxidative stress in diverse water organisms, but research on the neurotoxic effects hospital wastewater materials can generate in fish is still scarce. To fill the above-described knowledge gap, this study aimed to determine whether the exposure of adult zebrafish (Danio rerio) to several proportions (0.1%, 2.5%, 3.5%) of a hospital effluent can disrupt behavior or impair redox status and acetylcholinesterase content in the brain. After 96 h of exposure to the effluent, we observed a decrease in total distance traveled and an increase in frozen time compared to the control group. Moreover, we also observed a significant increase in the levels of reactive oxygen species in the brains of the fish, especially in hydroperoxide and protein carbonyl content, relative to the control group. Our results also demonstrated that hospital effluents significantly inhibited the activity of the AChE enzyme in the brains of the fish. Our Pearson correlation demonstrated that the response to acetylcholinesterase at the lowest proportions (0.1% and 2.5%) is positively related to the oxidative stress response and the behavioral changes observed. The cohort of our studies demonstrated that the exposure of adult zebrafish to a hospital effluent induced oxidative stress and decreased acetylcholinesterase activity in the brain of these freshwater organisms, which can lead to alterations in their behavior.
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Affiliation(s)
- Karina Elisa Rosales-Pérez
- Laboratorio de Toxicología Ambiental, Facultad de Química, Universidad Autónoma del Estado de México, Paseo Colón intersección Paseo Tollocan, Colonia Residencial Colón, CP 50120, Toluca, Estado de México, Mexico
| | - Gustavo Axel Elizalde-Velázquez
- Laboratorio de Toxicología Ambiental, Facultad de Química, Universidad Autónoma del Estado de México, Paseo Colón intersección Paseo Tollocan, Colonia Residencial Colón, CP 50120, Toluca, Estado de México, Mexico
| | - Leobardo Manuel Gómez-Oliván
- Laboratorio de Toxicología Ambiental, Facultad de Química, Universidad Autónoma del Estado de México, Paseo Colón intersección Paseo Tollocan, Colonia Residencial Colón, CP 50120, Toluca, Estado de México, Mexico.
| | - José Manuel Orozco-Hernández
- Laboratorio de Toxicología Ambiental, Facultad de Química, Universidad Autónoma del Estado de México, Paseo Colón intersección Paseo Tollocan, Colonia Residencial Colón, CP 50120, Toluca, Estado de México, Mexico
| | - Jesús Daniel Cardoso-Vera
- Laboratorio de Toxicología Ambiental, Facultad de Química, Universidad Autónoma del Estado de México, Paseo Colón intersección Paseo Tollocan, Colonia Residencial Colón, CP 50120, Toluca, Estado de México, Mexico
| | - Gerardo Heredia-García
- Laboratorio de Toxicología Ambiental, Facultad de Química, Universidad Autónoma del Estado de México, Paseo Colón intersección Paseo Tollocan, Colonia Residencial Colón, CP 50120, Toluca, Estado de México, Mexico
| | - Hariz Islas-Flores
- Laboratorio de Toxicología Ambiental, Facultad de Química, Universidad Autónoma del Estado de México, Paseo Colón intersección Paseo Tollocan, Colonia Residencial Colón, CP 50120, Toluca, Estado de México, Mexico
| | - Sandra García-Medina
- Laboratorio de Toxicología Acuática, Departamento de Farmacia, Escuela Nacional de Ciencias Biológicas, Instituto Politécnico Nacional. Unidad Profesional Adolfo López Mateos, Av. Wilfrido Massieu s/n y cerrada Manuel Stampa, Col. Industrial Vallejo, Ciudad de México, CP, 07700, Mexico
| | - Marcela Galar-Martínez
- Laboratorio de Toxicología Acuática, Departamento de Farmacia, Escuela Nacional de Ciencias Biológicas, Instituto Politécnico Nacional. Unidad Profesional Adolfo López Mateos, Av. Wilfrido Massieu s/n y cerrada Manuel Stampa, Col. Industrial Vallejo, Ciudad de México, CP, 07700, Mexico
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Dern K, van Eps A, Wittum T, Watts M, Pollitt C, Belknap J. Effect of Continuous Digital Hypothermia on Lamellar Inflammatory Signaling When Applied at a Clinically-Relevant Timepoint in the Oligofructose Laminitis Model. J Vet Intern Med 2017; 32:450-458. [PMID: 29282770 PMCID: PMC5787192 DOI: 10.1111/jvim.15027] [Citation(s) in RCA: 21] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 06/26/2017] [Revised: 09/06/2017] [Accepted: 11/28/2017] [Indexed: 12/14/2022] Open
Abstract
BACKGROUND Although continuous digital hypothermia (CDH) protects lamellae from injury in the oligofructose (OF) model of sepsis-related laminitis (SRL), conflicting results exist from these studies regarding effects of CDH on lamellar inflammatory events. HYPOTHESIS/OBJECTIVES To determine the effect of CDH on lamellar inflammatory events in normal and OF-treated horses when instituted at a clinically relevant time point (onset of clinical signs of sepsis in this model). ANIMALS Standardbred geldings (n = 15) aged 3-11 years were used. METHODS In a randomized, controlled discovery study, animals were administered either OF (OF group, n = 8) or water (CON group, n = 8) by nasogastric tube and CDH was initiated in one forelimb (ICE) 12 hours later. Lamellar tissue samples were collected 24 hours after initiation of CDH (ICE and ambient [AMB] forelimbs). Lamellar mRNA concentrations of inflammatory mediators and lamellar leukocyte numbers were assessed using qPCR and immunohistochemistry, respectively; values from four sample groups (CON AMB, OF AMB, CON ICE, and OF ICE) were analyzed using mixed model linear regression. RESULTS Although lamellar mRNA concentrations of multiple inflammatory mediators (IL-1β, IL-6, CXCL1, MCP2, COX-2) were increased after OF administration (OF AMB group versus CON AMB; P < 0.05), only 2 inflammatory mediators (IL-6 and COX-2) and lamellar leukocyte numbers were decreased with CDH (OF ICE versus OF AMB; P < 0.05). CONCLUSIONS AND CLINICAL IMPORTANCE Continuous digital hypothermia initiated at a time point similar to that commonly used clinically (clinical onset of sepsis) resulted in a more focused inhibition of inflammatory signaling.
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Affiliation(s)
- K Dern
- Department of Veterinary Clinical Sciences, Ohio State University, Columbus, OH, USA
| | - A van Eps
- Australian Equine Laminitis Research Unit, School of Veterinary Science, The University of Queensland, Gatton, Qld, Australia
| | - T Wittum
- Department of Veterinary Preventive Medicine, Ohio State University, Columbus, OH, USA
| | - M Watts
- Department of Veterinary Clinical Sciences, Ohio State University, Columbus, OH, USA
| | - C Pollitt
- Australian Equine Laminitis Research Unit, School of Veterinary Science, The University of Queensland, Gatton, Qld, Australia
| | - J Belknap
- Department of Veterinary Clinical Sciences, Ohio State University, Columbus, OH, USA
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Aguilar BJ, Zhu Y, Lu Q. Rho GTPases as therapeutic targets in Alzheimer's disease. ALZHEIMERS RESEARCH & THERAPY 2017; 9:97. [PMID: 29246246 PMCID: PMC5732365 DOI: 10.1186/s13195-017-0320-4] [Citation(s) in RCA: 69] [Impact Index Per Article: 9.9] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 05/15/2017] [Accepted: 11/07/2017] [Indexed: 12/19/2022]
Abstract
The progress we have made in understanding Alzheimer’s disease (AD) pathogenesis has led to the identification of several novel pathways and potential therapeutic targets. Rho GTPases have been implicated as critical components in AD pathogenesis, but their various functions and interactions make understanding their complex signaling challenging to study. Recent advancements in both the field of AD and Rho GTPase drug development provide novel tools for the elucidation of Rho GTPases as a viable target for AD. Herein, we summarize the fluctuating activity of Rho GTPases in various stages of AD pathogenesis and in several in vitro and in vivo AD models. We also review the current pharmacological tools such as NSAIDs, RhoA/ROCK, Rac1, and Cdc42 inhibitors used to target Rho GTPases and their use in AD-related studies. Finally, we summarize the behavioral modifications following Rho GTPase modulation in several AD mouse models. As key regulators of several AD-related signals, Rho GTPases have been studied as targets in AD. However, a consensus has yet to be reached regarding the stage at which targeting Rho GTPases would be the most beneficial. The studies discussed herein emphasize the critical role of Rho GTPases and the benefits of their modulation in AD.
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Affiliation(s)
- Byron J Aguilar
- Department of Anatomy and Cell Biology, Brody School of Medicine at East Carolina University, Greenville, NC, 27834, USA.
| | - Yi Zhu
- Department of Anatomy and Cell Biology, Brody School of Medicine at East Carolina University, Greenville, NC, 27834, USA
| | - Qun Lu
- Department of Anatomy and Cell Biology, Brody School of Medicine at East Carolina University, Greenville, NC, 27834, USA. .,The Harriet and John Wooten Laboratory for Alzheimer's and Neurodegenerative Diseases Research, Brody School of Medicine at East Carolina University, Greenville, NC, 27834, USA.
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Martinović-Weigelt D, Mehinto AC, Ankley GT, Berninger JP, Collette TW, Davis JM, Denslow ND, Durhan EJ, Eid E, Ekman DR, Jensen KM, Kahl MD, LaLone CA, Teng Q, Villeneuve DL. Derivation and Evaluation of Putative Adverse Outcome Pathways for the Effects of Cyclooxygenase Inhibitors on Reproductive Processes in Female Fish. Toxicol Sci 2017; 156:344-361. [PMID: 28201806 PMCID: PMC11017233 DOI: 10.1093/toxsci/kfw257] [Citation(s) in RCA: 12] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 01/02/2023] Open
Abstract
Cyclooxygenase (COX) inhibitors are ubiquitous in aquatic systems and have been detected in fish tissues. The exposure of fish to these pharmaceuticals is concerning because COX inhibitors disrupt the synthesis of prostaglandins (PGs), which modulate a variety of essential biological functions, including reproduction. In this study, we investigated the effects of well-characterized mammalian COX inhibitors on female fathead minnow reproductive health. Fish (n = 8) were exposed for 96 h to water containing indomethacin (IN; 100 µg/l), ibuprofen (IB; 200 µg/l) or celecoxib (CX; 20 µg/l), and evaluated for effects on liver metabolome and ovarian gene expression. Metabolomic profiles of IN, IB and CX were not significantly different from control or one another. Exposure to IB and CX resulted in differential expression of comparable numbers of genes (IB = 433, CX = 545). In contrast, 2558 genes were differentially expressed in IN-treated fish. Functional analyses (canonical pathway and gene set enrichment) indicated extensive effects of IN on PG synthesis pathway, oocyte meiosis, and several other processes consistent with physiological roles of PGs. Transcriptomic data were congruent with PG data; IN-reduced plasma PG F2α concentration, whereas IB and CX did not. Five putative AOPs were developed linking the assumed molecular initiating event of COX inhibition, with PG reduction and the adverse outcome of reproductive failure via reduction of: (1) ovulation, (2) reproductive behaviors mediated by exogenous or endogenous PGs, and (3) oocyte maturation in fish. These pathways were developed using, in part, empirical data from the present study and other publicly available data.
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Affiliation(s)
| | - Alvine C. Mehinto
- University of Florida, Gainesville, FL, 32611
- Southern California Coastal Water Research Project, Costa Mesa, CA, 92626
| | - Gerald T. Ankley
- U.S. Environmental Protection Agency, National Health and Environmental Effects Research Laboratory, Mid-Continent Ecology Division, Duluth, MN, 55804
| | - Jason P. Berninger
- U.S. Environmental Protection Agency, National Health and Environmental Effects Research Laboratory, Mid-Continent Ecology Division, Duluth, MN, 55804
| | - Timothy W. Collette
- U.S. Environmental Protection Agency, National Exposure Research Laboratory, Ecosystems Research Division, Athens, GA, 30605
| | - John M. Davis
- U.S. Environmental Protection Agency, National Exposure Research Laboratory, Ecosystems Research Division, Athens, GA, 30605
| | | | - Elizabeth J. Durhan
- U.S. Environmental Protection Agency, National Health and Environmental Effects Research Laboratory, Mid-Continent Ecology Division, Duluth, MN, 55804
| | - Evan Eid
- U.S. Environmental Protection Agency, National Health and Environmental Effects Research Laboratory, Mid-Continent Ecology Division, Duluth, MN, 55804
| | - Drew R. Ekman
- U.S. Environmental Protection Agency, National Exposure Research Laboratory, Ecosystems Research Division, Athens, GA, 30605
| | - Kathleen M. Jensen
- U.S. Environmental Protection Agency, National Health and Environmental Effects Research Laboratory, Mid-Continent Ecology Division, Duluth, MN, 55804
| | - Mike D. Kahl
- U.S. Environmental Protection Agency, National Health and Environmental Effects Research Laboratory, Mid-Continent Ecology Division, Duluth, MN, 55804
| | - Carlie A. LaLone
- U.S. Environmental Protection Agency, National Health and Environmental Effects Research Laboratory, Mid-Continent Ecology Division, Duluth, MN, 55804
| | - Quincy Teng
- U.S. Environmental Protection Agency, National Exposure Research Laboratory, Ecosystems Research Division, Athens, GA, 30605
| | - Daniel L. Villeneuve
- U.S. Environmental Protection Agency, National Health and Environmental Effects Research Laboratory, Mid-Continent Ecology Division, Duluth, MN, 55804
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8
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γ-Secretase Modulators as Aβ42-Lowering Pharmacological Agents to Treat Alzheimer’s Disease. TOPICS IN MEDICINAL CHEMISTRY 2017. [DOI: 10.1007/7355_2016_19] [Citation(s) in RCA: 6] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.9] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 01/31/2023]
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Sethy D, Chakraborty H. Micellar dipolar rearrangement is sensitive to hydrophobic chain length: Implication for structural switchover of piroxicam. Chem Phys Lipids 2016; 200:120-125. [PMID: 27680423 DOI: 10.1016/j.chemphyslip.2016.09.001] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 08/17/2016] [Revised: 09/06/2016] [Accepted: 09/21/2016] [Indexed: 10/21/2022]
Abstract
The interfacial properties of the membrane are exceptionally vital in drug-membrane interaction. They not only select out a particular prototropic form of the drug molecule for incorporation, but are also potent enough to induce structural switchover of these drugs in several cases. In this work, we quantitatively monitored the change in dipolar rearrangement of the micellar interface (as a simplified membrane mimic) by measuring the dielectric constant and dipole potential with the micellization of SDS at pH 3.6. The dielectric constant and dipole potential were measured utilizing the fluorescence of polarity sensitive probe, pyrene and potential-sensitive probe, di-8-ANEPPS, respectively. Our study demonstrates that the change in dipolar rearrangement directly influences the switchover equilibrium between the anionic and neutral from of piroxicam. We have further extended our work to evaluate the effect of hydrophobic chain length of the surfactants on the dipolar rearrangement and its effect on the structural switchover of piroxicam. It is interesting that the extent of switchover of piroxicam is directly correlated with the dipolar rearrangement induced bythe varying hydrophobic chain length of the surfactants. To the best of our knowledge, our results constitute the first report to show the dependence of dipole potential on the hydrophobic chain length of the surfactant and demonstrate that the dipolar rearrangement directly tunes the extent of structural switchover of piroxicam, which was so far only intuitive. We consider that this new finding would have promising implication in drug distribution and drug efficacy.
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Affiliation(s)
- Dasaratha Sethy
- School of Chemistry, Sambalpur University, Burla, Odisha 768 019, India
| | - Hirak Chakraborty
- School of Chemistry, Sambalpur University, Burla, Odisha 768 019, India.
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10
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Identification of the two-phase mechanism of arachidonic acid regulating inflammatory prostaglandin E2 biosynthesis by targeting COX-2 and mPGES-1. Arch Biochem Biophys 2016; 603:29-37. [DOI: 10.1016/j.abb.2016.04.011] [Citation(s) in RCA: 14] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 03/03/2016] [Revised: 04/21/2016] [Accepted: 04/22/2016] [Indexed: 01/15/2023]
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11
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MH84: A Novel γ-Secretase Modulator/PPARγ Agonist—Improves Mitochondrial Dysfunction in a Cellular Model of Alzheimer’s Disease. Neurochem Res 2015; 41:231-42. [DOI: 10.1007/s11064-015-1765-0] [Citation(s) in RCA: 12] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 08/24/2015] [Revised: 11/03/2015] [Accepted: 11/05/2015] [Indexed: 01/13/2023]
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12
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Ghosh R, Alajbegovic A, Gomes AV. NSAIDs and Cardiovascular Diseases: Role of Reactive Oxygen Species. OXIDATIVE MEDICINE AND CELLULAR LONGEVITY 2015; 2015:536962. [PMID: 26457127 PMCID: PMC4592725 DOI: 10.1155/2015/536962] [Citation(s) in RCA: 100] [Impact Index Per Article: 11.1] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 12/22/2014] [Revised: 03/03/2015] [Accepted: 03/03/2015] [Indexed: 12/24/2022]
Abstract
Nonsteroidal anti-inflammatory drugs (NSAIDs) are the most commonly used drugs worldwide. NSAIDs are used for a variety of conditions including pain, rheumatoid arthritis, and musculoskeletal disorders. The beneficial effects of NSAIDs in reducing or relieving pain are well established, and other benefits such as reducing inflammation and anticancer effects are also documented. The undesirable side effects of NSAIDs include ulcers, internal bleeding, kidney failure, and increased risk of heart attack and stroke. Some of these side effects may be due to the oxidative stress induced by NSAIDs in different tissues. NSAIDs have been shown to induce reactive oxygen species (ROS) in different cell types including cardiac and cardiovascular related cells. Increases in ROS result in increased levels of oxidized proteins which alters key intracellular signaling pathways. One of these key pathways is apoptosis which causes cell death when significantly activated. This review discusses the relationship between NSAIDs and cardiovascular diseases (CVD) and the role of NSAID-induced ROS in CVD.
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Affiliation(s)
- Rajeshwary Ghosh
- Department of Neurobiology, Physiology, and Behavior, University of California, Davis, CA 95616, USA
| | - Azra Alajbegovic
- Department of Neurobiology, Physiology, and Behavior, University of California, Davis, CA 95616, USA
| | - Aldrin V. Gomes
- Department of Neurobiology, Physiology, and Behavior, University of California, Davis, CA 95616, USA
- Department of Physiology and Membrane Biology, University of California, Davis, CA 95616, USA
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13
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Rogers K, Felsenstein KM, Hrdlicka L, Tu Z, Albayya F, Lee W, Hopp S, Miller MJ, Spaulding D, Yang Z, Hodgdon H, Nolan S, Wen M, Costa D, Blain JF, Freeman E, De Strooper B, Vulsteke V, Scrocchi L, Zetterberg H, Portelius E, Hutter-Paier B, Havas D, Ahlijanian M, Flood D, Leventhal L, Shapiro G, Patzke H, Chesworth R, Koenig G. Modulation of γ-secretase by EVP-0015962 reduces amyloid deposition and behavioral deficits in Tg2576 mice. Mol Neurodegener 2012; 7:61. [PMID: 23249765 PMCID: PMC3573960 DOI: 10.1186/1750-1326-7-61] [Citation(s) in RCA: 54] [Impact Index Per Article: 4.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 07/08/2012] [Accepted: 12/14/2012] [Indexed: 12/19/2022] Open
Abstract
Background A hallmark of Alzheimer’s disease is the presence of senile plaques in human brain primarily containing the amyloid peptides Aβ42 and Aβ40. Many drug discovery efforts have focused on decreasing the production of Aβ42 through γ-secretase inhibition. However, identification of γ-secretase inhibitors has also uncovered mechanism-based side effects. One approach to circumvent these side effects has been modulation of γ-secretase to shift Aβ production to favor shorter, less amyloidogenic peptides than Aβ42, without affecting the overall cleavage efficiency of the enzyme. This approach, frequently called γ-secretase modulation, appears more promising and has lead to the development of new therapeutic candidates for disease modification in Alzheimer’s disease. Results Here we describe EVP-0015962, a novel small molecule γ-secretase modulator. EVP-0015962 decreased Aβ42 in H4 cells (IC50 = 67 nM) and increased the shorter Aβ38 by 1.7 fold at the IC50 for lowering of Aβ42. AβTotal, as well as other carboxyl-terminal fragments of amyloid precursor protein, were not changed. EVP-0015962 did not cause the accumulation of other γ-secretase substrates, such as the Notch and ephrin A4 receptors, whereas a γ-secretase inhibitor reduced processing of both. A single oral dose of EVP-0015962 (30 mg/kg) decreased Aβ42 and did not alter AβTotal peptide levels in a dose-dependent manner in Tg2576 mouse brain at an age when overt Aβ deposition was not present. In Tg2576 mice, chronic treatment with EVP-0015962 (20 or 60 mg/kg/day in a food formulation) reduced Aβ aggregates, amyloid plaques, inflammatory markers, and cognitive deficits. Conclusions EVP-0015962 is orally bioavailable, detected in brain, and a potent, selective γ-secretase modulator in vitro and in vivo. Chronic treatment with EVP-0015962 was well tolerated in mice and lowered the production of Aβ42, attenuated memory deficits, and reduced Aβ plaque formation and inflammation in Tg2576 transgenic animals. In summary, these data suggest that γ-secretase modulation with EVP-0015962 represents a viable therapeutic alternative for disease modification in Alzheimer’s disease.
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Affiliation(s)
- Kathryn Rogers
- EnVivo Pharmaceuticals, Inc, 500 Arsenal Street, Watertown, MA 02472, USA
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14
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Bulic B, Ness J, Hahn S, Rennhack A, Jumpertz T, Weggen S. Chemical Biology, Molecular Mechanism and Clinical Perspective of γ-Secretase Modulators in Alzheimer's Disease. Curr Neuropharmacol 2012; 9:598-622. [PMID: 22798753 PMCID: PMC3391656 DOI: 10.2174/157015911798376352] [Citation(s) in RCA: 35] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.9] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 05/11/2010] [Revised: 10/25/2010] [Accepted: 11/01/2010] [Indexed: 12/25/2022] Open
Abstract
Comprehensive evidence supports that oligomerization and accumulation of amyloidogenic Aβ42 peptides in brain is crucial in the pathogenesis of both familial and sporadic forms of Alzheimer's disease. Imaging studies indicate that the buildup of Aβ begins many years before the onset of clinical symptoms, and that subsequent neurodegeneration and cognitive decline may proceed independently of Aβ. This implies the necessity for early intervention in cognitively normal individuals with therapeutic strategies that prioritize safety. The aspartyl protease γ-secretase catalyses the last step in the cellular generation of Aβ42 peptides, and is a principal target for anti-amyloidogenic intervention strategies. Due to the essential role of γ-secretase in the NOTCH signaling pathway, overt mechanism-based toxicity has been observed with the first generation of γ-secretase inhibitors, and safety of this approach has been questioned. However, two new classes of small molecules, γ-secretase modulators (GSMs) and NOTCH-sparing γ-secretase inhibitors, have revitalized γ-secretase as a drug target in AD. GSMs are small molecules that cause a product shift from Aβ42 towards shorter and less toxic Ab peptides. Importantly, GSMs spare other physiologically important substrates of the γ-secretase complex like NOTCH. Recently, GSMs with nanomolar potency and favorable in vivo properties have been described. In this review, we summarize the knowledge about the unusual proteolytic activity of γ-secretase, and the chemical biology, molecular mechanisms and clinical perspective of compounds that target the γ-secretase complex, with a particular focus on GSMs.
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Affiliation(s)
- Bruno Bulic
- Research Group Chemical Biology of Neurodegenerative Diseases, Center of Advanced European Studies and Research, D-53175 Bonn, Germany
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15
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Hamley IW. The Amyloid Beta Peptide: A Chemist’s Perspective. Role in Alzheimer’s and Fibrillization. Chem Rev 2012; 112:5147-92. [DOI: 10.1021/cr3000994] [Citation(s) in RCA: 670] [Impact Index Per Article: 55.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/13/2022]
Affiliation(s)
- I. W. Hamley
- Department
of Chemistry, University of Reading, Whiteknights, Reading RG6 6AD,
U.K
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16
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Johnston PG, Gillam-Krakauer M, Fuller MP, Reese J. Evidence-based use of indomethacin and ibuprofen in the neonatal intensive care unit. Clin Perinatol 2012; 39:111-36. [PMID: 22341541 PMCID: PMC3598606 DOI: 10.1016/j.clp.2011.12.002] [Citation(s) in RCA: 35] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.9] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/27/2022]
Abstract
Indomethacin and ibuprofen are potent inhibitors of prostaglandin synthesis. Neonates have been exposed to these compounds for more than 3 decades. Indomethacin is commonly used to prevent intraventricular hemorrhage (IVH), and both drugs are prescribed for the treatment or prevention of patent ductus arteriosus (PDA). This review examines the basis for indomethacin and ibuprofen use in the neonatal intensive care population. Despite the call for restrained use of each drug, the most immature infants are likely to need pharmacologic approaches to reduce high-grade IVH, avoid the need for PDA ligation, and preserve the opportunity for an optimal outcome.
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Affiliation(s)
- Palmer G. Johnston
- Neonatal-Perinatal Medicine, Division of Neonatology, Department of Pediatrics, Vanderbilt University Medical Center, 2200 Children’s Way, Doctor’s Office Tower 11111, Nashville, TN 37232-9544, USA
| | - Maria Gillam-Krakauer
- Neonatal-Perinatal Medicine, Division of Neonatology, Department of Pediatrics, Vanderbilt University Medical Center, 2200 Children’s Way, Doctor’s Office Tower 11111, Nashville, TN 37232-9544, USA
| | - M. Paige Fuller
- Department of Pharmacy, Monroe Carell Jr. Children’s Hospital at Vanderbilt, 2200 Children’s Way, Room 4508, Nashville, TN 37232, USA
| | - Jeff Reese
- Neonatal-Perinatal Medicine, Division of Neonatology, Department of Pediatrics, Vanderbilt University Medical Center, 2200 Children’s Way, Doctor’s Office Tower 11111, Nashville, TN 37232-9544, USA,Department of Cell and Developmental Biology, Vanderbilt University Medical Center, U-3218 MRB III Building, Nashville, TN 37232-8240, USA,Corresponding author. Department of Cell and Developmental Biology, Vanderbilt University Medical Center, U-3218 MRB III Building, Nashville, TN 37232-8240.,
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17
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D'Onofrio G, Panza F, Frisardi V, Solfrizzi V, Imbimbo BP, Paroni G, Cascavilla L, Seripa D, Pilotto A. Advances in the identification of γ-secretase inhibitors for the treatment of Alzheimer's disease. Expert Opin Drug Discov 2011; 7:19-37. [DOI: 10.1517/17460441.2012.645534] [Citation(s) in RCA: 43] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/05/2022]
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18
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Sagi SA, Lessard CB, Winden KD, Maruyama H, Koo JC, Weggen S, Kukar TL, Golde TE, Koo EH. Substrate sequence influences γ-secretase modulator activity, role of the transmembrane domain of the amyloid precursor protein. J Biol Chem 2011; 286:39794-803. [PMID: 21868380 DOI: 10.1074/jbc.m111.277228] [Citation(s) in RCA: 29] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/28/2022] Open
Abstract
A subset of non-steroidal anti-inflammatory drugs modulates the γ cleavage site in the amyloid precursor protein (APP) to selectively reduce production of Aβ42. It is unclear precisely how these γ-secretase modulators (GSMs) act to preferentially spare Aβ40 production as well as Notch processing and signaling. In an effort to determine the substrate requirements in NSAID/GSM activity, we determined the effects of sulindac sulfide and flurbiprofen on γ-cleavage of artificial constructs containing several γ-secretase substrates. Using FLAG-tagged constructs that expressed extracellularly truncated APP, Notch-1, or CD44, we found that these substrates have different sensitivities to sulindac sulfide. γ-Secretase cleavage of APP was altered by sulindac sulfide, but CD44 and Notch-1 were either insensitive or only minimally altered by this compound. Using chimeric APP constructs, we observed that the transmembrane domain (TMD) of APP played a pivotal role in determining drug sensitivity. Substituting the APP TMD with that of APLP2 retained the sensitivity to γ-cleavage modulation, but replacing TMDs from Notch-1 or ErbB4 rendered the resultant molecules insensitive to drug treatment. Specifically, the GXXXG motif within APP appeared to be critical to GSM activity. Consequently, the modulatory effects on γ-cleavage appears to be substrate-dependent. We hypothesize that the substrate present in the γ-secretase complex influences the conformation of the complex so that the binding site of GSMs is either stabilized or less favorable to influence the cleavage of the respective substrates.
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Affiliation(s)
- Sarah A Sagi
- Department of Neurosciences, University of California San Diego, La Jolla, California 92093, USA
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19
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γ-secretase inhibitors for treating Alzheimer’s disease: rationale and clinical data. ACTA ACUST UNITED AC 2011. [DOI: 10.4155/cli.11.86] [Citation(s) in RCA: 2] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/17/2022]
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20
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Kubo T, Yamaguchi A, Iwata N, Yamashita T. The therapeutic effects of Rho-ROCK inhibitors on CNS disorders. Ther Clin Risk Manag 2011; 4:605-15. [PMID: 18827856 PMCID: PMC2500253 DOI: 10.2147/tcrm.s2907] [Citation(s) in RCA: 95] [Impact Index Per Article: 7.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/23/2022] Open
Abstract
Rho-kinase (ROCK) is a serine/threonine kinase and one of the major downstream effectors of the small GTPase Rho. The Rho-ROCK pathway is involved in many aspects of neuronal functions including neurite outgrowth and retraction. The Rho-ROCK pathway becomes an attractive target for the development of drugs for treating central nervous system (CNS) disorders, since it has been recently revealed that this pathway is closely related to the pathogenesis of several CNS disorders such as spinal cord injuries, stroke, and Alzheimer's disease (AD). In the adult CNS, injured axons regenerate poorly due to the presence of myelin-associated axonal growth inhibitors such as myelin-associated glycoprotein (MAG), Nogo, oligodendrocyte-myelin glycoprotein (OMgp), and the recently identified repulsive guidance molecule (RGM). The effects of these inhibitors are reversed by blockade of the Rho-ROCK pathway in vitro, and the inhibition of this pathway promotes axonal regeneration and functional recovery in the injured CNS in vivo. In addition, the therapeutic effects of the Rho-ROCK inhibitors have been demonstrated in animal models of stroke. In this review, we summarize the involvement of the Rho-ROCK pathway in CNS disorders such as spinal cord injuries, stroke, and AD and also discuss the potential of Rho-ROCK inhibitors in the treatment of human CNS disorders.
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Affiliation(s)
- Takekazu Kubo
- Department of Neurobiology, Graduate School of Medicine, Chiba University 1-8-1 Inohana, Chuo-ku, Chiba 260-8670, Japan
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21
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Ling S, Zhou J, Rudd JA, Hu Z, Fang M. The recent updates of therapeutic approaches against aβ for the treatment of Alzheimer's disease. Anat Rec (Hoboken) 2011; 294:1307-18. [PMID: 21717585 DOI: 10.1002/ar.21425] [Citation(s) in RCA: 14] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.1] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 03/07/2011] [Accepted: 04/30/2011] [Indexed: 12/21/2022]
Abstract
One of the main neuropathological lesions observed in brain autopsy of Alzheimer's disease (AD) patients is the extracellular senile plaques mainly composed of amyloid-beta (Aβ) peptide. Recently, treatment strategies have focused on modifying the formation, clearance, and accumulation of this potentially neurotoxic peptide. β- and γ-secretase are responsible for the cleavage of amyloid precursor protein (APP) and the generation of Aβ peptide. Treatments targeting these two critical secretases may therefore reduce Aβ peptide levels and positive impact on AD. Vaccination is also an advanced approach against Aβ. This review focuses on recent advances of our understanding of this key peptide, with emphasis on Aβ peptide synthesis, accumulation and neurotoxicity, and current therapies including vaccination and two critical secretase inhibitors. MicroRNAs (miRNAs) are a class of conserved endogenous small noncoding RNAs, known to regulate the expression of complementary messenger RNAs, involved in AD development. We therefore address the relationship of miRNAs in the brain and Aβ generation, as a novel therapeutic approach to the treatment of AD while also providing new insights on the etiology of this neurological disorder.
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Affiliation(s)
- Shucai Ling
- Institute of Anatomy and Cell Biology, Medical College, Zhejiang University, Hangzhou, China
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22
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Waku T, Shiraki T, Oyama T, Maebara K, Nakamori R, Morikawa K. The nuclear receptor PPARγ individually responds to serotonin- and fatty acid-metabolites. EMBO J 2010; 29:3395-407. [PMID: 20717101 DOI: 10.1038/emboj.2010.197] [Citation(s) in RCA: 111] [Impact Index Per Article: 7.9] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 03/14/2010] [Accepted: 07/19/2010] [Indexed: 12/29/2022] Open
Abstract
The nuclear receptor, peroxisome proliferator-activated receptor γ (PPARγ), recognizes various synthetic and endogenous ligands by the ligand-binding domain. Fatty-acid metabolites reportedly activate PPARγ through conformational changes of the Ω loop. Here, we report that serotonin metabolites act as endogenous agonists for PPARγ to regulate macrophage function and adipogenesis by directly binding to helix H12. A cyclooxygenase inhibitor, indomethacin, is a mimetic agonist of these metabolites. Crystallographic analyses revealed that an indole acetate functions as a common moiety for the recognition by the sub-pocket near helix H12. Intriguingly, a serotonin metabolite and a fatty-acid metabolite each bind to distinct sub-pockets, and the PPARγ antagonist, T0070907, blocked the fatty-acid agonism, but not that of the serotonin metabolites. Mutational analyses on receptor-mediated transcription and coactivator binding revealed that each metabolite individually uses coregulator and/or heterodimer interfaces in a ligand-type-specific manner. Furthermore, the inhibition of the serotonin metabolism reduced the expression of the endogenous PPARγ-target gene. Collectively, these results suggest a novel agonism, in which PPARγ functions as a multiple sensor in response to distinct metabolites.
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Affiliation(s)
- Tsuyoshi Waku
- The Takara Bio Endowed Division, Department of Biomolecular Recognition, Institute for Protein Research, Osaka University, Open Laboratories of Advanced Bioscience and Biotechnology, Furuedai, Suita, Osaka, Japan
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23
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Belknap JK. The pharmacologic basis for the treatment of developmental and acute laminitis. Vet Clin North Am Equine Pract 2010; 26:115-24. [PMID: 20381740 DOI: 10.1016/j.cveq.2010.01.003] [Citation(s) in RCA: 9] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/26/2022] Open
Abstract
The treatment of laminitis has been fraught with confusion and controversy for several decades, mainly because of a lack of understanding of the pathophysiology of the disease process. However, recent advances in laminitis research have greatly improved our understanding of the disease process. This article discusses the various treatment options for laminitis in the context of the findings of recent scientific investigations of laminitis pathophysiology.
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Affiliation(s)
- James K Belknap
- Department of Veterinary Clinical Sciences, College of Veterinary Medicine, Ohio State University, Columbus, OH 43210, USA.
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24
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Non-Steroidal Anti-Inflammatory Drugs and Brain Inflammation: Effects on Microglial Functions. Pharmaceuticals (Basel) 2010; 3:1949-1965. [PMID: 27713336 PMCID: PMC4033961 DOI: 10.3390/ph3061949] [Citation(s) in RCA: 82] [Impact Index Per Article: 5.9] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 04/08/2010] [Revised: 05/21/2010] [Accepted: 06/11/2010] [Indexed: 01/04/2023] Open
Abstract
The term NSAID refers to structurally diverse chemical compounds that share the ability to inhibit the activity of the prostaglandin (PG) biosynthetic enzymes, the cyclooxygenase (COX) isoforms 1 and 2. The suppression of PG synthesis at sites of inflammation has been regarded as primarily responsible for the beneficial properties of NSAIDs, but several COX-independent effects have been described in recent years. Epidemiological studies indicate that NSAIDs are neuroprotective, although the mechanisms underlying their beneficial effect remain largely unknown. Microglial cells play a major role in brain inflammation and are often viewed as major contributors to the neurodegeneration. Therefore, microglia represent a likely target for NSAIDs within the brain. In the present review, we focused on the direct effects of NSAIDs and selective COX-2 inhibitors on microglial functions and discuss the potential efficacy in controlling brain inflammation.
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25
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Imbimbo BP. An update on the efficacy of non-steroidal anti-inflammatory drugs in Alzheimer's disease. Expert Opin Investig Drugs 2010; 18:1147-68. [PMID: 19589092 DOI: 10.1517/13543780903066780] [Citation(s) in RCA: 74] [Impact Index Per Article: 5.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/24/2022]
Abstract
Several epidemiological studies suggest that long-term use of non-steroidal anti-inflammatory drugs (NSAIDs) may protect against Alzheimer's disease (AD), especially for patients carrying one or more epsilon4 allele of the apolipoprotein E. The biological mechanism of this protection is not completely understood and may involve inhibition of COX activity, inhibition of beta-amyloid(1-42) (Abeta42) production and aggregation, inhibition of beta-secretase activity, activation of PPAR-gamma or stimulation of neurotrophin synthesis. Unfortunately, long-term, placebo-controlled clinical trials with both non-selective and COX-2 selective NSAIDs in AD patients produced negative results. A secondary prevention study with rofecoxib in patients with mild cognitive impairment and a primary prevention study with naproxen and celecoxib in elderly subjects with a family history of AD were also negative. All these failures have diminished the hope that NSAIDs could be beneficial in the treatment of AD. It is hypothesized that the chronic use of NSAIDs may be beneficial only in the normal brain by inhibiting the production of Abeta42. Once the Abeta deposition process has started, NSAIDs are no longer effective and may even be detrimental because of their inhibiting activity on activated microglia of the AD brain, which mediates Abeta clearance and activates compensatory hippocampal neurogenesis.
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Affiliation(s)
- Bruno P Imbimbo
- Research & Development Department, Chiesi Farmaceutici, Via Palermo 26/A, 43100 Parma, Italy.
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26
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Marks N, Berg MJ. BACE and gamma-secretase characterization and their sorting as therapeutic targets to reduce amyloidogenesis. Neurochem Res 2009; 35:181-210. [PMID: 19760173 DOI: 10.1007/s11064-009-0054-1] [Citation(s) in RCA: 24] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 05/28/2009] [Accepted: 08/21/2009] [Indexed: 10/20/2022]
Abstract
Secretases are named for enzymes processing amyloid precursor protein (APP), a prototypic type-1 membrane protein. This led directly to discovery of novel Aspartyl proteases (beta-secretases or BACE), a tetramer complex gamma-secretase (gamma-SC) containing presenilins, nicastrin, aph-1 and pen-2, and a new role for metalloprotease(s) of the ADAM family as a alpha-secretases. Recent advances in defining pathways that mediate endosomal-lysosomal-autophagic-exosomal trafficking now provide targets for new drugs to attenuate abnormal production of fibril forming products characteristic of AD. A key to success includes not only characterization of relevant secretases but mechanisms for sorting and transport of key metabolites to abnormal vesicles or sites for assembly of fibrils. New developments we highlight include an important role for an 'early recycling endosome' coated in retromer complex containing lipoprotein receptor LRP-II (SorLA) for switching APP to a non-amyloidogenic pathway for alpha-secretases processing, or to shuttle APP to a 'late endosome compartment' to form Abeta or AICD. LRP11 (SorLA) is of particular importance since it decreases in sporadic AD whose etiology otherwise is unknown.
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Affiliation(s)
- Neville Marks
- Center for Neurochemistry, Nathan S Kline Institute for Psychiatric Research, 140 Old Orangeburg Road, Orangeburg, NY 10962, USA.
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27
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Cohen MP, Shearman CW. Reduction of Abeta42 in brains of transgenic APPswe mice by 2-3-chlorophenylaminophenylacetate. Clin Exp Pharmacol Physiol 2009; 36:1099-103. [PMID: 19413589 DOI: 10.1111/j.1440-1681.2009.05201.x] [Citation(s) in RCA: 1] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.1] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/26/2022]
Abstract
1. Imbalanced generation of the Abeta42 peptide from the amyloid beta protein precursor (APP) is implicated in the pathogenesis of Alzheimer's disease. 2. The present study is the first to evaluate the ability of 2-[3-chlorophenylamino]phenylacetic acid (GLY-230), a new drug in clinical development for the treatment of vascular complications of diabetes, to modulate Abeta42 levels in transgenic mice expressing APP. 3. Oral administration of 7.5 mg/kg GLY-230 twice a day for 14 days to APPswe transgenic mice aged 3 months significantly reduced brain Abeta42 and increased plasma Abeta42 levels by 50 and 20%, respectively. 4. GLY-230 readily entered the brain after administration of a dose (7.5 mg/kg) that decreased brain Abeta42. 5. These results are the first to demonstrate that GLY-230, which exhibits antiglycation but no cyclo-oxygenase inhibitory properties, lowers brain Abeta42 levels in this experimental model of Alzheimer's disease.
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Affiliation(s)
- Margo P Cohen
- Glycadia Inc., Philadelphia, Pennsylvania 19103, USA.
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28
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Beta amyloid peptide: from different aggregation forms to the activation of different biochemical pathways. EUROPEAN BIOPHYSICS JOURNAL: EBJ 2009; 39:877-88. [DOI: 10.1007/s00249-009-0439-8] [Citation(s) in RCA: 38] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 01/27/2009] [Accepted: 03/04/2009] [Indexed: 12/13/2022]
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29
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Chakraborty H, Mondal S, Sarkar M. Membrane fusion: A new function of non steroidal anti-inflammatory drugs. Biophys Chem 2008; 137:28-34. [DOI: 10.1016/j.bpc.2008.06.007] [Citation(s) in RCA: 32] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 05/16/2008] [Revised: 06/16/2008] [Accepted: 06/16/2008] [Indexed: 01/11/2023]
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30
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31
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Kukar T, Golde TE. Possible mechanisms of action of NSAIDs and related compounds that modulate gamma-secretase cleavage. Curr Top Med Chem 2008; 8:47-53. [PMID: 18220932 DOI: 10.2174/156802608783334042] [Citation(s) in RCA: 38] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 01/02/2023]
Abstract
Genetic and biochemical evidence continues to implicate the production and accumulation of the Abeta42 peptide as the causative factor in Alzheimer's disease (AD). Thus, a variety of strategies have been developed to decrease the production and/or aggregation of this peptide, which may be clinically useful for the treatment of this devastating disorder. Recently, the discovery that some non-steroidal anti-inflammatory drugs (NSAIDs) appear to selectively decrease the production of Abeta42 has opened a novel therapeutic avenue for AD treatment that may circumvent potential toxicity associated with long-term global inhibition of gamma-secretase activity. One drug from this class of compounds, R-flurbiprofen, has advanced to phase 3 clinical trials and may soon provide insight into the viability of this strategy for the prevention or treatment of AD. Delineating the target and mechanism of these compounds is essential for developing new agents with increased potency and optimized pharmacologic properties. The evidence indicating that these chemicals modulate the production of Abeta peptides by directly interacting with the gamma-secretase complex is summarized.
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Affiliation(s)
- Thomas Kukar
- Department of Neuroscience, Mayo Clinic, Mayo Clinic College of Medicine, 4500 San Pablo Road, Jacksonville, Florida 32224, USA.
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32
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Marks N, Berg MJ. Neurosecretases provide strategies to treat sporadic and familial Alzheimer disorders. Neurochem Int 2008; 52:184-215. [PMID: 17719698 DOI: 10.1016/j.neuint.2007.06.020] [Citation(s) in RCA: 22] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 03/05/2007] [Revised: 06/05/2007] [Indexed: 12/30/2022]
Abstract
Recent discoveries on neurosecretases and their trafficking to release fibril-forming neuropeptides or other products, are of interest to pathology, cell signaling and drug discovery. Nomenclature arose from the use of amyloid precursor protein (APP) as a prototypic type-1 substrate leading to the isolation of beta-secretase (BACE), multimeric complexes (gamma-secretase, gamma-SC) for intramembranal cleavage, and attributing a new function to well-characterized metalloproteases of the ADAM family (alpha-secretase) for normal APP turnover. While purified alpha/beta-secretases facilitate drug discovery, gamma-SC presents greater challenges for characterization and mechanisms of catalysis. The review comments on links between mutation or polymorphisms in relation to enzyme mechanisms and disease. The association between lipoprotein receptor LRP11 variants and sporadic Alzheimer's disease (SAD) offers scope to integrate components of pre- and post-Golgi membranes, or brain clathrin-coated vesicles within pathways for trafficking as targets for intervention. The presence of APP and metabolites in brain clathrin-coated vesicles as significant cargo with lipoproteins and adaptors focuses attention as targets for therapeutic intervention. This overview emphasizes the importance to develop new therapies targeting neurosecretases to treat a major neurological disorder that has vast economic and social implications.
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Affiliation(s)
- Neville Marks
- Center for Neurochemistry, Nathan S. Kline Institute for Psychiatric Research, Orangeburg, NY 10962, United States.
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Abstract
Pharmacological treatment in Alzheimer's disease (AD) accounts for 10-20% of direct costs, and fewer than 20% of AD patients are moderate responders to conventional drugs (donepezil, rivastigmine, galantamine, memantine), with doubtful cost-effectiveness. Both AD pathogenesis and drug metabolism are genetically regulated complex traits in which hundreds of genes cooperatively participate. Structural genomics studies demonstrated that more than 200 genes might be involved in AD pathogenesis regulating dysfunctional genetic networks leading to premature neuronal death. The AD population exhibits a higher genetic variation rate than the control population, with absolute and relative genetic variations of 40-60% and 0.85-1.89%, respectively. AD patients also differ in their genomic architecture from patients with other forms of dementia. Functional genomics studies in AD revealed that age of onset, brain atrophy, cerebrovascular hemodynamics, brain bioelectrical activity, cognitive decline, apoptosis, immune function, lipid metabolism dyshomeostasis, and amyloid deposition are associated with AD-related genes. Pioneering pharmacogenomics studies also demonstrated that the therapeutic response in AD is genotype-specific, with apolipoprotein E (APOE) 4/4 carriers the worst responders to conventional treatments. About 10-20% of Caucasians are carriers of defective cytochrome P450 (CYP) 2D6 polymorphic variants that alter the metabolism and effects of AD drugs and many psychotropic agents currently administered to patients with dementia. There is a moderate accumulation of AD-related genetic variants of risk in CYP2D6 poor metabolizers (PMs) and ultrarapid metabolizers (UMs), who are the worst responders to conventional drugs. The association of the APOE-4 allele with specific genetic variants of other genes (e.g., CYP2D6, angiotensin-converting enzyme [ACE]) negatively modulates the therapeutic response to multifactorial treatments affecting cognition, mood, and behavior. Pharmacogenetic and pharmacogenomic factors may account for 60-90% of drug variability in drug disposition and pharmacodynamics. The incorporation of pharmacogenetic/pharmacogenomic protocols to AD research and clinical practice can foster therapeutics optimization by helping to develop cost-effective pharmaceuticals and improving drug efficacy and safety.
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Affiliation(s)
- Ramón Cacabelos
- EuroEspes Biomedical Research Center, Institute for CNS Disorders, Bergondo, Coruña, Spain
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Walker D, Lue LF. Anti-inflammatory and immune therapy for Alzheimer's disease: current status and future directions. Curr Neuropharmacol 2007; 5:232-43. [PMID: 19305740 PMCID: PMC2644496 DOI: 10.2174/157015907782793667] [Citation(s) in RCA: 45] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 02/01/2007] [Revised: 03/30/2007] [Accepted: 04/12/2007] [Indexed: 12/12/2022] Open
Abstract
From the initial characterizations of inflammatory responses in Alzheimer's disease (AD) affected brains, namely the demonstration of activated microglia and reactive astrocytes, complement system activation, increased production of proinflammatory cytokines, and evidence for microglial-produced neurotoxins, there was hope that reducing inflammation might be a feasible treatment for this memory-robbing disease. This hope was supported by a number of epidemiology studies demonstrating that patients who took non-steroidal anti-inflammatory drugs had significantly lower risk of developing AD. However, clinical trials of anti-inflammatories have not shown effectiveness, and in recent years, the concept of immune therapy has become a treatment option as animal studies and clinical trials with Abeta vaccines have demonstrated enhanced amyloid removal through stimulation of microglial phagocytosis.This review will examine the current status of whether inhibiting inflammation is a valid therapeutic target for treating AD; what lessons have come from the clinical trials; what new pathways and classes of agents are being considered; and how this field of research can progress towards new therapeutics. We will examine a number of agents that have shown effectiveness in reducing inflammation amongst other demonstrated mechanisms of action. The major focus of much AD drug discovery has been in identifying agents that have anti-amyloid properties; however, a number of these agents were first identified for their anti-inflammatory properties. As drug development and clinical testing is a costly and lengthy endeavor, sound justification of new therapeutic targets is required. Possible future directions for AD anti-inflammatory or immune clearance therapy will be discussed based on recent experimental data.
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Affiliation(s)
- Douglas Walker
- Laboratory of Neuroinflammation, Sun Health Research Institute, Sun City, Arizona, USA.
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Chronic administration of R-flurbiprofen attenuates learning impairments in transgenic amyloid precursor protein mice. BMC Neurosci 2007; 8:54. [PMID: 17650315 PMCID: PMC1948891 DOI: 10.1186/1471-2202-8-54] [Citation(s) in RCA: 99] [Impact Index Per Article: 5.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 11/29/2006] [Accepted: 07/24/2007] [Indexed: 01/01/2023] Open
Abstract
Background Long-term use of non-steroidal anti-inflammatory drugs (NSAIDs) is associated with a reduced incidence of Alzheimer's disease (AD). We and others have shown that certain NSAIDs reduce secretion of Aβ42 in cell culture and animal models, and that the effect of NSAIDs on Aβ42 is independent of the inhibition of cyclooxygenase by these compounds. Since Aβ42 is hypothesized to be the initiating pathologic molecule in AD, the ability of these compounds to lower Aβ42 selectively may be associated with their protective effect. We have previously identified R-flurbiprofen (tarenflurbil) as a selective Aβ42 lowering agent with greatly reduced cyclooxygenase activity that shows promise for testing this hypothesis. In this study we report the effect of chronic R-flurbiprofen treatment on cognition and Aβ loads in Tg2576 APP mice. Results A four-month preventative treatment regimen with R-flurbiprofen (10 mg/kg/day) was administered to young Tg2576 mice prior to robust plaque or Aβ pathology. This treatment regimen improved spatial learning as assessed by the Morris water maze, indicated by an increased spatial bias during the third probe trial and an increased utilization of a place strategy to solve the water maze. These results are consistent with an improvement in hippocampal- and medial temporal lobe-dependent memory function. A modest, though not statistically significant, reduction in formic acid-soluble levels of Aβ was also observed. To determine if R-flurbiprofen could reverse cognitive deficits in Tg2576 mice where plaque pathology was already robust, a two-week therapeutic treatment was given to older Tg2576 mice with the same dose of R-flurbiprofen. This approach resulted in a significant decrease in Aβ plaque burden but no significant improvement in spatial learning. Conclusion We have found that chronic administration of R-flurbiprofen is able to attenuate spatial learning deficits if given prior to plaque deposition in Tg2576 mice. Given its ability to selectively target Aβ42 production and improve cognitive impairments in transgenic APP mice, as well as promising data from a phase 2 human clinical trial, future studies are needed to investigate the utility of R-flurbiprofen as an AD therapeutic and its possible mechanisms of action.
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Chakraborty H, Sarkar M. Interaction of piroxicam and meloxicam with DMPG/DMPC mixed vesicles: Anomalous partitioning behavior. Biophys Chem 2007; 125:306-13. [PMID: 17010502 DOI: 10.1016/j.bpc.2006.09.002] [Citation(s) in RCA: 17] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 07/20/2006] [Revised: 09/04/2006] [Accepted: 09/06/2006] [Indexed: 01/11/2023]
Abstract
Small unilamellar vesicles (SUVs) formed from a mixture of dimyristoylphosphatidylcholine (zwitterionic lipid with bulkier headgroup) and dimyristoylphosphatidylglycerol (anionic lipid with relatively smaller headgroup) allows better modulation of the physical properties of lipid bilayers compared to SUVs formed by a single type of lipid, providing us with a better model system to study the effect of membrane parameters on the partitioning of small molecules. Membrane parameter like packing of the vesicles is more pronounced in the gel phase and hence the study was carried out in the gel phase. Mixed vesicles formed from DMPG and DMPC with the mole percent ratio of 100:0, 90:10 and 80:20 were used for this study. As examples of polar solutes, piroxicam and meloxicam, two Non Steroidal Anti-inflammatory Drugs (NSAIDs) were chosen. The pH was adjusted to 2.8 in order to eliminate the presence of anionic forms of the drugs that would not approach the vesicles containing negatively charged DMPG (50% deprotonated at pH 2.8). Surface potential measured by using TNS (2,6-p-toluidinonaphthalene sulfonate, sodium salt) as surface charge sensitive probe showed no significant changes in the surface electrostatics in increasing DMPC content from 0 to 20%. Transmission electron microscopy (TEM) was used to characterize SUVs of different composition at pH 2.8. The average diameter of the mixed vesicles was found to be smaller than that formed by DMPG and DMPC alone. Partition coefficient (K(P)) of piroxicam and meloxicam was measured using intrinsic fluorescence of these molecules. K(P) value of piroxicam decreases with increase in DMPC content whereas it increases with DMPC content in case of meloxicam. This anomalous behavior of partitioning is unexpected since there was no significant change in surface pH of the vesicles and has been explained in terms of lipid packing and water penetration in the lipid bilayer.
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Affiliation(s)
- Hirak Chakraborty
- Chemical Sciences Division, Saha Institute of Nuclear Physics, 1/AF, Bidhannagar, Calcutta-700 064, India
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Abstract
Epidemiologic and laboratory studies suggest that non-steroidal anti-inflammatory drug (NSAID) use reduces the risk of Alzheimer's disease (AD). Initial reports in the early 1990's indicated that a history of arthritis, a presumed surrogate of NSAID use, was associated with a lower risk of AD. [1] These reports were followed by epidemiologic studies in which NSAID use was assessed directly and the majority of these reports confirmed the inverse association with risk for AD. [2, 3] Postmortem studies in humans [4], studies in animal models of AD [5, 6], and in vitro studies [7, 8] generally support the notion that NSAIDs can reduce the deleterious inflammation which surrounds amyloid beta (Abeta) plaques in the AD brain. In addition, some studies conducted in vitro and in rodents point to a subgroup of NSAIDs that may work by inhibiting amyloidogenic APP metabolism rather than through traditional anti-inflammatory mechanisms. [9-11] This novel property of NSAIDs is currently being explored in epidemiologic studies. Results from randomized clinical trials of NSAIDs and established AD and one trial on secondary prevention have not been promising and there have been no prevention trials completed. The feasibility of using NSAIDs as a chemopreventive agent in AD is discussed.
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Affiliation(s)
- Christine A Szekely
- Department of Mental Health, Johns Hopkins Bloomberg School of Public Health, Baltimore, MD, USA
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Czirr E, Weggen S. γ-Secretase Modulation with Aβ42-Lowering Nonsteroidal Anti-Inflammatory Drugs and Derived Compounds. NEURODEGENER DIS 2006; 3:298-304. [PMID: 17047371 DOI: 10.1159/000095270] [Citation(s) in RCA: 24] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 01/09/2023] Open
Abstract
The amyloid-beta (Abeta) peptides and specifically the highly amyloidogenic isoform Abeta42 appear to be key agents in the pathogenesis of familial and sporadic forms of Alzheimer's disease (AD). The final step in the generation of Abeta from the amyloid precursor protein is catalyzed by the multiprotein complex gamma-secretase, which constitutes a prime drug target for prevention and therapy of the disease. However, highly potent gamma-secretase inhibitors that block formation of all Abeta peptides have provoked troubling side effects in preclinical animal models of AD. This toxicity can be readily explained by the promiscuous substrate specificity of gamma-secretase and its essential role in the NOTCH signaling pathway. For that reason and because of the crucial role of Abeta42 in the pathogenesis of the disease, selective inhibition of Abeta42 production would seem to be a more promising alternative to complete inhibition of gamma-secretase activity. This theoretical concept has edged much closer to clinical reality with the surprising finding that certain nonsteroidal anti-inflammatory drugs (NSAIDs), including ibuprofen, and derived compounds display preferential Abeta42-lowering activity. In contrast to gamma-secretase inhibitors, these gamma-secretase modulators effectively suppress Abeta42 production while sparing processing of NOTCH and other gamma-secretase substrates. Although not fully resolved on the molecular level, the mechanism of action of Abeta42-lowering NSAIDs is independent of cyclooxygenase inhibition and most likely involves direct interaction with components of the gamma-secretase complex or its substrates. Current efforts to improve the pharmacological shortcomings of available gamma-secretase modulators will hopefully lead to the development of clinically useful Abeta42-lowering compounds in the near future.
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Affiliation(s)
- Eva Czirr
- Emmy Noether Research Group, Institute of Physiological Chemistry and Pathobiochemistry, Johannes Gutenberg University Mainz, Mainz, Germany
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Watson GS, Craft S. Insulin resistance, inflammation, and cognition in Alzheimer's Disease: Lessons for multiple sclerosis. J Neurol Sci 2006; 245:21-33. [PMID: 16631207 DOI: 10.1016/j.jns.2005.08.017] [Citation(s) in RCA: 64] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 06/21/2005] [Revised: 07/13/2005] [Accepted: 08/10/2005] [Indexed: 11/29/2022]
Abstract
Insulin resistance (reduced ability of insulin to stimulate glucose utilization) is common in North American and Europe, where as many as one third of all older adults suffer from prodromal or clinical type 2 diabetes mellitus. It has long been known that insulin-resistant conditions adversely affect general health status. A growing body of findings suggests that insulin contributes to normal brain functioning and that peripheral insulin abnormalities increase the risk for memory loss and neurodegenerative disorders such as Alzheimer's disease. Potential mechanisms for these effects include insulin's role in cerebral glucose metabolism, peptide regulation, modulation of neurotransmitter levels, and modulation of many aspects of the inflammatory network. An intriguing question is whether insulin abnormalities also influence the pathophysiology of multiple sclerosis (MS), an autoimmune disorder characterized by elevated inflammatory biomarkers, central nervous system white matter lesions, axonal degeneration, and cognitive impairment. MS increases the risk for type 1 diabetes mellitus. Furthermore, the lack of association between MS and type 2 diabetes may suggest that insulin resistance affects patients with MS and the general population at the same alarming rate. Therefore, insulin resistance may exacerbate phenomena that are common to MS and insulin-resistant conditions, such as cognitive impairments and elevated inflammatory responses. Interestingly, the thiazolidinediones, which are used to treat patients with type 2 diabetes, have been proposed as potential therapeutic agents for both Alzheimer's disease and MS. The agents improve insulin sensitivity, reduce hyperinsulinemia, and exert anti-inflammatory actions. Ongoing studies will determine whether thiazolidinediones improve cognitive functioning for patients with type 2 diabetes or Alzheimer's disease. Future studies are needed to examine the effects of thiazolidinediones on patients with MS.
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Affiliation(s)
- G Stennis Watson
- Geriatric Research, Education, and Clinical Center, Veterans Affairs Puget Sound Health Care System, Department of Psychiatry and Behavioral Sciences, University of Washington School of Medicine, Seattle, WA 98108, USA.
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Valerio A, Boroni F, Benarese M, Sarnico I, Ghisi V, Bresciani LG, Ferrario M, Borsani G, Spano P, Pizzi M. NF-κB pathway: a target for preventing β-amyloid (Aβ)-induced neuronal damage and Aβ42 production. Eur J Neurosci 2006; 23:1711-20. [PMID: 16623827 DOI: 10.1111/j.1460-9568.2006.04722.x] [Citation(s) in RCA: 110] [Impact Index Per Article: 6.1] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/18/2022]
Abstract
Beta-amyloid (Abeta) peptides are key proteins in the pathophysiology of Alzheimer's disease (AD). While Abeta42 aggregates very rapidly to form early diffuse plaques, supplemental Abeta40 deposition is required to form mature neuritic plaques. We here investigated the role of nuclear factor-kappaB (NF-kappaB) pathway in Abeta40-mediated neuronal damage and amyloid pathology. In rat primary neurons and human postmitotic neuronal cells, the Abeta peptide induced a dose-dependent neuronal death, reduced the levels of the anti-apoptotic protein Bcl-XL, enhanced the cytosolic release of cytochrome c, and elicited the intracellular accumulation and secretion of Abeta42 oligomers. Moreover, Abeta40 activated the NF-kappaB pathway by selectively inducing the nuclear translocation of p65 and p50 subunits, and promoted an apoptotic profile of gene expression. As inhibitors of the NF-kappaB pathway, we tested the capability of a double-stranded kappaB decoy oligonucleotide, the anti-inflammatory drug aspirin and the selective IkappaB kinase 2 inhibitor, AS602868, to modify the Abeta40-mediated effects. These treatments, transiently applied before Abeta exposure, completely inhibited p50/p65 nuclear translocation and neuronal damage. The kappaB decoy also inhibited the Abeta-induced release of cytochrome c, restored the levels of Bcl-XL, and prevented intraneuronal accumulation and secretion of Abeta42. These results open up interesting perspectives on the development of novel strategies targeting out NF-kappaB p50/p65 dimers for pharmacological intervention in AD.
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Affiliation(s)
- Alessandra Valerio
- Division of Pharmacology, Department of Biomedical Sciences & Biotechnologies, University of Brescia, Italy.
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Townsend KP, Praticò D. Novel therapeutic opportunities for Alzheimer's disease: focus on nonsteroidal anti-inflammatory drugs. FASEB J 2006; 19:1592-601. [PMID: 16195368 DOI: 10.1096/fj.04-3620rev] [Citation(s) in RCA: 154] [Impact Index Per Article: 8.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/15/2022]
Abstract
Alzheimer's disease (AD) is the most common form of neurodegenerative disorder with dementia in the elderly. The AD brain pathology is characterized by deposits of amyloid-beta (Abeta) peptides and neurofibrillary tangles but also (among other aspects) by signs of a chronic inflammatory process. Epidemiological studies have shown that long-term use of nonsteroidal anti-inflammatory drugs (NSAIDs) reduces the risk of developing AD and delays its onset. Classical targets of NSAIDs include cycloxygenase, nuclear factor kappaB, and peroxisome proliferator-activated receptors. Modulation of these pathways, all of which have been implicated in AD pathogenesis, could explain the NSAID effect on AD progression. However, recent studies indicate that a subset of NSAIDs such as ibuprofen, indomethacin, and flurbiprofen may have direct Abeta-lowering properties in cell cultures as well as transgenic models of AD-like amyloidosis. A renewed interest in the old and a discovery of new pharmacological properties of these drugs are providing vital insight for future clinical trials. In this review we will summarize how the combination of traditional (anti-inflammatory) and new (anti-amyloidogenic) properties of some NSAIDs is providing unprecedented opportunities for drug discovery and could potentially result in novel therapeutic approaches for the treatment of AD.
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Affiliation(s)
- Kirk P Townsend
- Center for Experimental Therapeutics and Department of Pharmacology; University of Pennsylvania, School of Medicine, Philadelphia, Pennsylvania, USA
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42
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Koenigsknecht-Talboo J, Landreth GE. Microglial phagocytosis induced by fibrillar beta-amyloid and IgGs are differentially regulated by proinflammatory cytokines. J Neurosci 2006; 25:8240-9. [PMID: 16148231 PMCID: PMC6725530 DOI: 10.1523/jneurosci.1808-05.2005] [Citation(s) in RCA: 382] [Impact Index Per Article: 21.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 01/23/2023] Open
Abstract
Microglia undergo a phenotypic activation in response to fibrillar beta-amyloid (fAbeta) deposition in the brains of Alzheimer's disease (AD) patients, resulting in their elaboration of inflammatory molecules. Despite the presence of abundant plaque-associated microglia in the brains of AD patients and in animal models of the disease, microglia fail to efficiently clear fAbeta deposits. However, they can be induced to do so during Abeta vaccination therapy attributable to anti-Abeta antibody stimulation of IgG receptor (FcR)-mediated phagocytic clearance of Abeta plaques. We report that proinflammatory cytokines attenuate microglial phagocytosis stimulated by fAbeta or complement receptor 3 and argue that this may, in part, underlie the accumulation of fAbeta-containing plaques within the AD brain. The proinflammatory suppression of fAbeta-elicited phagocytosis is dependent on nuclear factor kappaB activation. Significantly, the proinflammatory cytokines do not inhibit phagocytosis elicited by antibody-mediated activation of FcR, which may contribute to the efficiency of Abeta vaccination-based therapy. Importantly, the proinflammatory suppression of fAbeta phagocytosis can be relieved by the coincubation with anti-inflammatory cytokines, cyclooxygenase inhibitors, ibuprofen, or an E prostanoid receptor antagonist, suggesting that proinflammatory cytokines induce the production of prostaglandins, leading to an E prostanoid receptor-dependent inhibition of phagocytosis. These findings support anti-inflammatory therapies for the treatment of AD.
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d'Abramo C, Massone S, Zingg JM, Pizzuti A, Marambaud P, Dalla Piccola B, Azzi A, Marinari U, Pronzato M, Ricciarelli R. Role of peroxisome proliferator-activated receptor gamma in amyloid precursor protein processing and amyloid beta-mediated cell death. Biochem J 2006; 391:693-8. [PMID: 15946122 PMCID: PMC1276971 DOI: 10.1042/bj20050560] [Citation(s) in RCA: 60] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 01/22/2023]
Abstract
Recent data indicate that PPARgamma (peroxisome proliferator-activated receptor gamma) could be involved in the modulation of the amyloid cascade causing Alzheimer's disease. In the present study we show that PPARgamma overexpression in cultured cells dramatically reduced Abeta (amyloid-beta) secretion, affecting the expression of the APP (Abeta precursor protein) at a post-transcriptional level. APP down-regulation did not involve the pathway of the secretases and correlated with a significant induction of APP ubiquitination. Additionally, we demonstrate that PPARgamma was able to protect the cells from H(2)O(2)-induced necrosis by decreasing Abeta secretion. Taken together, our results indicate a novel mechanism at the basis of the neuroprotection shown by PPARgamma agonists and an additional pathogenic role for Abeta accumulation.
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Affiliation(s)
- Cristina d'Abramo
- *Department of Experimental Medicine, University of Genoa, 16132 Genoa, Italy
| | - Sara Massone
- *Department of Experimental Medicine, University of Genoa, 16132 Genoa, Italy
| | - Jean-Marc Zingg
- †Institute of Biochemistry and Molecular Biology, University of Bern, 3012 Bern, Switzerland
| | - Antonio Pizzuti
- ‡Mendel Institute, University La Sapienza and Casa Sollievo della Sofferenza IRCCS, 00198 Rome, Italy
| | | | - Bruno Dalla Piccola
- ‡Mendel Institute, University La Sapienza and Casa Sollievo della Sofferenza IRCCS, 00198 Rome, Italy
| | - Angelo Azzi
- †Institute of Biochemistry and Molecular Biology, University of Bern, 3012 Bern, Switzerland
| | - Umberto M. Marinari
- *Department of Experimental Medicine, University of Genoa, 16132 Genoa, Italy
| | - Maria A. Pronzato
- *Department of Experimental Medicine, University of Genoa, 16132 Genoa, Italy
| | - Roberta Ricciarelli
- *Department of Experimental Medicine, University of Genoa, 16132 Genoa, Italy
- To whom correspondence should be addressed (email )
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Okochi M, Fukumori A, Jiang J, Itoh N, Kimura R, Steiner H, Haass C, Tagami S, Takeda M. Secretion of the Notch-1 Abeta-like peptide during Notch signaling. J Biol Chem 2006; 281:7890-8. [PMID: 16434391 DOI: 10.1074/jbc.m513250200] [Citation(s) in RCA: 85] [Impact Index Per Article: 4.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 01/06/2023] Open
Abstract
The canonical pathway of Notch signaling is mediated by regulated intramembrane proteolysis (RIP). In the pathway, ligand binding results in sequential proteolysis of the Notch receptor, and presenilin (PS)-dependent intramembrane proteolysis at the interface between the membrane and cytosol liberates the Notch-1 intracellular domain (NICD), a transcription modifier. Because the degradation of the Notch-1 transmembrane domain is thought to require an additional cleavage near the middle of the transmembrane domain, extracellular small peptides (Notch-1 Abeta-like peptide (Nbeta)) should be produced. Here we showed that Nbeta species are indeed secreted during the process of Notch signaling. We identified mainly two distinct molecular species of novel Nbeta, Nbeta21 and C-terminally elongated Nbeta25, which were produced in an approximately 5:1 ratio. This process is reminiscent of the production of Alzheimer disease-associated Abeta. PS pathogenic mutants increased the production of the longer species of Abeta (Abeta42) from beta-amyloid protein precursor. We revealed that several Alzheimer disease mutants also cause a parallel increase in the secretion of the longer form of Nbeta. Strikingly, chemicals that modify the Abeta42 level caused parallel changes in the Nbeta25 level. These results demonstrated that the characteristics of C-terminal elongation of Nbeta and Abeta are almost identical. In addition, because many other type 1 membrane-bound receptors release intracellular domains by PS-dependent intramembrane proteolysis, we suspect that the release of Abeta- or Nbeta-like peptides is a common feature of the proteolysis during RIP signaling. We anticipate that this study will open the door to searches for markers of RIP signaling and surrogate markers for Abeta42 production.
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Affiliation(s)
- Masayasu Okochi
- Department of Post-Genomics and Diseases, Division of Psychiatry and Behavioral Proteomics, Osaka University Graduate School of Medicine, Osaka 565-0871, Japan.
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46
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Leuchtenberger S, Kummer MP, Kukar T, Czirr E, Teusch N, Sagi SA, Berdeaux R, Pietrzik CU, Ladd TB, Golde TE, Koo EH, Weggen S. Inhibitors of Rho-kinase modulate amyloid-β (Aβ) secretion but lack selectivity for Aβ42. J Neurochem 2006; 96:355-65. [PMID: 16300630 DOI: 10.1111/j.1471-4159.2005.03553.x] [Citation(s) in RCA: 25] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 02/06/2023]
Abstract
Certain non-steroidal anti-inflammatory drugs (NSAIDs) preferentially inhibit production of the amyloidogenic Abeta42 peptide, presumably by direct modulation of gamma-secretase activity. A recent report indicated that NSAIDs could reduce Abeta42 by inhibition of the small GTPase Rho, and a single inhibitor of Rho kinase (ROCK) mimicked the effects of Abeta42-lowering NSAIDs. To investigate whether Abeta42 reduction is a common property of ROCK inhibitors, we tested commercially available compounds in cell lines that were previously used to demonstrate the Abeta42-lowering activity of NSAIDs. Surprisingly, we found that two ROCK inhibitors reduced total Abeta secretion in a dose-dependent manner but showed no selectivity for Abeta42. In addition, ROCK inhibitors did not increase Abeta38 secretion in cell-based assays or reduce Abeta production in gamma-secretase in vitro assays, which are critical characteristics of Abeta42-lowering NSAIDs. The reduction in total Abeta levels by ROCK inhibitors was not accompanied by overall-changes in amyloid precursor protein processing. Targeting ROCK by expression of dominant-negative or constitutively active ROCK mutants failed to modulate Abeta secretion, indicating that ROCK inhibition may either be redundant or insufficient for Abeta reduction by ROCK inhibitors. Taken together, these results seem to exclude a mechanistic involvement of ROCK in the Abeta42-lowering activity of NSAIDs.
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Affiliation(s)
- Stefanie Leuchtenberger
- Emmy Noether Research Group, Institute of Physiological Chemistry and Pathobiochemistry, Johannes Gutenberg University Mainz, Mainz, Germany
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Hirohata M, Ono K, Naiki H, Yamada M. Non-steroidal anti-inflammatory drugs have anti-amyloidogenic effects for Alzheimer's β-amyloid fibrils in vitro. Neuropharmacology 2005; 49:1088-99. [PMID: 16125740 DOI: 10.1016/j.neuropharm.2005.07.004] [Citation(s) in RCA: 94] [Impact Index Per Article: 4.9] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 04/01/2005] [Revised: 06/27/2005] [Accepted: 07/11/2005] [Indexed: 11/19/2022]
Abstract
The pathogenesis of Alzheimer's disease (AD) is characterized by cerebral deposits of amyloid beta-peptides (A beta) and neurofibrillary tangles which are surrounded by inflammatory cells. Long-term use of non-steroidal anti-inflammatory drugs (NSAIDs) reduces the risk of developing AD and delays the onset of the disease. In the present study, we used fluorescence spectroscopy with thioflavin T and electron microscopy to examine the effects of NSAIDs such as ibuprofen, aspirin, meclofenamic acid sodium salt, diclofenac sodium salt, ketoprofen, flurbiprofen, naproxen, sulindac sulfide and indomethacin on the formation, extension, and destabilization of beta-amyloid fibrils (fA beta) at pH 7.5 at 37 degrees C in vitro. All examined NSAIDs dose-dependently inhibited formation of fA beta from fresh A beta(1-40) and A beta(1-42), as well as their extension. Moreover, these NSAIDs dose-dependently destabilized preformed fA betas. The overall activity of the molecules examined was in the following order: ibuprofen approximately sulindac sulfide >or= meclofenamic acid sodium salt>aspirin approximately ketoprofen >or= flurbiprofen approximately diclofenac sodium salt>naproxen approximately indomethacin. Although the mechanisms by which these NSAIDs inhibit fA beta formation from A beta, and destabilize preformed fA beta in vitro are still unclear, NSAIDs may be promising for the prevention and treatment of AD.
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Affiliation(s)
- Mie Hirohata
- Department of Neurology and Neurobiology of Aging, Kanazawa University Graduate School of Medical Science, Kanazawa 920-8640, Japan
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48
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Camacho IE, Serneels L, Spittaels K, Merchiers P, Dominguez D, De Strooper B. Peroxisome-proliferator-activated receptor gamma induces a clearance mechanism for the amyloid-beta peptide. J Neurosci 2005; 24:10908-17. [PMID: 15574741 PMCID: PMC6730204 DOI: 10.1523/jneurosci.3987-04.2004] [Citation(s) in RCA: 137] [Impact Index Per Article: 7.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/21/2022] Open
Abstract
We investigated whether peroxisome proliferator-activated receptor gamma (PPARgamma) could be involved in the modulation of the amyloid cascade causing Alzheimer's disease. Inducing expression or activating PPARgamma using synthetic agonists of the thiazolinedione family results in a dramatic decrease in the levels of the amyloid-beta (Abeta) peptide in the conditioned medium of neuronal and non-neuronal cells. PPARgamma does not affect expression or activity of any of the secretases involved in the generation of the Abeta peptide but induces a fast, cell-bound clearing mechanism responsible for the removal of the Abeta peptide from the medium. Although PPARgamma expression is generally low in the CNS, induction of PPARgamma expression during inflammation could be beneficial for inducing Abeta clearance. We confirm that the Abeta clearance mechanism can indeed be induced by PPARgamma activation in primary murine-mixed glia and cortical neuronal cultures. Our results suggest that PPARgamma-controlled mechanisms should be explored further as potential drug targets for Alzheimer's disease treatment.
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Affiliation(s)
- Ira Espuny Camacho
- Neuronal Cell Biology and Gene Transfer Laboratory, Center for Human Genetics, Vlaams Interuniversitair Instituut voor Biotechnologie and Katholieke Universiteit Leuven, 3000 Leuven, Belgium
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Abstract
Alzheimer's disease (AD) is the most common form of dementia and is characterized pathologically by the accumulation of beta-amyloid (Abeta) plaques and neurofibrillary tangles in the brain. Genetic studies of AD first highlighted the importance of the presenilins (PS). Subsequent functional studies have demonstrated that PS form the catalytic subunit of the gamma-secretase complex that produces the Abeta peptide, confirming the central role of PS in AD biology. Here, we review the studies that have characterized PS function in the gamma-secretase complex in Caenorhabditis elegans, mice and in in vitro cell culture systems, including studies of PS structure, PS interactions with substrates and other gamma-secretase complex members, and the evidence supporting the hypothesis that PS are aspartyl proteases that are active in intramembranous proteolysis. A thorough knowledge of the mechanism of PS cleavage in the context of the gamma-secretase complex will further our understanding of the molecular mechanisms that cause AD, and may allow the development of therapeutics that can alter Abeta production and modify the risk for AD.
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Affiliation(s)
- A L Brunkan
- Department of Psychiatry, Washington University School of Medicine, St Louis, MO 63100, USA
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50
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Morihara T, Teter B, Yang F, Lim GP, Boudinot S, Boudinot FD, Frautschy SA, Cole GM. Ibuprofen suppresses interleukin-1beta induction of pro-amyloidogenic alpha1-antichymotrypsin to ameliorate beta-amyloid (Abeta) pathology in Alzheimer's models. Neuropsychopharmacology 2005; 30:1111-20. [PMID: 15688088 DOI: 10.1038/sj.npp.1300668] [Citation(s) in RCA: 76] [Impact Index Per Article: 4.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Submit a Manuscript] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 01/02/2023]
Abstract
Epidemiological and basic research suggests that nonsteroidal anti-inflammatory drugs (NSAIDs) should protect against the most common forms of Alzheimer's disease (AD). Ibuprofen reduces amyloid (Abeta) pathology in some transgenic models, but the precise mechanisms remain unclear. Although some reports show select NSAIDs inhibit amyloid production in vitro, the possibility that in vivo suppression of amyloid pathology occurs independent of Abeta production has not been ruled out. We show that ibuprofen reduced Abeta brain levels in rats from exogenously infused Abeta in the absence of altered Abeta production. To determine whether ibuprofen inhibits pro-amyloidogenic factors, APPsw (Tg2576) mice were treated with ibuprofen for 6 months, and expression levels of the Abeta and inflammation-related molecules alpha1 antichymotrypsin (ACT), apoE, BACE1, and peroxisome proliferator-activated receptor gamma) (PPARgamma) were measured. Among these, ACT, a factor whose overexpression accelerates amyloid pathology, was reduced by ibuprofen both in vivo and in vitro. IL-1beta, which was reduced in our animals by ibuprofen, induced mouse ACT in vitro. While some NSAIDs may inhibit Abeta42 production, these observations suggest that ibuprofen reduction of Abeta pathology may not be mediated by altered Abeta42 production. We present evidence supporting the hypothesis that ibuprofen-dependent amyloid reduction is mediated by inhibition of an alternate pathway (IL-1beta and its downstream target ACT).
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Affiliation(s)
- Takashi Morihara
- Greater Los Angeles VA Healthcare System, GRECC, Sepulveda, CA, USA
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